Conrents 3.4 Zone of Protection of the Differential Relay 62 85 Actual Behaviour of'a Simple Differential Scheme 69 3.5.1 Through Fault Stability and Stability Ratio 64 3.5.2 Equivalent Cireuit of OT 65 36 Percentage Differential Relay 67 4.6.1 Block Diagram of Percentage Differential Relay 70 3.7 Earth Leakage Protection 71 3.7.1 Barth Leakage Protection for Single-phase Load 71 3.7.2 Barth Leakage Protection for Three-phase Loads 72 Review Questions 73 Problems 73 @) TRANSFORMER. PROTECTION 74-100 41 Typos of Transformers 74 42 Phasor Diagram for a Three-phase Transformer 75 43° Equivalent Civeuit of Transformer 77 44 Types of Faults in Transformers 78 4.5 Over-current Protection 80 46 Percentage Differential Protection of Transformers 81 4.6.1 Development of Connections &f 4.6.2 Phase c-to-Ground (¢-g) External Fault 82 4.6.3 Phase c-to-Ground (-g) Internal Fault 4 4.7 Inrush Phenomenon 8&6 4.7.1 Percentage Differential Relay with Harmonic Restraint 89 48 High Resistance Ground Faults in Transformers 97 4.8.1 High Resistance Ground Faults on the Delta Side 91 4.8.2 High Resistance Ground Faults on the Star Side 92 49 Inter-turn Faults in Transformers 93 410 Incipient Faults in Transformers 93 4.10.1 Buchholz Relay 93 4.10.2 Analysis of Trapped Gases 95 411 Phenomenon of Over-fluxing in Transformers, 95 4.11.1 Protection Against Over-fluxing 95 4.12 Transformer Protection Application Chart 96 418 An Tilustrative Numerical Problem 97 Review Questions 99 Problems 100 ® BUSBAR PROTECTION 101-117 5.1 Introduction 102 52 Differential Protection of Busbars 102 4.2.1 Selection of CT Ratios in Case of Busbar Protection: Wrong Method 102 5.2.2 Selection of CT Ratios in Case of Busbar Protection: Correet Method 103Contents = External and Internal Fault 104 es Actual Behaviour of a Protective CT 105 82 Circuit Model of Saturated CT 108 External Fault with One CT Saturated: Need for High Impedance Busbar Protection 108 eogr gt eRe 5.7 Minimum Internal Fault That Can Be Detected by the High 6.10 Impedance Busbar Differential Scheme 110 5.8 Stability Ratio of High Impedance Busbar Differential Scheme 112 6.11 5.9 Supervisory Relay 112 . 5.10 Protection of Theee-phase Busbars 114 6.12 5.11 Numerical Example on Design of High Impedance Busbar Differential pele. Scheme 118 Revie Review Questions 117 are 6 DISTANCE PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES 118-152 Wa 6.1 Drawbacks of Over-current Protection 118 42 82 Introduction to Distance Protection 119 73 6.3 Simple Impedance Relay 123 6.3.1 Trip Law for Simple Impedance Relay Using Universal ‘Torque Equation 123 TA 6.3.2 Implementation of Simple Impedance Relay Using Balanced 75 Beam Structure 124 Performance of Simple Impedance Relay During Normal Load Flow 126 Biffect of Arc Resistance on Reach of Simple Impedance Relay 126 6.35 Directional Property Exhibited by Simple Impedance Relay 127 6.3.6 Performance of Simple Impedance Relay During Power Swing 127 7.6 6.4 Reaetance Relay 129 Revie ‘Trip Law for Reactance Relay Using Universal Torque Equation 129 Implementation of Reactance Relay Using the Induction 8G Cup Structure 131 ae Performance of Reactance Relay During Normal Load Flow 131 aa Effect of Are Resistance on Reach of Reactance Relay 132 ae Directional Property Exhibited by Reactance Relay 233 7 Performance of Reactance Relay During Power Swing 134 65 Relay 134 ‘Trip Law for Mho Relay Using Universal Torque Equation 134 a 5.2 Implementation of Mho Relay Using Induction Cup Structure 135 ne 3 Performance of Mho Relay During Normal Load Flow 135 65.4 Effect of Arc Resistance on Mho Relay Reach 136 6.5.5 Directional Property Exhibited hy Mho Relay 137 6.5.6 Performance of Mho Relay During Power Swing 138 6.6 Comparison Between Distance Relays 139 6.7 Distance Protection of a ‘Three-phase Line 139 : 6.7.1 Phase Faults 141 Rem 6.7.2 Ground Faults 142 6.7.3 Complete Protection of a Three-phase Line 1446.8 69 6.10 6.1 612 6.13 Concents vii Reasons for Inaccuracy of Distance Relay Reach 145 Three-stepped Distance Pratection 146 691 First Step 746 692 Second Step 146 698 Third Step 147 ‘Trip Contact: Configuration for the Three-stepped Distance Protection 149 ‘Three-stepped Protection of Three-phase Line against All Ten Shunt Faults 150 Impedance Seen from Relay Side 150 Three-stepped Protection of Double-end-fed Lines 1517 Review Questions 152 7 CARRIER-AIDED PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES 153-167 a 1 13. TA 45 16 Need for Catrier-aided Protection 153 Various Options for a Carrier 155 Coupling and Trapping the Carrier into the Desited Line Section 155 78.1 Single Line-to-ground Coupling 157 73.2 Line-to-line Coupling 157 Unit Type Carrier-aided Directional Comparison Relaying 158 Carrier-aided Distance Schemes for Acceleration of Zone II 160 7.5.1 Transfer Trip or Inter-trip 160 715.2 Permissive Inter-teip 161 75.8 Acceleration of Zone I 162 754 Pre-acceleration of Zone Hl 167 Phase Comparison Relaying (Unit Scheme) 163 Review Questions 167 8 GENERATOR PROTECTION 168-183 Review Questions 183 Introduction 168 Electrical Cireuit of the Generator 169 Various Faults and Abnormal Operating Conditions 172 8.3.1 Stator Faults 173 83.2 Stator Phase and Ground Faults. 173 6.3 Transverse Differential Protection 174 Rotor Faults 175 Abnormal Operating Conditions 176 85.1 Unbalanced Loading 176 8.5.2 Over-speeding 178 8.5.3 Loss of Excitation 179 8.6.4 Protection Against Loss of Excitation Using Offset Mho Relay 180 8.5.5 Loss of Prime Mover 181