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Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Responses

The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system maintains internal organ
homeostasis and initiates the stress response.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe the sympathetic responses of the autonomic nervous system

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The fibers from the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) innervate the tissues in
almost every organ system.
 The SNS is best known for mediating the neuronal and hormonal response to
stress known as the fight-or-flight response, also known as sympatho-adrenal
response.
 The catecholamine hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline are secreted by
the adrenal medulla and facilitate physical activity and mobilize the body to
respond to threatening environments.
 The primary neurotransmitter of SNS postganglionic fibers is noradrenaline,
also called norepinephrine.

Key Terms

 sympathetic nervous system (SNS): One of the three parts of the autonomic
nervous system, along with the enteric and parasympathetic systems. Its
general action is to mobilize the body’s nervous system fight-or-flight response;
it is also constantly active at a basal level to maintain homeostasis.
 sympatho-adrenal response: Also called the fight-or-flight response, this
activates the secretion of adrenaline (epinephrine) and, to a lesser extent,
noradrenaline (norepinephrine).
 stress response: This halts or slows down various processes, such as sexual
responses and digestive systems, to focus on the stressor situation; this
usually causes negative effects like constipation, anorexia, difficulty urinating,
and difficulty maintaining sexual arousal.

EXAMPLES
Physiological changes induced by the sympathetic nervous system include accelerating the
heart rate, widening bronchial passages, decreasing motility of the large intestine, dilating
the pupils, and causing perspiration.

Sympathetic Nervous System Physiology

Alongside the other two components of the autonomic nervous system, the
sympathetic nervous system aids in the control of most of the body’s internal organs.
Stress—as in the hyperarousal of the flight-or-fight response—is thought to
counteract the parasympathetic system, which generally works to promote
maintenance of the body at rest.

Sympathetic nervous system: The sympathetic nervous system extends from the thoracic to lumbar
vertebrae and has connections with the thoracic, abdominal aortic, and pelvic plexuses.

The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for regulating many homeostatic

mechanisms in living organisms. Fibers from the SNS innervate tissues in almost
every organ system and provide physiological regulation over diverse body
processes including pupil diameter, gut motility (movement), and urinary output.
The SNS is perhaps best known for mediating the neuronal and hormonal stress
response commonly known as the fight-or-flight response, also known as sympatho-
adrenal response of the body. This occurs as the preganglionic sympathetic fibers
that end in the adrenal medulla secrete acetylcholine, which activates the secretion
of adrenaline (epinephrine), and to a lesser extent noradrenaline (norepinephrine).

Therefore, this response is mediated directly via impulses transmitted through the
sympathetic nervous system, and also indirectly via catecholamines that are
secreted from the adrenal medulla, and acts primarily on the cardiovascular system.

Messages travel through the SNS in a bidirectional flow. Efferent messages can
trigger simultaneous changes in different parts of the body.

For example, the sympathetic nervous system can accelerate heart rate, widen
bronchial passages, decrease motility of the large intestine, constrict blood vessels,
increase peristalsis in the esophagus, cause pupillary dilation, piloerection (goose
bumps) and perspiration (sweating), and raise blood pressure.

Afferent messages carry sensations such as heat, cold, or pain. Some evolutionary
theorists suggest that the sympathetic nervous system operated in early organisms
to maintain survival since the sympathetic nervous system is responsible for priming
the body for action. One example of this priming is in the moments before waking, in
which sympathetic outflow spontaneously increases in preparation for activity.

The Fight-or-Flight Response

The fight-or-flight response was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon. His
theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the
sympathetic nervous system, priming the animal for fighting or fleeing. This response
was later recognized as the first stage of a general adaptation syndrome that
regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.

Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline or noradrenaline, facilitate the

immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular
action. These include the following:

 Acceleration of heart and lung action.

 Paling or flushing, or alternating between both.
 Inhibition of stomach and upper-intestinal action to the point where digestion
slows down or stops.
 General effect on the sphincters of the body.
 Constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body.
 Liberation of nutrients (particularly fat and glucose) for muscular action.
 Dilation of blood vessels for muscles.
 Inhibition of the lacrimal gland (responsible for tear production) and salivation.
 Dilation of pupil (mydriasis).
  Relaxation of bladder.
 Inhibition of erection.
 Auditory exclusion (loss of hearing).
 Tunnel vision (loss of peripheral vision).
 Disinhibition of spinal reflexes; and shaking.

In prehistoric times, the human fight-or-flight response manifested fight as

aggressive, combative behavior and flight as fleeing potentially threatening
situations, such as being confronted by a predator.

In current times, these responses persist, but fight-and-flight responses have

assumed a wider range of behaviors. For example, the fight response may be
manifested in angry, argumentative behavior, and the flight response may be
manifested through social withdrawal, substance abuse, and even television viewing.

Males and females tend to deal with stressful situations differently. Males are more
likely to respond to an emergency situation with aggression (fight), while females are
more likely to flee (flight), turn to others for help, or attempt to defuse the situation
(tend and befriend). During stressful times, a mother is especially likely to show
protective responses toward her offspring and affiliate with others for shared social
responses to threats.

Parasympathetic Responses

The parasympathetic nervous system regulates organ and gland functions during
rest and is considered a slowly activated, dampening system.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe the parasympathetic responses of the autonomic nervous system

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Body functions stimulated by the parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS)

include sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion, and
defecation.
 The PSNS primarily uses acetylcholine as its neurotransmitter.
 Peptides (such as cholecystokinin) may also act on the PSNS as
neurotransmitters.

Key Terms
  acetylcholine: An organic, polyatomic cation (often abbreviated ACh) that acts
as a neurotransmitter in both the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central
nervous system (CNS) in many organisms, including humans.
 parasympathetic nervous system: One of the divisions of the autonomic
nervous system, based between the brain and the spinal cord, that slows the
heart and relaxes muscles.
 lacrimation: Shedding tears; crying.

The Parasympathetic Nervous System

Nerve innervation of the autonomic nervous system: The parasympathetic nervous system, shown in
blue, is a division of the autonomic nervous system.

The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS, or occasionally PNS) is one of the two
main divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The autonomic nervous
system (ANS, or visceral nervous system, or involuntary nervous system) is the part
of the peripheral nervous system that acts as a control system, functioning largely
below the level of consciousness and controlling visceral functions.

The ANS is responsible for regulating the internal organs and glands, which occurs
unconsciously. Its roles include stimulation of rest-and-digest activities that occur
when the body is at rest, including sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation (tears),
urination, digestion, and defecation.

Its action is described as being complementary to that of one of the other main
branches of the ANS, the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for
stimulating activities associated with the fight-or-flight response.

The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to

each other. This natural opposition is better understood as complementary in nature
rather than antagonistic.

The sympathetic nervous system can be considered a quick response, mobilizing

system; and the parasympathetic system is a more slowly activated, dampening
system.

Parasympathetic Nervous System Functions

A useful acronym to summarize the functions of the parasympathetic nervous

system is SLUDD (salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion, and defecation). The
parasympathetic nervous system may also be known as the parasympathetic
division.

The parasympathetic nervous system uses chiefly acetylcholine (ACh) as its

neurotransmitter, although peptides (such as cholecystokinin) may act on the PSNS
as neurotransmitters. The ACh acts on two types of receptors, the muscarinic and
nicotinic cholinergic receptors.

Most transmission occurs in two stages. When stimulated, the preganglionic nerve
releases ACh at the ganglion, which acts on nicotinic receptors of the postganglionic
neurons. The postganglionic nerve then releases ACh to stimulate the muscarinic
receptors of the target organ.
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: Two different subtypes of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors with alpha
and beta subunits are shown. The acetylcholine binding sites are indicated by ACh.

Autonomic Interactions

The sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic nervous systems cooperatively

modulate internal physiology to maintain homeostasis.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe the interactions between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the
autonomic nervous system

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition

to each other, with one division exciting, triggering, or activating a response
that is countered by the alternate system, which serves to relax, decrease, or
negatively modulate a process.
 The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick
responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not
require immediate reaction. The sympathetic division initiates the fight-or-flight
response and the parasympathetic initiates the rest-and-digest or feed-and-
breed responses.
 The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are important for
modulating many vital functions, including respiration and cardiac contractility.
For example, the activities of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic
systems maintains adequate blood pressure, vagal tone, and heart rate.

Key Terms
  feed-and-breed: The parasympathetic nervous system is often colloquially
described as the feed-and-breed or rest-and-digest portion of the autonomic
nervous system.
 fight or flight: All the coordinated physiological responses that the
sympathetic nervous system initiates in response to stress or other emergency
situations.
 vital function: A measure of various physiological states that life depends on,
such as recording body temperature, pulse rate (or heart rate), blood pressure,
and respiratory rate.

EXAMPLES

Some processes that are modulated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems but
that are not easily labeled as fight or rest include the maintenance of blood pressure when
standing and the maintenance of regular heart rhythms.

Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each

other. However, this opposition is better termed complementary in nature rather than
antagonistic. For an analogy, one may think of the sympathetic division as the
accelerator and the parasympathetic division as the brake.

The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The
parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate
reaction. Consider sympathetic as fight or flight and parasympathetic as rest and
digest or feed and breed.
The subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system: In the autonomic nervous system, preganglionic
neurons connect the CNS to the ganglion.

However, many instances of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity cannot be

ascribed to fight or rest situations. For example, standing up from a reclining or
sitting position would entail an unsustainable drop in blood pressure if not for a
compensatory increase in the arterial sympathetic tonus.

Another example is the constant, second-to-second modulation of heart rate by

sympathetic and parasympathetic influences, as a function of the respiratory cycles.
More generally, these two systems should be seen as permanently modulating vital
functions, usually in an antagonistic fashion, to achieve homeostasis. Some typical
actions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are listed below.
The SNS promotes a fight-or-flight response, corresponds with arousal and energy
generation, and performs the following functions:

 Inhibits digestion.
 Diverts blood flow away from the gastro-intestinal (GI) tract and skin via
vasoconstriction.
 Blood flow to skeletal muscles and the lungs is enhanced (by as much as
1,200% in the case of skeletal muscles).
 Dilates bronchioles of the lung, which allows for greater alveolar oxygen
exchange.
 Increases heart rate and the contractility of cardiac cells (myocytes), thereby
providing a mechanism for the enhanced blood flow to skeletal muscles.
 Dilates pupils and relaxes the ciliary muscle to the lens, allowing more light to
enter the eye and far vision.
 Provides vasodilation for the coronary vessels of the heart.
 Constricts all the intestinal sphincters and the urinary sphincter.
 Inhibits peristalsis.
 Stimulates orgasm.

Conversely, the PSNS promotes a rest-and-digest response, and promotes the

following functions:

 Dilates blood vessels leading to the GI tract, increasing blood flow.

 Constricts the bronchiolar diameter when the need for oxygen has diminished.
 Causes constriction of the pupil and contraction of the ciliary muscle to the
lens, allowing for closer vision.
 Stimulates salivary gland secretion, and accelerates peristalsis.
 Stimulates sexual arousal.