Name: Ramos, Christen D.

Date: January 03,1019

Section: I-12 BSBA Teacher: Ms. Rosana Jamon

Scientists and their Revolutionary Ideas

Andreas Vesalius
Born in Brussels and trained in anatomy at the University of Padua. He
became the leading figure in studying the human anatomy. He produces his
two seminal works, Tabulae sex (Six Plates, 1538) and De humani corporis
fabrica (The Fabric of the Human Body, 1543). One of his work, De humani
corporis fabrica signaled a revolution about human internal organs. His father
was Emperor Charles V (1500–1558), and one of who ruled the Holy Roman
Empire and the Spanish Empire in his time. His mother came from a wealthy
family. At the age of 24, Vesalius was bold enough to free himself of the
traditional methods of Galen and his followers, and he set to belief that
studying the human anatomy should have a visible proof gained from
dissecting human bodies. Until then, Galen had dissected mostly animal
cadavers, and other authorities of Vesalius’ time tend to teach their students
by reading from the writings of Galen, most often students or surgeons,
carried out the dissection. When his salary increased, he was able to work
concurrently on his masterpiece, De humani corporis fabrica – On the Fabric
of the Human Body. In 1542, the illustrated woodcuts of his book were
transported to Basel, Switzerland, where it was printed by Johannes Oporinus
(1507–1568) because of the quality of his printing he gains popularity.
Vesalius even obtained privileges that protected the Fabrica from
unauthorized copying. It is not clear why he published his work in Basel even
though the city was an important center of printing during the Renaissance,
but one factor might have been that Basel’s location on the Rhine facilitated
is the distribution of De humani corporis fabrica into Northern Europe.
Vesalius's main book, De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem (On the Fabric
of the Human Body in Seven Volumes), it contains over 600 engravings. The
different volumes of his works address the skeleton, the muscles, the vascular
and the nervous systems, the abdomen, the thorax, and the brain. The book
is more devoted to the muscles, where it contained a series of images showing
perfectly uncovered muscular layers. The publication of De Humani Corporis
Fabrica was abridged version of the De Humani Corporis Librorum Epitome.
During late 1544, many reactions to Vesalius’ Fabrica began to flourish, both
positive and negative. Vesalius former teacher Sylvius have a special harsh
critic of his works after having had his methods used aside by his now
prominent former pupil. In 1555 this second edition was published but largely
completed, it shows more improvement than to is first edition and a direct
result of his increased anatomical knowledge and experience-skills. He also
rejected the old Galenic views even, expressing doubts about old Galenic
descriptions and demands for further investigation into new findings. Since
Galen’s works are based on animals cut and not by human dissection. All in
all, Vesalius's systematic rejection of Galen’s view was his successful
contribution to science it made anatomy an empirical discipline.
 GIORDANO BRUNO
Giordano Bruno lived in the second half of the 16th century, from 1548
to 1600. In 1584 Bruno took part in a celebrated verbal clash at the University
of Oxford, where he did not achieve or received any converts to his theological
or intellectual positions. Giordano Bruno came back to Italy after failing in his
search for a permanent position in the Germanic states and the protection of
one of its princes. What was planned as a temporary stay to print his works,
ended with nine years in prison, a trial and the stake. Despite of his
interpretations to the Christian writings, the accusation barely included
theology. Also, the numerous charges where he perceived his theory of the
unlimited universe and the infinity of worlds. Bruno, as Galileo Galilei was to
do, recanted in the face of the pressure of the trial. Despite of that, he then
once more defended his initial positions and theories, even when faced with
possibility of torture. He was placed in the stake and burned on February 17
in the last year of the 16th century. Even the portray the public execution of
Giordano Bruno, Galileo, who was never a hero and rejected Kepler’s
theory, he ended up by promoting the heliocentric theory after making
extraordinary discoveries using a telescope for astronomical purposes for the
first time starting in 1609. Whatever the case, Giordano Bruno has remained
in the collective memory as an intellectual who was one’s defended his beliefs
even while paying at any price for them. He is an example of consistency. And
as in many fields, he is one of the proofs that modern discoveries are the
direct successors to the humanistic science characteristic of the 15th and 16th
centuries, whose attitude and perception towards reality should serve as a
model.
 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was born on October 24, 1632 in the Delft,
Netherlands. His father was a basket maker and his mother belong to a long
line of brewers. The Discovery of the Leeuwenhoek Lens, his biological
discoveries were completely dependent on his ability to make lenses of
extraordinarily high quality. He never told anyone how he made his lenses.
Glass Pearls people in the textiles trade had, for hundreds of years, used glass
pearls – small spheres of glass – as lenses to examine cloth in fine detail.
Leeuwenhoek used glass pearls frequently in his day-to-day business to
examine the density of threads and the quality of cloth. In 1665 Robert Hooke
a great English scientist released a copy of Micrographia, showing drawings
he had made of the natural world seen through the lens of his
microscope Leeuwenhoek. But the most importantly for Leeuwenhoek, it
contained drawings Hooke had made of his microscopic examinations of cloth.
Thus Micrographia contains a description of how a powerful microscope could
be made using a single spherical lens similar to the glass pearls he was already
familiar with you will take a very clear piece of a broken Venice Glass, and
when place it in a lamp draw it out into very small threads, then put or hold it
at holding the end of these threads in the flame, till they melt and run into a
small round globule, which the thread will hang at the end; and you stick
several of these upon the end of a stick with a little sealing wax, so as that
the threads stand upwards, after that grind off a good part of them, and
afterward on a smooth metal plate, with a little triopoly, rub them until they
become very smooth, the one of these be fixed with a little soft wax against
a small needle hole, pricked through a thin plate of brass, lead, pewter, or any
other metal, and an object, placed very near, be looked at through it, it will
both magnify and make some objects more distinct and detailed then any of
the great microscopes. Now believed that he used Hooke’s technique to make
his lenses. Hooke himself did not use lenses made him by this method because
they were inconvenient and inappropriate the distance between the lens and
the viewed object had to be very short and the observers with one eye had to
be pushed very close to the lens, causing Hooke’s eyes to quickly become
strained. Hooke used a compound microscope (one with two lenses) which
more closely resembles the microscopes we use these today. Leeuwenhoek’s
Microscopes, are made from his tiny spherical lenses that he uses to test the
cloth on his business before, the smallest lenses measured just 1 mm across,
were easily capable of magnifying and capable to see objects in detailed by a
factor of about 200 – 300, while Hooke’s compound microscope magnified
only by a factor of about 40 – 50. Remarkably, Leeuwenhoek could use his
lenses to resolve details as small as 1.35 μm. He was looking through and
examining one of his tiny single-lens microscopes and recording his
observations on it. The sample he is viewing is held within the body of the
microscope. His viewing drops of liquid, such as pond-water or blood, solid
samples such as plant material or animal muscles, cleanly cut with a razor
blade into very thin sections, transparent enough for light to travel through
so their details could be seen and drawn. In his lifetime made over 500 tiny
microscopes. They were somehow inappropriate to use and inconvenient,
which is why today we use compound microscopes. The microscopic world
discovered by his was a tradesman who had no formal training in science and
had never been to college. Hooke had covered in Micrographia, including
Leeuwenhoek’s detailed drawings of bee stings, a fungus, and a human louse.
In year 1674, aged 41, He made the first of his great discoveries single-celled
life forms. In 1674, the shape and size of red blood cells had been discovered
six years earlier by his fellow Dutchman, Jan Swammerdam. But he still
examined red blood cells. With his inventions, he was able to give a clearer
description of the cells than ever before and was the first person to determine
their size appropriately and accurately. In year 1676 he discovered a
bacteria’s, were at the limit of observation of his microscope he estimated that
it would take more than 10,000 of them to fill the volume of a small grain of
sand. In 1677 he discovered spermatozoa, later concluding that eggs are
fertilized when entered by sperm. He quoted while observing and doing further
examination studies, “I observed certain animalcules, within whole bodies I
saw so quick a motion as to exceed belief; they were about the size of a large
grain of sand, and their bodies being transparent, that the internal motion
could plainly be seen. Among other things, I saw in the body of one of these
animalcules a bright and round corpuscle, placed near the head, and in which
a very wonderful swift motion was to be seen, consisting of an alternate
extension and contraction. Leeuwenhoek during his lifetime so more
observation and examination about living things through the use of his
microspores, many of his discoveries are the following; maggots, by observing
the life-cycles of the maggots and fleas he proved that such creatures are not
spontaneously generated, as many people believed at the time. He showed
these creatures go through under a process of reproduction from eggs to
maggots to pupae to adults. He dissects aphids, discovered parthenogenesis.
He found parent aphids containing the embryos of new aphids although eggs
had not been fertilized. In observing the flow of blood in tiny capillaries, he
confirmed Harvey’s work on blood circulation. His discoveries, combined with
Hooke’s earlier discovery of microscopic fungi, signaled the creation of a new
science microbiology.

William Harvey
William Harvey lived in 1578 to 1657. He was the first person to
successfully and correctly describe the blood’s circulation in the human body.
He showed the circuit starts at the heart and leads back to the heart. The
heart’s regular contractions drive the flow of blood around the whole body. He
was born on April 1, 1578 in Folkstone, England. His father, Thomas Harvey,
was a successful businessman who became Mayor of Folkstone; while his
mother, Joane Hawke. He was enrolled and started his education at a small
elementary school in Folkstone, the greatest influence on Harvey at Padua
University was by his teacher, Hieronymus Fabricius, who was a skilled
surgeon and anatomist. The two became very close enough to start a
friendship and Harvey learned from Fabricius that dissection offered a route
to better understanding of the human body. Fabricius had discovered valves
in human veins in 1574, although he did not publish his discovery to it until
1603. He was an outstanding student. In year 1602, Harvey graduated as a
Doctor of Medicine from Padua. They decided therefore that he was skillful,
expert, and most efficiently qualified both in arts and medicine. The
circulation of blood, Harvey made his discoveries because he ignored the
conventional wisdom of medical text books, conclusions started to emerge
when he dissected animals his preferring to make his own observations and
form his own when he uses to do it on animals. In year 1628, at aged of 50,
Harvey published his masterpiece – usually referred to as De Moto Cordis –
the Motion of the Heart. Its full title in English is: Anatomical Studies on the
Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals. In De Moto Cordis Harvey became
the first person to accurately describe the function of the heart and the
circulation of blood around the body. He finally put to rest some of the errors
Galen had made so many years earlier. He showed for the first time that the
veins and arteries circulate blood through the whole parts of the body. He
showed that the heart’s beat or pumps produces a constant circulation of blood
through the whole body. He refuted many of them, then standardize the belief
of system on how the heart and blood system worked, establishing that blood
in the arteries and the veins is all of the same origin, not manufactured in
different parts of the body, the blood sent throughout the arteries to the
tissues is not yet consumed there, the circulation mechanism is designed for
movement of liquid only and not air. The blood on the right side, even though
it carries air, is still blood, the heart and not the liver, is the only source of
blood movement, the heart contracts at the same time as a pulse is felt, the
ventricles squeeze blood going inside the aorta and also in the pulmonary
artery, the pulse is not produced by the arteries pulling blood in, but by blood
being pushed by the heart into the arteries, enlarging them, there are no
vessels in the heart’s septum: all of the blood in the right ventricle goes
through the lungs and then through the pulmonary veins to the left ventricle.
Similarly, all of the blood in the left ventricle is sent into the arteries, round
by the smaller veins into the venae cavae, and then back to the right ventricle
again. In this way, the circulation system of the blood is completed. The blood
has come back to where it began its circuit of the body, there is no back
movement of blood in the veins, but a constant flow of blood to the heart.
William Harvey died, aged 79, in London on June 3, 1657 at the home of one
of his brothers. The cause of death was most probably a cerebral hemorrhage.
He had no children, and his wife, Elizabeth Browne, died before he did. William
Harvey’s grave can be found in the village of Hempstead, in the English county
of Essex.

Robert Boyle
Robert Boyle was lived in 1627 until 1691, he put chemistry on a firm
scientific footing, transforming it from a field bogged down in alchemy and
mysticism into a one based on measurements. He defined well accurately the
elements, compounds, and mixtures, and he even introduce to the science
world the new term ‘chemical analysis,’ a field in which he made several
powerful scientific idea or contributions. He discovered Boyle’s Law – the first
of the gas laws in the world of science relating to the pressure of a gas to its
volume; he introduces and established that electrical forces are transmitted
through a vacuum, but sound is not; and he also added that the movement of
particles is responsible for heat. He was the first person to write specific
experimental guidelines for other scientists to be able to use his methods,
telling them the importance of achieving reliable and repeatable results.
Robert Boyle was born on 1627, into an aristocratic family in Lismore Castle,
in the small town of Lismore, Ireland. His father was Richard Boyle, who had
arrived from England in 1588 with a modest sum of money. At the age of
eight, Robert was sent to study in England’s most prestigious private school,
Eton College; he then studies and spent three years of his life there. He
traveled and went to Italy at the age of 14, he studies and learned there
how Galileo Galilei had used mathematics to explain motion. The young
Robert Boyle was fascinated by Galileo’s belief that mathematics is the
language that describe the world around us. The behavior of planets and
pendulums, and the fundamentals of music and mechanics, could all be
understood using just mathematics. He started to write his first book. He
became increasingly and passionately interested in carrying out scientific
experiments and studying scientific literature. Robert Boyle also tried his hand
at alchemy. The enlightenment age is the triumph of reason over superstition
– that transformed much of Europe in the 1700s was still a long way off. In
late 1654, aged 27, Boyle choose to move to the university town of Oxford,
England. He hopes to find a scientifically productive environment. He uses to
rented rooms and set up a laboratory. Otto von Guericke had invented the
vacuum pump in year 1654. Boyle learned of this and was fascinate to discover
its functions and other stuff’s it can do. Using Hooke’s pump Boyle and Hooke
carried out experiments investigating the properties of air and the vacuum.
Boyle and Hooke do such a successful job that made their first great discovery,
now called Boyle’s Law. They made their discovery using a glass tube. Inside
the tube, they used mercury to vary the pressure on a fixed weight of air.
Boyle also discovered that pressure multiplied by volume is a constant, when
you increase the pressure on a gas, the gas’s volume shrinks in a predictable
way. This was the first gas law to be discovered in science. Over a hundred
years were to pass before the next gas law, Charles’ Law, was discovered in
1787. Boyle discovered that sound cannot travel through a vacuum. He did
this inside a 28-liter glass jar by ringing a bell housed. The bell was rung with
the help of a magnet outside the jar. As he pumped air out of the jar, the
sound of the bell grew unclear and fainter. The vacuum pump is shown on the
left. Boyle or Hooke could pump air out of the glass jar at the top while turning
the handle at the bottom, in performing this experiment, Boyle showed that
magnetic forces can travel through a vacuum – otherwise he could not have
rung the bell. Even though not fully appreciated at their time, this was actually
a perfectly and highly significant moment in science. Boyle had shown that
physical forces could be transmitted across a vacuum. Furthermore, he also
uses light, where he showed that light can travel through a vacuum, because
when air was pumped out of the jar, everything in the jar remained perfectly
visible. Using a candle, Boyle showed that a vacuum will not support
combustion. He also found that only part of the air supports combustion – he
thought a very small part. Boyle’s The Sceptical Chymist, was successfully a
turning point in chemistry. Boyle began to explore more chemistry from the
mysticism of alchemy. Boyle rejected Aristotle’s theory and elements: earth,
water, air and fire. He also rejected Paracelsus’s principles of salt, sulfur and
mercury. Boyle argued about “compounds” were produced when elements
combined to form new substances, unlike mixtures in which no new
substances formed. Boyle correctly defined elements as simple substances
that could not be decomposed into other substances. Even he did an excellent
definition of an element, he did not believe any true elements had yet been
discovered. Unfortunately, he could not find an experimental method to prove
whether a substance was an element or not, and he thought substances such
as gold, silver and sulfur were actually compound. Galileo and René
Descartes also believed that all substances are made of atoms, but Descartes
thought there could be no void. Boyle was correct by proving the behavior of
substances could be explained through the motion of atoms, which in turn
could be understood through mechanics Galileo’s mathematics of motion.
Boyle believe that one element could be transmuted into another. He thought,
correctly, that this could be achieved through a rearrangement of the basic
particles making up the element. This explanation was first achieved by Ernest
Rutherford in 1919 when he transformed nitrogen into oxygen. He had already
made a clean break with the alchemists’ tradition. He warned that impure
chemicals could cause errors in experiments, by incorrect use of equipment.
He explained how different people could honestly obtain very different results
in an experiment, therefore experiments and their procedures while doing
such experiment they needed to be carefully documented or record for others
to see how they had been carried out. He emphasized the need to repeat
experiments for further results. He likened it to explorers who had been blown
off course, only to discover new. In the 1700s heat was associated with the
behavior of a non-existent substance called caloric. Boyle’s admiration to and
following in the footsteps of Galileo and Descartes, believed that heat is
related to the movement of particles. In 1675 he offered a rather good
description of the relationship between temperature and the movement of
particles.
 Paracelsus
The Swiss physician and alchemist Paracelsus was born on November
11, 1493 in Einsiedeln, Switzerland and after all accomplishments for year in
his life and ended on September 24, 1541 in Salzburg, Austria. He was one of
the most influential medical scientists in early modern Europe. Theophrastus
Aureolus Bombastus von Hohenheim was his real name and he was the son
of a doctor. He gained considerable knowledge of several folk
medicine traditions, by mixing with people from many cultures. ‘I have not
been ashamed’, he wrote, ‘to learn from tramps, butchers and barbers.’ These
things make up his mind and led him to reject much of university-taught
medicine. After a brief period as a medical student in Italy, he travelled all
over Europe and beyond as a military surgeon with the Venetian army, visiting
Russia, Arabia and Egypt along the way. As years pass by he decided to
changed his name to Paracelsus (‘equal to Celsus’) to indicate that he wanted
to rival ancient medical authorities such as Galen and Celsus. He continued to
subscribe to all kinds of folk beliefs such as gnomes, spirits and fairies. Even
though he rejected Galen’s claim that health and disease were controlled by
the four humors and told doctors to study nature and develop personal
experience through experiment. When Paracelsus started the training in
alchemy, he was feed by the principle that the metals were the key elements
which made up the universe, and that they were subject to control by the
‘great magician’ who created nature, God. Paracelsus argued that the body
was a chemical system which had to be balanced not only internally, but which
also had to be in harmony with its environment. On the basis of this idea,
Paracelsus openly introduced a new chemical substances into medicine, for
instance the use of the metal mercury for the treatment of syphilis. He was
appointed Professor of Medicine at the University of Basel, Switzerland in
1526. Paracelsus overthrew convention by publicly burning the books of Ibn
Sina and Galen. He also invited ordinary citizens to his lectures, which he gave
wearing an alchemist’s leather apron rather than an academic gown. His new
methods were very controversial, and in 1538 he was exiled from Basel. He
died in 1541 in Austria.

Tycho Brahe
Tycho Brahe was lived 1546 – 1601. His life was larger than aristocratic
astronomer whose observations became the foundation for a new
understanding of the solar system and ultimately gravity. Tycho’s father was
Otte Brahe and his mother was Beate Bille, both of them are member of the
Royal Court. Tycho began school aged six or seven, a grammar school where
he learned the classical languages, mathematics, and the Lutheran religion.
The solar eclipse of August 21, 1560 was Tycho’s interest in astronomy. This
eclipse was barely noticeable – less than half of the sun was covered. The
eclipse inspired, astronomers had predicted exactly when it would happen,
and he wanted to learn how he too could make predictions like this. Using just
a basic, fist-sized celestial sphere and string, Tycho discovered this by using
Ptolemy’s data tables, the conjunction timing was wrong by a month. Errors
in both Copernicus’s and Ptolemy’s predictions noted again when he observed
a one-in-twenty-year conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn. November 11, 1572,
he made his first significant discovery, by observing the night sky he was
amazed to see a new light brighter than Venus in the sky. In 1573, when he
published De nova stella – The New Star, he published the most
comprehensive study of it. His discoveries in new star faded year, after a year,
until the star was no longer visible to the naked eye. The Latin word nova is
still used for stars that suddenly get brighter. In the present studies, that
Tycho’s new star was actually a supernova. Tycho’s discovery unlike for
Aristotle’s world view, that the heavens beyond the moon are unchanging and
perfect. Hipparchus also refuted Aristotle’s view observation of a new star in
134 BC. To measure the comet’s distance from the earth he used
Hipparchus’s parallax method. But it was difficult for him to measure correctly
the distance, but he was able to say that: The comet was much farther away
from our planet than the moon is – at least six times as far. The popular idea
that comets traveled within the earth’s atmosphere was rejected. The comet’s
path was associated with the sun, not the earth. In their time, when he
followed the usual line, he believed that the comet was a sign of bad things to
come. To replace Ptolemy’s ancient work, he accurately recorded the
positions of 777 stars by 1592, and he eventually amassed data for 1,006
stars. His catalog was later improved and published by Kepler. In 1581 he
builds an underground observatory and he called it Stjerneborg, meaning Star
Castle. He now carried out research on a scale few other astronomers could
match. In 1588, he published his book entitled De Mundi Aetherei
Recentioribus Phaenomenis Liber Secundus (The Second Book About Recent
Phenomena in the Celestial World). Tycho’s works were not later banned by
the Catholic Church. When Galileo discovered Venus’s phases proved, made
Copernicus right, the Church pointed out that his discovery was also consistent
with Tycho’s earth-centered universe. In 1595 he discovered the variation of
the Moon’s longitude, and that the moon’s oscillations orbital plane are not a
constant 5 degrees, but it’s between 5 and 5¼ degrees. He correctly detailed
that there are oscillations in the longitude of the lunar nodes. In 1627 the
catalog was eventually published by Kepler as the Rudolphine Tables. These
were the most accurate astronomical data tables ever published, with
planetary data and 1,006-star positions.
 Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler played a key role in the profound changes in human
thinking that took place as the scientific revolution flourish. Johannes Kepler
was born on December 27, 1571, in the town of Weil der Stadt, his mother,
Katharina Guldenmann, was an herbalist who helped run an inn owned by her
father Heinrich Kepler, was killed in Holland fighting as a mercenary, by this
he become prone to ill-health. His eyesight permanently impaired by smallpox
and his hands were crippled. Her mother took care of him very much and
when the eclipse was about to happen Kepler was taking by his mother outside
to see the eclipse where he would remember this event clearly for the rest of
his life. At aged of 23, Kepler became a lecturer in astronomy and
mathematics at the Protestant School in the city of Graz, Austria. In 1596, he
published a book – Mystery of the Cosmos. His book explained very well in
logical, why the sun lay at the center of the solar system. Unlike Mars, Jupiter
and Saturn he noted that Mercury and Venus always seem to be close to the
sun. Mercury and Venus’s orbits are closer to the sun than Earth’s. He
explained also that if the sun and all the planets orbited Earth, there is no
reason why Mercury and Venus should always be near the sun. He believes
that these shapes determine how far each of the six known planets lay from
the sun (The Platonic Solids). His Platonic solids theory produced a close fit to
the planet-to-sun distances that Copernicus had found. Kepler believed the
solar system’s planets orbited the sun in circular paths whose sizes where his
theory explained. Kepler and Tycho have work together and Tycho even gave
Kepler access to some of his Mars observations, but not all. In late 1601, He
carried out calculations of planet movements for Tycho. October 1601, Tycho
died even if they didn’t finish it. Tycho’s astronomical data was passed by
Kepler. The Law of Areas was Kepler’s Second Law: a planet orbiting the sun
sweeps out equal areas in equal times. He discovered that Mars does not move
in a perfect circle around the sun and it was moving in an oval-like orbit and
that sometimes it was closer to the sun than, when it get closer to the sun, it
moved faster than when it was farther away. He then tries to correct his First
Law in 1605– The Law of Orbits Kepler tried to figure out the mathematical
shape of Mars’s orbit. Mars follows an elliptical path around the sun. And now
he formulated what would become Kepler’s first law: planets orbit the sun in
ellipses, with the sun at one focus. Kepler’s Third Law – The Law of Periods.
In 1618 he continues his research led to his third law of planetary motion: The
square of the period of any planet is proportional to the cube of the semimajor
axis of its orbit. It means that by squaring the time it takes a planet to
complete one orbit around the sun, it’s proportional to the planet’s distance
from the sun cubed. As what his second law: the farther a planet is from the
sun, the slower it moves along its orbital path. Kepler wrote, about a ‘magnetic
force’, but in the present we called it the force of gravity. The moon is a mass,
this mass attracts the waters by a magnetic force, they get attracted not
because they are liquid, but because they possess earthy substance, and so
share in the movements of a heavy body. In 1604, Kepler discovered the
inverse square law of light intensity. If your distance from the sun was
doubled, the amount of light reaching you is lowered by a factor of four. If
your distance from the sun was now tripled, the amount of light you get is
reduced by a factor of nine. This explains the sun’s energy being transmitted
through the planet’s by orbits. By this he found that gravity also follows an
inverse square law. Everything is upside down he was the one who discovered
this through lenses in our eyes invert images and this image was corrected by
our brains. In 1611 improves Galileo’s telescope design by using two convex
lenses. This allowed higher magnifications. Kepler’s design is now the standard
design for refracting telescopes. He proposed two most efficient ways: cubic
close packing and hexagonal close packing which you can pack a bunch of
equally sized spheres into the smallest possible space. A formal proof of his
conjecture was published in 2015 by Thomas Hales and coworkers.
 Nicolaus Copernicus
Nicolaus Copernicus us the one who started the scientific revolution, by
publishing his heliocentric theory. He was born on February 19, 1473, in the
city of Torun, in the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, northern Poland. His name at
birth was Mikolaj Kopernik. When he started studying at university, he started
calling himself the Latin form of his name, Nicolaus Copernicus. Nicolaus was
born into a wealthy family. His father who was a prosperous copper trader, he
was named after his father’s name. His mother, Barbara Watzenrode, also
came from a wealthy, upper-class family of merchants. Nicolaus was the
youngest of their four children. In 1491, he studied astronomy, mathematics,
philosophy, and the sciences at the University of Krakow. He began to study
the works of Ptolemy about astronomy and he thought people should shift
from a geocentric (earth centered) view to a heliocentric (sun centered) view.
His theory that the earth is not the center of the universe, where he argued
that the center of the universe is near the sun. Earth’s rotation on its own axis
accounts for the obvious daily rotation of the stars. Earth is orbiting the sun
that’s why the apparent retrograde motion of the planets is caused by the fact
we observe them from a moving location. By 1532 he had finished writing
the first manuscript of his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium – The
Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres. He did not publish it, though, because
he was worried about misunderstanding between churches it would get. He
instead showed it to close friends and associates, by this Copernicus theory
that the earth and the planets orbit the sun leak out in the public. By 1539,
seven more years had passed and Copernicus had still not published. This
changed when a German mathematician, Georg Joachim Rheticus, came to
learn everything he could from Copernicus and read his work De
Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium. He helped Copernicus by bringing him new
books about mathematics, by this Copernicus final calculations for the
movements of the heavenly bodies. Copernicus gave the manuscript of his
book to Rheticus to be printed in Germany and publish a book called Narratio
prima – The First Report, in which Rheticus gave a basic summary of
Copernicus’s heliocentric. This started the Scientific Revolution – De
Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium. In his works he correctly identified that
Terra (the earth) is one of the planets orbiting Sol (the sun), he shows the
planets in the correct order where the moon orbits Earth. He presents diagram
the outer circle represents the stars. Then moving inward, there’s Saturn,
Jupiter, Mars, Earth (with the moon), Venus, Mercury and Sun. in 1543 the
book finally the print and publish shortly before Copernicus’s death. Kepler
improves and showed that Copernicus heliocentric theory is correct, but the
planets do not follow circular orbits instead their orbits are elliptical.

Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon introduced the scientific method, whereby the laws of
science are discovered by gathering and analyzing data from experiments and
observations, rather than by using logic-based arguments. Francis Bacon was
born in London, England, on January 2, 1561. He was the youngest son. Sir
Nicholas Bacon was his father, who held the powerful government position of
Lord Keeper of the Great Seal. Anne Cooke was his mother, a scholar,
translator, and holder of strong Puritan beliefs. At aged 12, he was tutored at
home until, he entered the University of Cambridge, where he was again
tutored privately. He conducted entirely in Latin, focusing on arithmetic,
astronomy, geometry, grammar, music theory, logic, and rhetoric. He rejected
Aristotle, Plato, and others including Pythagoras to mix scientific ideas with
religious ideas. He believed that the two should be kept separate. He’s
works, Novum Organum (The New Tool), described what came to be called
the Baconian Method of science. In 1620, it was part of his (Instauratio
magna) series of books. The Inductive Method Bacon, this means you do not
start with a hypothesis or theory. While the deductive method, were you
started with rules he had developed from logical arguments. He visualized
Nature as female and believed that Nature never tells you her secrets easily.
Hard work investigation required. By this she might reveal the truth to you.

The instantia crucis – the crucial example. This would be the example that
proves which theory is true. In the 1660s his idea was improved by Robert
Boyle and/or Robert Hooke into the experimentum crucis – the crucial
experiment. In 1672 Newton’s crucial experiment with two prisms, results
absolutely demolished competing theories, were the glass added the colors to
sunlight. The Hypothetico Deductive Method, in the present scientific method.
His ideas are still used today it has a vital role and importance to science of
experimental data and observations are now beyond doubt.

Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei was one of the most important people in the revolution of
science ideas. He spent the last eight years of his life under house arrest, and
the Catholic Church banned the publication of anything written by him just to
contribute in world of science. He was born on February 15, 1564, in the Italian
city of Pisa. He was the eldest son. His father was of Vincenzo Galilei, a well-
known composer, who played the lute, a stringed instrument. As a musician
he became fascinated and knew the relationship between string length and
the note it produced was mathematical – this had been proved almost 2000
years earlier by the Pythagoreans in Ancient Greece. At the age of 22, become
known for other scientist when he published a book about a hydrostatic
balance he had invented. At aged of 24, he become a teacher and teach art
in the Italian city of Florence. In 1589, he received a reward as the Chair of
Mathematics at the University of Pisa. He worked in there for three years,
before moving to the University of Padua in northern Italy in 1592. Galileo
settled in Padua, where he taught mathematics, physics, and astronomy,
making many momentous scientific discoveries. He was the first person who
use telescope to study the sky. By this he discovered the first moons ever
known to orbit a planet other than Earth. Jupiter’s four largest moons, which
he discovered Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, are together known as the
Galilean Satellites in his honor. He also introduces that Venus has phases like
the moon, ranging from a thin crescent to full. This observational evidence,
proves the sun sits at the center of the solar system. Also, the rings of Saturn,
our moon has mountains, that the Milky Way is made up of stars, when the
dark and clear night, you can see the Milky Way in the sky, first person see
the planet Neptune, but he lost tracks to this start, Neptune was not
discovered until 1846. He argued that the gravity accelerates all objects
equally, whatever their mass, the object accelerates at a constant rate,
distance fallen is proportionate to the time squared. He stated principle of
inertia a body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at
a constant speed unless disturbed. Then, later became Newton’s First Law of
Motion. Proposed the first theory of relativity: that the laws of physics are the
same for all observers moving in a straight line that are proportionate at
constant speed. He realized pendulums could be used to keep time. Clocks
had not been invented in Galileo’s time and his experiments were conducted
using his pulse as the timekeeper, or, better, the weight of water which
escaped through a hole in a vessel. Tried to measure the speed of light, but
he it was too fast. Showed that the set of perfect squares 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36,
49, 64, 81, 100… has as many members in it as the set of whole numbers 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 9, 10… even though, at first sight, the set of whole numbers
appears to contain more members. This demonstration became known as
Galileo’s Paradox. This means that there, every whole number can be squared
– so every whole number can be paired up with its square. “Galileo – the
father of modern physics – indeed of modern science.”
 René Descartes
René Descartes was famous by his philosophical quote;” Cogito ergo
sum”. He made also a great discoveries and invented analytical geometry and
introduced skepticism as an essential part of the scientific method. He
presented the horizontal direction as x and the vertical direction as y. This
concept is now very much useful in mathematics and other sciences. He was
born on March 31, 1596 in the French village of La Haye en Touraine. His
father was a lawyer at Brittany’s Court of Justice, Joachim Descartes. His
mother was Jeanne Brochard, daughter of the Lieutenant General of Poitiers.
René was their third child. He went and studied at the Jesuit School at La
Flèche in Anjou. On November 10, 1619 Descartes made his scientific
method, analytical geometry and philosophy, in 1637, at 18 years later, he
published his ideas in Discours de la mèthode (Discussion of the Method), La
Gèomètrie (Geometry), Les Mètèores (Meteorology), and La Dioptrique
(Optics), these two of his works contain most significant contributions in
science. His four main ideas for scientific progress were: (1) Never accept
anything as true until all reasons for doubt can be ruled out. (2) Divide
problems into as many parts as possible and necessary to provide an adequate
solution. (3) Thoughts should be ordered, starting with the simplest and
easiest to know, ascending little by little, and, step by step, to more complex
knowledge. (4) Make enumerations so complete, and reviews so general, that
nothing is omitted. In the 17th century he showed the Cartesian plane, that
curves could be expressed in terms of x and y on a two-dimensional plane and
hence as equations in algebra. He never actually drew an x- or y-axis in his
work. These axes were introduced by the mathematician Frans van Schooten
and other mathematicians in Leiden who translated La Gèomètrie from French
into Latin, while he improves it further. In 1649 the latin editions of La
Gèomètrie were released, and 1661. He also introduced the modern notation
for exponents. He reached the expertise of Ancient Greece’s brilliant
geometers where he could now solve problems that had defeated them. Pierre
de Fermat Analytical invented geometry was independently earlier, who lived
in France at the same time as Descartes. In his work La Gèomètrie, he
explains and showed how he could find tangents to curves. This process is a
very important part of differential calculus. Fermat his mathematical
competitor was also able to find tangents to curves, but much simpler methods
than Descartes’. Both Descartes and Fermat helped guide Newton and
Leibniz’s development of calculus. Philosophy, his most famous declaration “I
think therefore I am.” Which means “I can think; therefore, I exist.”. His most
famous philosophical work published in 1641, is Meditations on First
Philosophy.

Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton is the greatest physicist of all time. He was born in the
tiny village of Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth on January 4, 1643, Lincolnshire,
England. His name was his father’s name also, was a farmer who died before
Isaac Junior was born. Hannah Ayscough, was his mother, married a
churchman when Newton was three years old. At age 12, Newton study in the
King’s School, Grantham, where he was taught the classics, but no science or
mathematics. At age of 17, his mother stopped him from schooling and do
farming. In June 1661, but he began studying for a law degree at Cambridge
University’s Trinity College, earning money as a personal servant to wealthier
students. While studying all facts in school, he was confused and disregard all
the facts about Aristotle and Galilei discovered. In 1665, He made his first
major discovery in mathematics, where he discovered the generalized
binomial theorem and awarded his B.A. degree in the same year. He continued
his passion and made more discoveries in these fields: calculus, the
mathematics of change, which is vital to our understanding of the world
around us, gravity, optics and the behavior of light. These where he showed
the generalized the binomial theorem, using one glass prism to split a beam
of sunlight into its separate colors, then another one prism to recombine the
rainbow colors to make a beam of white light again. He built the world’s first
working reflecting telescope. He also discovered and invented calculus, which
we could not understand the behavior of objects as tiny as electrons or as
large as what heavenly body is. One of the most important scientific books
ever written, it explains how he used mathematics to explain gravity and
motion. Law of universal gravitation, “proving that the force holding the moon
in orbit around the earth is the same force that causes an apple to fall from a
tree”. Proved that all objects moving must follow a path, in the form of one of
the conic sections, such as a circle, an ellipse, or a parabola, whenever their
moving through space under the influence of gravity. High and Low tides are
caused by gravitational interactions between the earth, the moon, and the
sun. He correctly predicted that the earth is not perfectly spherical but is
squashed into an oblate spheroid, larger around the equator than around the
poles. He used mathematics to make a model the movement of fluids from
which the concept of a Newtonian fluid comes. He revealed how his laws of
motion and gravitation works in his book the Principia. In calculus he was the
first person who developed it well, without this the modern physics and
physical chemistry would be impossible. He used calculus to analyzed other
academic disciplines such as biology and economics also rely heavily. The
falling apple we always hear as an example for his universal gravitation, is the
reason where he realized that the force is felt throughout the universe that’s
why apply fall straight from the tree, so he called it Universal Gravitation.
Because of his skills in calculus he made an equation that allows us to calculate
the force of gravity between two objects E = mc2. He explains “that you can
calculate the gravitational force attracting one object to another by multiplying
the masses of the two objects by the gravitational constant and dividing by
the square of the distance between the objects’ centers”. Dividing by distance
squared means Newton’s Law is an inverse-square law Newton’s Laws of
Motion-Third Law: is in the heart of mechanics, he explains that the rocket
flies because of the upward thrust it gets as a reaction to the high-speed gas
particles pushing downward from its engines. Newton’s three laws of motion
still lie at his First law, where objects move at a constant velocity unless acted
upon by an external force or stationary. His second law, “the force F on an
object is equal to its mass m multiplied by its acceleration: F = ma”. While his
third law, “when one object exerts a force on a second object, the second
object exerts a force equal in size and opposite in direction on the first object”.

Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin was the greatest biologist in his lifetime and also in
history. His most famous work, On the Origin of Species, providing numerous
supporting examples, where he explains the theory of evolution by natural
selection. He believed that all life forms in this world has a common ancestor,
whose offspring could vary slightly from the previous generation, where he
explains that those who have less well adapted variations became extinct.
Charles Robert Darwin was born on February 12, 1809 in the town of
Shrewsbury, England, UK. He was the fifth child of six. At the age of 9, Charles
went to study in Shrewsbury School. He almost spends his 5 years lifetime to
discovered new species in other islands and record them, in each new place
he visited, collecting samples of flora, fauna, and fossils, and observing rock
formations, by the help of the Voyage of the Beagle 1831 – 1836. In 1837 he
also observed different varieties of species in each island they go and compare
it while keep on recording track of all, including his increasing thoughts about
them. His lifetime game-changing book On the Origin of Species – often called
the most important book in the history of biology – became available to the
public on November 24, 1859; even all booksellers immediately sold all 1250
copies. Trying to avoid controversy, Darwin avoided making any claims for the
origin a particular species, such as Homo sapiens. The sixth edition was
published in 1872, his theory explains the common ancestry, was particularly
taken by the similarity of the embryos of different species. He said, “Hardly
any point gave me so much satisfaction when I was at work on the ‘Origin,’
as the explanation of the wide difference in many classes between the embryo
and the adult animal, and of the close resemblance of the embryos within the
same class.” In 1868 he works on another book to be published and this is The
Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. He incorrectly proposed
heredity resulted from a process called pangenesis. The people provoked him
by presenting the origins of human in apes. In 1877, this theory was rejected
to be teach on schools. In 1872 he looked at the evolution of human
psychology in his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals,
showing there are a lot of similarities in human and animal psychology. The
idea that species evolve had become accepted in 1872 by most mainstream
scientists by about the time the sixth edition of The Origin of Species came
out. In 1930 he publishes book The Genetical Theory of Natural
Selection by Ronald Fisher, that evolution by natural selection became widely
accepted.

Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud was a physiologist, medical doctor, psychologist,
influential thinker of the twentieth century. He invented a new science of the
mind, remains the subject of much disapproval and controversy, by this gave
birth to Psychoanalysis. He accounts the sexual genesis and nature of
neuroses led him naturally to develop a clinical treatment for treating such
mental illness or disorders. In his time this invention become more influential,
also in the present, that when people speak of ‘psychoanalysis’ they frequently
refer exclusively to the clinical treatment. The object of psychoanalytic
treatment with the analyst to determine how he shall handle this newly-
acquired understanding of the unconscious forces. He became more and more
passionate by his technique of psychoanalysis, and he used this to his patient’s
biased impressions of him to help the patient, so that he can discover the
origins of the unconscious memory which led to the symptoms from which
they suffered. When Darwin introduces his work’s about human’s origin. He
explains man had is different in nature to the members of the animal kingdom
by virtue possession of an immortal soul, different from non-human animals
only in degree of structural difficulty. This made it possible and reasonable for
the first time to treat man as a vast and varied range of human behavior. He
followed Plato, which he saw as the establishment of a melodic relationship
between the three elements which constitute the mind, by his account of the
nature of mental health or psychological well-being. This key concept made
him introduced that the mind possesses a number of ‘defense mechanisms’ to
attempt to prevent conflicts from becoming too acute, such as repression,
sublimation, fixation, and regression. When his works was published, they
preserved in a 23-volume set called “The Standard Edition of the Complete
Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud”. Some of his most interesting works
are “The Interpretation of Dreams”, “The Psychopathology of Everyday Life”,
“Totem and Taboo”, “Civilization and Its Discontents”, and “The Future of an
Illusion”. All these are a part of The Standard Edition, but available as separate
paperbacks.