THE CONCRETE SLUMP TEST

MEASURES THE CONSISTENCY OF FRESH CONCRETE BEFORE IT SETS. IT IS

PERFORMED TO CHECK THE WORKABILITY OF FRESHLY MADE CONCRETE,
AND THEREFORE THE EASE WITH WHICH CONCRETE FLOWS. IT CAN ALSO
BE USED AS AN INDICATOR OF AN IMPROPERLY MIXED BATCH. THE TEST IS
POPULAR DUE TO THE SIMPLICITY OF APPARATUS USED AND SIMPLE
PROCEDURE. THE SLUMP TEST IS USED TO ENSURE UNIFORMITY FOR
DIFFERENT LOADS OF CONCRETE UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS.

A SEPARATE TEST, KNOWN AS THE FLOW TABLE, OR

SLUMP-FLOW, TEST, IS USED FOR CONCRETE THAT IS TOO
FLUID (WORKABLE) TO BE MEASURED USING THE
STANDARD SLUMP TEST, BECAUSE THE CONCRETE WILL
NOT RETAIN ITS SHAPE WHEN THE CONE IS REMOVED.

THE TEST IS CARRIED OUT USING A METAL MOULD IN THE SHAPE OF A CONICAL FRUSTUM KNOWN AS A
SLUMP CONE OR ABRAMS CONE, THAT IS OPEN AT BOTH ENDS AND HAS ATTACHED HANDLES. THE TOOL
TYPICALLY HAS AN INTERNAL DIAMETER OF 100 MILLIMETRES (3.9 IN) AT THE TOP AND OF 200
MILLIMETRES (7.9 IN) AT THE BOTTOM WITH A HEIGHT OF 305 MILLIMETRES (12.0 IN).THE CONE IS PLACED
ON A HARD NON-ABSORBENT SURFACE. THIS CONE IS FILLED WITH FRESH CONCRETE IN THREE STAGES.

EACH TIME, EACH LAYER IS TAMPED 25 TIMES WITH A 2 FT (600 MM)-LONG BULLET-NOSED METAL ROD
MEASURING 5/8 IN (16 MM) IN DIAMETER. AT THE END OF THE THIRD STAGE, THE CONCRETE IS STRUCK
OFF FLUSH WITH THE TOP OF THE MOULD. THE MOULD IS CAREFULLY LIFTED VERTICALLY UPWARDS, SO AS
NOT TO DISTURB THE CONCRETE CONE. THE CONCRETE THEN SLUMPS (SUBSIDES). THE SLUMP OF THE
CONCRETE IS MEASURED BY MEASURING THE DISTANCE FROM THE TOP OF THE SLUMPED CONCRETE TO
THE LEVEL OF THE TOP OF THE SLUMP
CONE.IT CAN ALSO BE USED AS AN
INDICATOR OF AN IMPROPERLY MIXED
BATCH.

THE TEST IS POPULAR DUE TO THE

SIMPLICITY OF APPARATUS USED AND
SIMPLE PROCEDURE. THE SLUMP TEST IS
USED TO ENSURE UNIFORMITY FOR
DIFFERENT LOADS OF CONCRETE UNDER
FIELD CONDITIONS.
 COMPRESSION TEST OF THE CONCRETE SPECIMEN IS MOST WIDELY USED TEST TO MEASURE
ITS COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH. TWO TYPES OF CONCRETE SPECIMEN: CUBES & CYLINDERS ARE USED FOR
THIS PURPOSE:

CUBES OF SIZE 150MM ARE MORE COMMON IN ASIA, RUSSIA & EUROPEAN COUNTRIES WHILE CYLINDERS
OF 150MM IN DIAMETER & 300MM HIGH ARE COMMON IN U.S AND AUSTRALIA.

ASTM C39 DETERMINES THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CYLINDRICAL CONCRETE SPECIMENS SUCH AS
MOLDED CYLINDERS AND DRILLED CORES. IT IS LIMITED TO CONCRETE HAVING A UNIT WEIGHT IN EXCESS
OF 50 lb/ft3 (800 kg/m3).

A COMPRESSIVE AXIAL LOAD IS APPLIED TO MOLDED CYLINDERS OR CORES UNTIL FAILURE OCCURS. THE
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF THE SPECIMEN IS CALCULATED BY
DIVIDING THE MAXIMUM LOAD ACHIEVED DURING THE TEST BY THE
CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF THE SPECIMEN. THE RESULTS OF THIS
TEST METHOD ARE USED AS A BASIS FOR QUALITY CONTROL OF
CONCRETE.

A TESTING MACHINE, CAPABLE OF PROVIDING THE LOAD RATES AS

PRESCRIBED IN THE STANDARD SHOULD BE EQUIPPED WITH TWO
STEEL BEARING BLOCKS, ONE OF WHICH IS A SPHERICALLY SEATED
BLOCK THAT WILL BEAR ON THE UPPER SURFACE OF THE SPECIMEN,
AND THE OTHER A SOLID BLOCK ON WHICH THE SPECIMEN WILL BE
PLACED ON. BEFORE CONDUCTING ASTM C39, IT IS IMPORTANT TO
READ THE ENTIRE SPECIFICATION IN THE RELEVANT ASTM
PUBLICATION.

FLEXURAL STRENGTH IS ONE MEASURE OF THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. IT IS A

MEASURE OF AN UNREINFORCED CON- CRETE BEAM OR SLAB TO RESIST FAILURE IN BENDING. IT IS
MEASURED BY LOADING 6 X 6-INCH (150 X 150-MM) CON- CRETE BEAMS WITH A SPAN LENGTH AT LEAST
THREE TIMES THE DEPTH.

Flexural strength, also known as modulus of rupture, or bend strength, or transverse rupture strength is a
material property, defined as the stress in a material just before it yields in a flexure test.[1] The transverse
bending test is most frequently employed, in which a specimen having either a circular or rectangular cross-
section is bent until fracture or yielding using a three point flexural test technique. The flexural strength
represents the highest stress experienced within the material at its moment of yield. It is measured in terms
of stress, here given the symbol σ (sigma).
 STEEL IS AN ALLOY MADE FROM IRON AND CARBON.
THERE ARE SEVERAL DISTINCT GRADES OF STEEL THAT
HAVE UNIQUE CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS BASED ON THE
DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF CARBON AND ADDED ALLOYS.

WHEN DETERMINING THE TYPE OF STEEL THAT YOU WANT

TO BUY, IT IS IMPORTANT TO KNOW THERE ARE FOUR
DIFFERENT TYPES OF STEEL THAT ARE CLASSIFIED BASED
ON THEIR CHEMICAL STRUCTURE AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: CARBON STEELS, ALLOY STEELS, STAINLESS
STEELS, AND TOOL STEELS. WE'LL OUTLINE EACH OF THE FOLLOWING STEEL TYPES BELOW.

TYPES OF STEEL

CARBON STEEL IS DULL AND MATTE IN APPEARANCE AND IS VULNERABLE TO CORROSION. CARBON
STEEL CAN CONTAIN OTHER ALLOYS, SUCH AS MANGANESE, SILICON, AND COPPER. THERE ARE THREE
MAIN TYPES OF CARBON STEEL: LOW CARBON STEEL, MEDIUM CARBON STEEL, AND HIGH CARBON STEEL.
LOW CARBON STEEL IS THE MOST COMMON AND TYPICALLY CONTAINS LESS THAN .30% OF CARBON.
MEDIUM CARBON STEEL CONTAINS UP TO .60% OF CARBON AS WELL AS MANGANESE AND IS MUCH
STRONGER THAN LOW CARBON STEEL. HIGH CARBON STEEL CONTAINS UP TO 1.5% CARBON STEEL AND IS
THE STRONGEST OF THE CATEGORIES AND CAN OFTEN BE HARD TO WORK WITH.

ALLOY STEELS ARE A MIXTURE OF SEVERAL METALS, INCLUDING NICKEL, COPPER, AND ALUMINUM.
ALLOY STEELS TEND TO BE CHEAPER AND ARE USED IN MECHANICAL WORK, CAR PARTS, PIPELINES, AND
MOTORS. THE STRENGTH AND PROPERTY OF ALLOY STEELS DEPENDS ON THE CONCENTRATION OF
ELEMENTS THEY CONTAIN.

STAINLESS STEELS ARE SHINY, CORROSION RESISTANT, AND USED IN MANY PRODUCTS, INCLUDING
HOME APPLIANCES, BACKSPLASHES AND COOKING UTENSILS. IT HAS A LOW CARBON CONTENT STAINLESS
STEEL CONTAINS THE ALLOY CHROMIUM AND CAN ALSO INCLUDE NICKEL OR MOLYBDENUM. STAINLESS
STEEL IS STRONG AND CAN WITHSTAND HIGH TEMPERATURES. THERE ARE MORE THAN 100 GRADES OF
STAINLESS STEEL, MAKING IT AN EXTREMELY VERSATILE MATERIAL THAT IS CUSTOMIZABLE DEPENDING ON
YOUR PURPOSE.

TOOL STEELS ARE HARD AND HEAT AND SCRAPE-RESISTANT. THEY ARE NAMED TOOL STEELS BECAUSE
THEY ARE OFTEN USED TO MAKE METAL TOOLS, SUCH AS STAMPING, CUTTING, AND MOLD-MAKING
TOOLS. THEY ARE ALSO COMMONLY USED TO MAKE HAMMERS. THERE ARE SEVERAL DIFFERENT GRADES
OF STEEL THAT CAN BE USED FOR DISTINCT APPLICATIONS.

DEFORMED BAR IS A TYPE OF CONCRETE REBAR WITH A ROUGH

SURFACE FOR BETTER CEMENT OR MORTAR BONDING. IT IS A STEEL BAR
WITH SURFACE PROJECTIONS TO IMPROVE THE BOND STRENGTH WHEN
USED IN REINFORCED CONCRETE.

A COMMON STEEL BAR, AND IS COMMONLY USED AS A TENSIONING

DEVICE IN REINFORCED CONCRETE AND REINFORCED MASONRY
STRUCTURES HOLDING THE CONCRETE IN COMPRESSION. A DEFORMED BAR IS USUALLY FORMED FROM
CARBON STEEL AND IS GIVEN RIDGES FOR BETTER MECHANICAL ANCHORING REINFORCED CONCRETE.
STEEL CONSTRUCTION HAS SO MANY ADVANTAGES: THE STRENGTH TO WEIGHT RATIO IS EXCELLENT,
 METALS JOIN EASILY, EFFICIENT SHAPES ARE AVAILABLE, ETC. WITH THOSE
ADVANTAGES, THOUGH, COME SOME CHALLENGES THAT ARE BEST
SOLVED BY A GOOD UNDERSTANDING OF HOW THE METALS ACTUALLY
PERFORM IN A STRUCTURE.

ANGLE BAR

AN ANGLE BAR, ALSO KNOWN AS AN "L-BRACKET" OR AN "ANGLE IRON,"

IS A METAL BRACKET IN THE FORM OF A RIGHT ANGLE. IT IS MADE OF
GALVANIZED STEEL AND OFTEN USED IN MASONRY OR APPLIED TO DIFFERENT SURFACES THROUGH
WELDING OR DRILLING.

ROUND BAR IS A LONG, CYLINDRICAL METAL BAR STOCK THAT HAS

MANY INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS. ... ROUND BAR IS AVAILABLE IN MANY METAL TYPES
INCLUDING HOT-ROLLED STEEL, COLD-ROLLED STEEL, ALUMINUM,
STAINLESS STEEL AND MORE. ROUND BAR CAN BE PURCHASED
ONLINE AND AT ANY METAL.

FLAT BARS ARE A FLAT, RECTANGULAR SECTION WITH SQUARE EDGES

VARYING IN SIZES. THIS COST-EFFECTIVE STEEL PRODUCT IS SUITABLE
FOR A WIDE VARIETY OF APPLICATIONS AND IS DISTRIBUTED INTO
THE CONSTRUCTION, ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING, MINING, GRATING, FABRICATION AND MANY
OTHER INDUSTRIES.

STEEL FLAT BAR. HOT-ROLLED STEEL FLAT IS USED WIDELY IN

GENERAL FABRICATION AND REPAIRS IN GENERAL MAINTENANCE,
AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT. IT IS EASY TO WELD, CUT, FORM, AND
MACHINE AND IS FREQUENTLY USED IN FRAMEWORK, BRACES, SUPPORTS, PLATES AND STRAPS.

A T-BEAM (OR TEE BEAM) USED IN CONSTRUCTION, IS A LOAD-BEARING STRUCTURE OF

REINFORCED CONCRETE, WOOD OR METAL, WITH A T-SHAPED CROSS SECTION. THE TOP OF THE T-SHAPED
CROSS SECTION SERVES AS A FLANGE OR COMPRESSION MEMBER IN RESISTING COMPRESSIVE STRESSES.
THE WEB (VERTICAL SECTION) OF THE BEAM BELOW THE COMPRESSION FLANGE SERVES TO RESIST SHEAR
STRESS AND TO PROVIDE GREATER SEPARATION FOR THE COUPLED FORCES OF BENDING.[2]

THE T-BEAM HAS A BIG DISADVANTAGE COMPARED TO AN I-BEAM BECAUSE IT HAS NO BOTTOM FLANGE
WITH WHICH TO DEAL WITH TENSILE FORCES. ONE WAY TO MAKE A T-BEAM MORE EFFICIENT
STRUCTURALLY IS TO USE AN INVERTED T-BEAM WITH A FLOOR SLAB OR BRIDGE DECK JOINING THE TOPS
OF THE BEAMS. DONE PROPERLY, THE SLAB ACTS AS THE COMPRESSION FLANGE.

STEEL T-BEAMS MANUFACTURING PROCESS INCLUDES: HOT ROLLING, EXTRUSION, PLATE WELDING
AND PRESSURE FITTING. A PROCESS OF LARGE ROLLERS CONNECTING TWO STEEL PLATES BY PINCHING
THEM TOGETHER CALLED PRESSURE FITTING IS A COMMON PROCESS FOR NON-LOAD BEARING BEAMS.
THE REALITY IS THAT FOR MOST ROADWAYS AND BRIDGES TODAY, IT IS MORE PRACTICAL TO BRING
CONCRETE INTO THE DESIGN AS WELL. MOST T-BEAM CONSTRUCTION IS NOT WITH STEEL OR CONCRETE
ALONE, BUT RATHER WITH THE COMPOSITE OF THE TWO, NAMELY, REINFORCED CONCRETE. THOUGH THE
TERM COULD REFER TO ANY ONE OF A NUMBER OF MEANS OF REINFORCEMENT, GENERALLY, THE
DEFINITION IS LIMITED TO CONCRETE POURED AROUND REBAR. THIS SHOWS THAT IN CONSIDERING
MATERIALS AVAILABLE FOR A TASK, ENGINEERS NEED TO CONSIDER THE POSSIBILITY THAT NO ONE SINGLE
MATERIAL IS ADEQUATE FOR THE JOB; RATHER, COMBINING MULTIPLE MATERIALS TOGETHER MAY BE THE
BEST SOLUTION. THUS, STEEL AND CONCRETE TOGETHER CAN PROVE IDEAL.

REINFORCED CONCRETE T-BEAMS

CONCRETE ALONE IS BRITTLE AND THUS OVERLY SUBJECT TO THE SHEAR STRESSES A T-BEAM FACES WHERE
THE WEB AND FLANGE MEET. THIS IS THE REASON THAT STEEL IS COMBINED WITH CONCRETE IN T-BEAMS.
A PROBLEM OF SHEAR STRESS CAN LEAD TO FAILURES OF
FLANGES DETACHING FROM WEBS WHEN UNDER LOAD.
THIS COULD PROVE CATASTROPHIC IF ALLOWED TO OCCUR
IN REAL LIFE; HENCE, THE VERY REAL NEED TO MITIGATE
THAT POSSIBILITY WITH REINFORCEMENT FOR CONCRETE
T-BEAMS. IN SUCH COMPOSITE STRUCTURES, MANY
QUESTIONS ARISE AS TO THE PARTICULARS OF THE DESIGN,
INCLUDING WHAT THE IDEAL DISTRIBUTION OF CONCRETE
AND STEEL MIGHT BE: “TO EVALUATE AN OBJECTIVE
FUNCTION, A RATIO OF STEEL TO CONCRETE COSTS IS NECESSARY ”.[9] THIS DEMONSTRATES THAT FOR ALL
ASPECTS OF THE DESIGN OF COMPOSITE T-BEAMS, EQUATIONS ARE MADE ONLY IF ONE HAS ADEQUATE
INFORMATION. STILL, THERE ARE ASPECTS OF DESIGN THAT SOME MAY NOT EVEN HAVE CONSIDERED,
SUCH AS THE POSSIBILITY OF USING EXTERNAL FABRIC-BASED REINFORCEMENT, AS DESCRIBED BY CHAJES
ET AL., WHO SAY OF THEIR TESTED BEAMS, “ALL THE BEAMS FAILED IN SHEAR AND THOSE WITH
COMPOSITE REINFORCEMENT DISPLAYED EXCELLENT BOND CHARACTERISTICS. FOR THE BEAMS WITH
EXTERNAL REINFORCEMENT, INCREASES IN ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF 60 TO 150 PERCENT WERE ACHIEVED ”.
[4] WHEN IT COMES TO RESISTANCE TO SHEAR FORCES, EXTERNAL REINFORCEMENT IS A VALID OPTION TO
CONSIDER. THUS, OVERALL, THE MULTIPLE IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF T-BEAM DESIGN IMPRESS THEMSELVES
UPON THE STUDENT OF ENGINEERING.

A FLANGE IS AN EXTERNAL OR INTERNAL RIDGE, OR RIM (LIP),

FOR STRENGTH, AS THE FLANGE OF AN IRON BEAM SUCH AS AN I-
BEAM OR A T-BEAM; OR FOR ATTACHMENT TO ANOTHER OBJECT, AS
THE FLANGE ON THE END OF A PIPE, STEAM CYLINDER, ETC., OR ON
THE LENS MOUNT OF A CAMERA; OR FOR A FLANGE OF A RAIL CAR
OR TRAM WHEEL. THUS FLANGED WHEELS ARE WHEELS WITH A
FLANGE ON ONE SIDE TO KEEP THE WHEELS FROM RUNNING OFF
THE RAILS. THE TERM "FLANGE" IS ALSO USED FOR A KIND OF TOOL
USED TO FORM FLANGES. PIPES WITH FLANGES CAN BE ASSEMBLED
AND DISASSEMBLED EASILY.

A FLANGE CAN ALSO BE A PLATE OR RING TO FORM A RIM AT THE END OF A PIPE WHEN FASTENED TO THE
PIPE (FOR EXAMPLE, A CLOSET FLANGE). A BLIND FLANGE IS A PLATE FOR COVERING OR CLOSING THE END
OF A PIPE. A FLANGE JOINT IS A CONNECTION OF PIPES, WHERE THE CONNECTING PIECES HAVE FLANGES
BY WHICH THE PARTS ARE BOLTED TOGETHER.

ALTHOUGH THE WORD FLANGE GENERALLY REFERS TO THE ACTUAL RAISED RIM OR LIP OF A FITTING,
MANY FLANGED PLUMBING FITTINGS ARE THEMSELVES KNOWN AS 'FLANGES'. COMMON FLANGES USED
IN PLUMBING ARE THE SURREY FLANGE OR DANZEY FLANGE, YORK FLANGE, SUSSEX FLANGE AND ESSEX
FLANGE. SURREY AND YORK FLANGES FIT TO THE TOP OF THE HOT WATER TANK ALLOWING ALL THE WATER
TO BE TAKEN WITHOUT DISTURBANCE TO THE TANK. THEY ARE OFTEN USED TO ENSURE AN EVEN FLOW OF
WATER TO SHOWERS. AN ESSEX FLANGE REQUIRES A HOLE TO BE DRILLED IN THE SIDE OF THE TANK.

THERE IS ALSO A WARIX FLANGE WHICH IS THE SAME AS A YORK FLANGE BUT THE SHOWER OUTPUT IS ON
THE TOP OF THE FLANGE AND THE VENT ON THE SIDE. THE YORK AND WARIX FLANGE HAVE FEMALE
ADAPTERS SO THAT THEY FIT ONTO A MALE TANK, WHEREAS THE SURREY FLANGE CONNECTS TO A FEMALE
TANK.

UNDERSTANDING JOINTS, CONNECTIONS AND THE MOST COMMON FLANGE TYPES USED IN THE OIL AND
GAS INDUSTRY IS A CORE REQUIREMENT TO KEEP THESE LEVELS OF SAFETY AND ATTITUDES THE SAME. TO
ENSURE YOUR ALWAYS FAMILIAR WITH THESE, HERE ARE 6 OF THE MOST COMMON FLANGE TYPES AND A
DESCRIPTION OF WHAT THEY ARE BEST USED FOR:

WELD-NECK

COMPLETE WITH A TAPERED HUB, THESE FLANGES ARE RECOGNISABLE AND USED IN HIGH PRESSURE
ENVIRONMENTS. THE FLANGE IS PARTICULARLY USEFUL UNDER REPEAT BENDING CONDITIONS.

SLIP-ON

A FLANGE WHICH IS SLIPPED OVER THE PIPE AND WELDED BOTH INSIDE AND OUTSIDE TO INCREASE
STRENGTH AND PREVENT LEAKAGE. A FAVOURITE FOR ENGINEERS COMPARED TO THE WELD-NECK DUE TO
THEIR LOWER COST.

LAP-JOINT

USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH A LAP JOINT STUB END, THE FLANGE IS SLIPPED OVER THE PIPE BUT NOT
FASTENED, UNLIKE THE SLIP-ON. INSTEAD THE FLANGE IS HELD IN PLACE BY THE PRESSURE TRANSMITTED
TO THE GASKET BY THE FLANGE PRESSURE AGAINST THE BACK OF THE PIPE LAP.

THREADED

USED IN SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES, THE THREADED FLANGE CAN BE ATTACHED TO THE PIPE WITHOUT
BEING WELDED. THESE ARE USUALLY POSITIONED ON PIPES WITH A DEEP WALL THICKNESS, USED TO
CREATE THE INTERNAL THREAD.

BLIND

MANUFACTURED WITHOUT A BORE, THESE FLANGES ARE USED TO BLANK OFF THE END OF PIPING,
VALVES AND PRESSURE VESSEL OPENINGS. THEY ARE ALSO MOST SUITABLE FOR HIGH PRESSURE
TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS.

SOCKET-WELD
 WITH A STATIC STRENGTH EQUAL TO THE SLIP-ON FLANGE, THE SOCKET-WELD IS CONNECTED WITH
THE PIPE WITH 1 FILLET WELD ON THE OUTSIDE OF THE FLANGE. DUE TO CORROSION ISSUES, SOME
PROCESSES DO NOT ALLOW THIS FLANGE.