Fiber Optic Communication

PRINCIPLE OF LIGHT TRANSMISSION

The principle of total internal reflection is the basic to optical fiber. Propagation of light signals
through the optical fiber is based on the geometrical optics treatment of light wherein we consider
the light as a ray that follows a straight-line path in going from one point to the other, in reflection
and refraction. First, we will review certain concepts of optics that help in the understanding of
ray propagation in optical fiber.

Refractive index: Refractive index can be defined in many ways but the basic definition of it is
that the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to that in the medium. That is,
𝑛 = 𝑐/𝑣

Where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v speed of light in some medium. In general, 𝑣 < 𝑐,
refractive index is greater than one. For air, 𝑛𝑎 = 1.

Snell’s law: When light goes from rarer medium to denser medium it bends towards the normal,
while going from denser medium to rarer medium it bends away from the normal. The
phenomenon of refraction is governed by Snell’s law according to which the ratio of sine of angle
of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is constant and is equal to refractive index of second
medium with respect to the first medium.

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 𝑛
= 𝑛2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (1)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 1

As light goes from denser medium to rarer medium it bends away from the normal. On increasing
the angle of incidence, angle of refraction also increases (fig.1).

Fig. 1 Refraction of light

Critical angle: This goes on until for an angle of incidence, angle of refraction is 900 , i.e. the
refracted ray just tangent at the interface and there is no refraction into the second medium. This
angle of incidence at which refracted ray is just tangent to the interface is called critical angle (𝜃𝑐 )
(fig.2).

PREPARED BY: RAJ KUMAR SINGH 1

 Fig.2 (a) Critical angle and (b) Total Internal reflection

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛
At 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑐, 𝜃𝑟 = 900 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛90𝑐0 = 𝑛2
1

𝑛
or, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 (2)
1

If the second medium is air, 𝑛2 = 1 and let 𝑛1 = 𝑛 then

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛 (3)

Total internal reflection: If angle of incidence is further increased beyond the critical angle, then
there is no refraction into the second medium rather all the incident light is reflected back to the
first medium. This is called total internal reflection (fig 2 b) and the propagation of light through
the optical fiber is based on this principle.

Optical fiber: An optical fiber in its simplest form consists of a thin dielectric waveguide
consisting of Core (typical diameter~100 𝜇𝑚) of refractive index 𝑛1 , surrounded by coaxial
cylindrical cladding (typical diameter~140 𝜇𝑚) of refractive index 𝑛2 (𝑛1 > 𝑛2 ). The refractive
index profile in this case is step function of the radial distance r, from the center of the fiber core.
This is called step-index fiber (fig.3). The core-cladding interface is equivalent to a denser-rarer
medium interface and thus a light ray incident at an angle greater than the critical angle of this
interface undergoes total internal reflection and subsequently after going through multiple
reflections it emerges out of the fiber at the other end.

Fig.3 Step index fiber

STEP INDEX FIBER

In the step index fiber, the refractive index profile is a step function of the radial distance 𝑟.

PREPARED BY: RAJ KUMAR SINGH 2

Core: Refractive index 𝑛1 , typical diameter~100 𝜇𝑚 is surrounded by cladding
Cladding: Refractive index 𝑛2 , typical diameter~140 𝜇𝑚
Ambience of fiber: Air (say), refractive index 𝑛 = 1 such that 𝑛1 > 𝑛2 > 𝑛

A ray of light entering the fiber at an angle 𝛼 from air to the core, it bends towards the normal, the
angle of refraction being 𝜃 (𝑠𝑎𝑦). Now this ray is incident on the core-cladding interface. If the
angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle for the core-cladding interface, then it undergoes
total internal reflection. This is followed by multiple reflections and finally the light ray emerges
out of the fiber from the other end.
𝜋
For total internal reflection to take place, 𝜃𝑖 > 𝜃𝑐 and hence 𝜃 must be less than 𝜃𝑚 = 2 − 𝜃𝑐 and
for this to happen the angle of entry of light ray to the fiber 𝛼 must be less than a certain angle
𝜋
𝜃𝑚 = 2 − 𝜃𝑐

Snell’s law at the core-air medium interface gives

𝜋
𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑚 = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚 = 𝑛1 sin ( 2 − 𝜃𝑐 ) = 𝑛1 cos 𝜃𝑐 (4)
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑚 = 𝑛1 cos 𝜃𝑐 at the core-cladding interface.

Again, we know that

𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛1
𝑛22 1/2
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 = (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐 )1/2 = (1 − )
𝑛12
(𝑛12 −𝑛22 )1/2
or, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 = (5)
𝑛1

Therefore, from equation (4)

(𝑛12 −𝑛22 )1/2
𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑚 = 𝑛1 cos 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛1 . 𝑛1
i.e. 𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑚 =. (𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )1/2 (6)
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑁𝐴 = (𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )1/2 (7)

Where numerical aperture NA determines the light gathering capacity of the fiber.

𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞: The light collected and propagated by fiber will depend on 𝛼𝑚 and is
predetermined from the value of refractive indices of core and cladding materials. This limiting
angle 𝛼𝑚 is known as 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 of the fiber. Angle of acceptance has the significance
that all the light rays incident within a cone of full angle 2𝛼𝑚 will definitely be collected and
propagated through the fiber.

Now coming back to numerical aperture NA, consider the relative refractive index of fiber which
is defined as

𝑛12 −𝑛22
∆= (8)
2𝑛12

PREPARED BY: RAJ KUMAR SINGH 3

And 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑁𝐴 = (𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )1/2 = (2𝑛12 ∆)1/2
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 √2∆ (9)

We have seen above the simplified view of single ray light propagation through the fiber. If the
incident light consists of many light rays falling within the acceptance angle cone, there will be
light rays propagating through all possible values of angle 𝛼 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝛼 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝛼 = 𝛼𝑚 . To consider
such case we take two extreme rays corresponding to 𝛼 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 ≤ 𝛼𝑚 (fig.4).

Fig. 4: Propagation of axial and meridional ray

For the axial ray which travels a distance L inside the core with velocity v in time 𝑡1
𝐿
𝑡1 = 𝑣 = 𝐿𝑛1 /𝑐 (10)

And for the highest oblique ray corresponding to 𝛼 ≤ 𝛼𝑚 , the length L is replaced by 𝐿/𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑚
and the time taken to travel this distance
𝐿 1 𝐿𝑛
𝑡2 = 𝑣 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑚 = 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (11)
𝑚
1 𝐿𝑛 𝐿𝑛1 𝐿𝑛2
𝑡2 = 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑛1 (12)
𝑐 𝑐 ( 2) 2
𝑛1

The two light rays were incident simultaneously but do not arrive at a point together but there is a
time interval of

𝐿𝑛2 𝑛1
∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 𝑐𝑛1 − 𝐿
2 𝑐
𝑛1 𝑛1 −𝑛2
or, ∆𝑡 = 𝐿 ( ) (13)
𝑐 𝑛2

The multipath time dispersion of the fiber is defined as the pulse broadening per unit length of
traversal and is given by
𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
∆𝑡 𝐿 1 ( 1 2)
𝑐 𝑛2
=
𝐿 𝐿
∆𝑡 𝑛1 𝑛1 −𝑛2
i.e. =𝑛 ( ) (14)
𝐿 2 𝑐

PREPARED BY: RAJ KUMAR SINGH 4

GRADED INDEX FIBER

In case of step index fiber, the refractive indices of the core and cladding materials are constant
and there is a radial variation of refractive index in step form. Consequently, it has been observed
that a bundle of ray of light entering it through the range of acceptance angle suffer multipath time
dispersion and the light ray is broadened. This way use of step index fiber is limited to short range
communication and it cannot be used for long distance applications. This drawback of step index
fiber is removed in the graded index fiber where the refractive index of the core material is not
constant and varies with radius 𝑟 as per the following relation:
1
𝑟 𝛼 2
𝑛(𝑟) = 𝑛1 (𝑟) = 𝑛0 [1 − 2∆ (𝑎) ] 𝑟≤𝑎 (15)

1
𝑛(𝑟) = 𝑛2 (𝑟) = 𝑛0 [1 − 2∆]2 𝑏≥𝑟≥𝑎 (16)

Where 𝑛(𝑟) = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑎 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑏 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑛0 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
∆= 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝛼 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

Optical fiber with refractive index profile characterized by the one in equations (15-16) is called
graded index fiber (fig.4).

Fig. 5 Graded index fiber

For different values of 𝛼, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, graded index fiber refractive index profile is
of different shapes.

For 𝛼 = 1, the refractive index profile is triangular and is given by

1
𝑟 2
𝑛(𝑟) = 𝑛0 [1 − 2∆. ]
𝑎
1 𝑟 𝑟
or, 𝑛(𝑟) = 𝑛0 (1 − 2. 2 ∆. 𝑎 + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎)
𝑟
or, 𝑛(𝑟) ≈ 𝑛0 [1 − ∆ (𝑎)] (17)

For 𝛼 = 2, the profile is of parabolic nature

PREPARED BY: RAJ KUMAR SINGH 5

 1
𝑟 2 2
𝑛(𝑟) = 𝑛0 [1 − 2∆ (𝑎) ]
1
𝑟2 2
or, 𝑛(𝑟) = 𝑛0 [1 − 2∆ 𝑎2 ]
1 𝑟2 𝑟2
i.e. 𝑛(𝑟) = 𝑛0 [1 − 2. 2 . ∆ 𝑎2 + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 ]
𝑎2
𝑟2
i.e. 𝑛(𝑟) ≈ 𝑛0 [1 − ∆ 𝑎2 ] (18)

and for 𝛼 = ∞, graded index fiber refractive index profile is same as that of step index fiber

𝑛(𝑟) ≈ 𝑛0 (19)

All these different forms of graded index profile are shown in fig. 6

Fig. 6 Different possible standard graded index profile

To have an insight of propagation of light ray through the graded index fiber we assume that the
refractive index is the highest at the central cylinder and goes on decreasing in such cylindrical
layers (fig.7). The axial ray ravel undisturbed as it is. So far meridional rays are concerned they
undergo several rounds of bending towards the normal at successive refraction from the
consecutive rarer -denser medium interfaces and finally takes the curved path. In this case angle
of refraction continuously goes on increasing and a time comes when it is more than the critical
angle, it undergoes total internal reflection and the ray travel back towards the axis. This reduces
the multipath time dispersion even lesser than that in step index fiber. In the ideal case if the time
taken by the axial and meridional rays are the same then even the multipath time dispersion can be
ruled out.

PREPARED BY: RAJ KUMAR SINGH 6

 Fig. 12.7: Light propagation in graded index fiber

MATERIAL DISPERSION

We know, the phase velocity can be expressed as

𝑐 𝜔
𝑣𝑝 = 𝑛 = 𝑘 (20)

This gives 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑘/𝜔

The wave travels in a medium with the velocity called group velocity 𝑣𝑔 given by
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 = (21)
𝑑𝑘

In a dispersive medium where the refractive index of medium depends on the wavelength of wave
the group and phase velocities are different and are related through the following relation
𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑑𝑣𝑝 (22)
1−(𝜔/𝑣𝑝 )( )
𝑑𝜔

We define group index 𝑛𝑔 such that

𝑐
𝑛𝑔 = 𝑣
𝑔

𝑐 𝑑𝑘 𝑑(𝜔𝑛/𝑐)
or, 𝑛𝑔 = 𝑑𝜔 = 𝑐 𝑑𝜔 = 𝑐
( ) 𝑑𝜔
𝑑𝑘

𝑑(𝜔𝑛) 𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑛
𝑛𝑔 = = 𝑛 + 𝜔 𝑑𝜔 = 𝑛 − 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 (23)
𝑑𝜔

𝑑𝑛
Therefore 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑐/(𝑛 − 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 ) (24)

Time taken by a ray to travel a distance L in the fiber

𝐿 𝑑𝑛
𝑡 = 𝑣 = 𝐿(𝑛 − 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 )/𝑐 (25)
𝑔

PREPARED BY: RAJ KUMAR SINGH 7

If the incident ray has a spread of wavelengths ∆𝜆, then different ray will require different time
to come out of the fiber from the other end, i.e. there will be a spread of time ∆𝑡

𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝜆 𝑑2 𝑛
∆𝑡 = 𝑑𝜆 ∆𝜆 = − ∆𝜆 (26)
𝑐 𝑑𝜆2

Material dispersion is given by

𝜆 𝑑2 𝑛
𝐷𝑚 = 𝑐 𝑑𝜆2 (27)

SINGLE -MODE FIBER

An optical fiber that supports only the fundamental mode and all higher order modes cut off at the
operating frequency is called single-mode fiber.

Characteristic parameter of single mode fiber includes mode field diameter and fiber birefringence.
Mode field diameter, also known as mode spot size, is defined as the double of mode field radius
𝑤 which is the radial distance from the axis of fiber at which Ψ0 ( the axial field at r = 0) falls to
Ψ0 /𝑒.

For a step index single mode fiber the mode field radius is given by

1.619
w = a(0.65 + )
𝑉 3/2
2𝜋𝑎𝑛1
where V = normalized frequency parameter = 𝜆
√2Δ

Fiber birefringence: Single mode fiber with imperfect cylindrical shape due to presence of bends,
twist, non-uniform stress etc. along the length of fiber exhibit modal birefringence and the
propagation constant of two polarization component of the field vector become different. Modal
birefringence is defined as

𝛿𝑛 = |𝑛𝑥 − 𝑛𝑦 | (28)

Where 𝑛𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑦 are mode indices for the polarization component.

Pulse broadening caused by fiber birefringence is known as polarization mode dispersion.

Total dispersion parameter D for single mode fiber is equal to sum of waveguide dispersion
parameter (𝐷𝑤) and material dispersion parameter (𝐷𝑚) i.e.

𝐷 = 𝐷𝑤 + 𝐷𝑚 (29)

PREPARED BY: RAJ KUMAR SINGH 8

MULTI MODE FIBERS

Multi-mode fibers have larger cores (~2.5 x 10-3 inches or 62.5 𝜇𝑚 in diameter). Multimode fiber
is an optical fiber designed to carry multiple light rays or modes simultaneously at a slightly
different reflection angle within the optical fiber core. Multimode fiber transmission is used for
relatively short distances because the modes tend to disperse over longer lengths due to modal
dispersion.

In multimode fibers modes are transmitted in pulses of light. The pulse widens as it propagates
through the fiber because of the time difference in the axial and meridional rays upon emergence
from the other end of fiber. (fig.8).

Fig 8: Pulse broadening

If the pulses transmission rate is very high, the pulses are crowded, they mix together and make it
impossible to resolve. (fig.9).

This spreading out of the pulse is mainly due to modal dispersion and chromatic dispersion.
Chromatic dispersion occurs because multimode light sources are in general polychromatic
sources. Longer wavelengths travel at a slightly faster speed, causing the pulse to spread out.
Modal dispersion is controlled by switching to graded index profile of the fiber. This
compensates for the different distance each mode travels.

Fig 12.9: High transmission rate- difficulty in resolution

ATTENUATION AND LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBER

The amount of light lost between input and output is the measure of attenuation of the optical
fiber. Attenuation loss is expressed in terms of decibels per kilometre (dB/km) through the term
called attenuation coefficient α and is given by

PREPARED BY: RAJ KUMAR SINGH 9

 10 𝑃(𝑧)
𝛼=− log(𝑃(0)) (30)
𝑍

Where z is in kilometre, P(0) is the power at the core origin and P(z) is the power at a distance z
from the core.

LOSSES IN FIBER

Following mechanisms have been identified for the losses in optical fiber:

1. Absorption 2. Hydrogen effect 3. Scattering 4. Bending 5. Interface Inhomogeneities

Absorption

This is of two types- Intrinsic material absorption and extrinsic ions absorption

Intrinsic absorption is due to interaction of the propagating light wave with glass material of which
fiber is made. These losses can be minimized by proper selection of the constituent material for
the fiber.

Extrinsic ions absorption is due to the presence of traces of metallic ions and the hydroxide ions
present in the water that is dissolved in glass. For a polychromatic light propagating through fiber
this loss decreases with the wavelength, attains a minimum saturation over a range of wavelength
and then it increases sharply (fig.10).

15
loss (dB/km)

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-5

λ(μm)
Fig.10: Attenuation loss variation with wavelength

Hydrogen Effects

When fused silica glass fiber is exposed to hydrogen gas, hydroxyl ions are formed and thus results
in losses, more prominently near the propagating light wavelength 1.2μm and 1.6 μm.

Scattering

Scattering is the modification in the path of incident particle or wave due to its interaction with the
target potential within the range of scattering (fig.11). As a result, the scattered wave is slightly

PREPARED BY: RAJ KUMAR SINGH 10

modified compared to the incident pure wave. Some of the energy is transferred from the
propagating direction to the scattered direction. Scattering can be linear and non-linear.

The linear scattering is identified as the one in which the amount of light power transferred to the
scattered wave is proportional to the power in the incident wave. This type of scattering is reflected
in no change in the frequency in the scattered wave. Rayleigh scattering is a typical of linear
scattering. This happens due to presence of small-scale inhomogeneities produced during the fiber
fabrication. Rayleigh scattering is responsible for about 90%-96% of attenuation in optical fiber.
If the light is scattered at certain angle, then some of the light is scattered out of the core and
attenuation occurs.

Fig.11: Scattering of light

The intensity of the scattered radiation is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength
of the propagating light
1
I ∝ λ4 (31)

Rayleigh scattering depends upon the size of the particle and the wavelengths. The Rayleigh
scattering model is not prominent when the particle size is larger than the wavelength of the
incident radiation

The corresponding attenuation coefficient due to Rayleigh scattering in fused silica is given by

λ
α(λ) = α0 ( λ0 )4 (32)

dB
where α0 = 1.699 km at λ0 = 0.80 μm

Another typical example of linear scattering is the Mie scattering which is the scattering of
electromagnetic radiation by the target particles of sizes comparable to that of wavelength of
incident light wave. This takes place at the core-cladding refractive index variations over the length
of the fiber, the impurities at the core-cladding interface, strains or bubbles in the fiber. On the
other hand, there is a shift in frequency of the scattered wave in nonlinear scattering. Nonlinear

PREPARED BY: RAJ KUMAR SINGH 11

scattering is due to high electric field within the fiber. Nonlinear scattering causes significant
power loss due to waves scattered in the forward, backward or lateral directions.

Brillouin scattering is an example of nonlinear scattering, caused by the nonlinearity of the

propagating medium. Brillouin scattering is reflected as a modulation of the light by the thermal
energy in the material. Brillouin scattering can occur spontaneously even at low optical powers.

Bending loss

Bends can be of the macro size or micro size. Macrobends can be found in optical fiber cable
which has been bent. Macrobend do not cause significant radiation loss if it has large radius.

Microbends are microscopic curvatures. They can create local axial displacement in the range of
few 𝜇𝑚 and spatial wavelength displacement of a few mm. losses due to microbends are in the
range of 1 to 2 dB/km in fiber. This loss is due to coupling of the power from the fundamental
mode into higher order modes.

Interface Inhomogeneities

Interface inhomogeneities arises due to impurities present at the core-cladding interface.

Interface inhomogeneities power loss is due to conversion of high-order modes into lossy modes
extending into the cladding.

Single mode fibers are more susceptible to losses due to interface inhomogeneities

PREPARED BY: RAJ KUMAR SINGH 12