Materials Selection in Engineering

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 Materials Selection and Design
•  Material Selection is Design-led
•  Properties of a new material can suggest the
new product
–  Transistor: High-purity silicon
–  Optical Fiber: High-purity glass
•  Need for a new product can
Optical Fiber
demand the development of a new
material
–  Turbine Technology:High-
Temperature Alloys,Ceramics
–  Space Technology: Lightweight
The solar-powered Pathfinder in flight
Composites 2
 Mechanical Design

•  Deals with function and physical principles

–  Components must
•  Carry Loads
•  Conduct Heat and Electricity
•  Exposed to Wear and Corrosion
•  Must be Manufactured
•  ..........
•  Limited by Materials

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 Engineering Materials
Steels
Cast irons
Al-alloys
•  Successful
Metals, alloys
Cu-alloys
design exploits
Ni-alloys
Ti-alloys
and brings out
Alumina
PE, PP, PC
PS, PET, PVC the true
PA (Nylon)
Si-carbide
Polymers potential of
Ceramics Composites
Si-nitride Sandwiches
Polyester
Phenolic materials
Ziconia
Hybrids Epoxy
Lattices selected.
Segmented
•  The goal is to
Soda glass
Borosilicate
Isoprene
Butyl rubber
meet a certain
Glasses Elastomers
Natural rubber
profile of
Silica glass
Glass ceramic Silicones
EVA
properties
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 Design-Limiting Material Properties
•  General: •  Thermal
–  Cost –  Thermal Conductivity
–  Density –  Thermal Diffusivity
•  Mechanical –  Specific Heat
–  Elastic Moduli –  Melting Point
–  Strength –  Glass Temperature
–  Toughness –  Thermal Expansion
–  Fracture Toughness Coefficient
–  Damping Capacity –  Thermal Shock
Resistance
–  Fatigue Endurance
Limit –  Creep Resistance
•  Wear •  Corrosion/Oxidation
–  Archard Wear –  Corrosion Rate
Constant –  Parabolic Rate 5
Constant
 Menu of Materials /1
•  Metals •  Ceramics/Glasses
–  High Moduli –  High Moduli, Hard,
–  Can undergo Abrasion/Corrosion
•  Alloying, Heat resistant
Treatment – Cutting Tools
–  Formed by –  Retain Strength at
Deformation High Temperature
–  Ductile –  Brittle
•  Yields before fracture –  Prey to high contact
–  Prey to Fatigue, stresses, low
Corrosion tolerance for cracks

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 Menu of Materials /2
•  Polymers and Elastomers •  Composites
–  Low Moduli, High –  High Moduli,
Strength Strength,
•  High Elastic Deflection Lightweight
– Snap fits –  Can be Tough
–  Corrosion Resistant –  Optimal
–  Easy to Shape performance at
–  Minimize Finishing room temperature
Operations –  Expensive
–  Temperature –  Difficult to Form/
Dependent Properties Join

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 Selection of Materials:
Materials Selection Charts
•  Combinations of properties are important in
evaluating usefulness of materials.
–  Strength to Weight Ratio: σf/ρ
–  Stiffness to Weight Ratio: E/ρ
•  Helpful to plot one property against another
•  Following charts useful in performance-
optimization

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Simplified Modulus vs. Density Chart

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Modulus vs. Density Chart

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Thermal properties
 Material Indices
•  A method is necessary for translating design
requirements into a prescription for a material
•  Function: what does the component do?
•  Objective: what is to be maximized or minimized?
•  Constraints: what non-negotiable conditions must be
met? what negotiable but desiderable conditions..?
•  Material Index
–  Combination of material properties which characterize
performance in a given application
–  Combination of material properties which, when
maximized, maximize some aspects of performance

i E1/2/ρ i Light stiff beam

i σ2f / E i Springs
i Light column in
i σf /ρ
compression
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 Materials Selection Steps
l  Materials selection has 4 basic steps
-  Step 1 Translation: express design requirements as
constraints & objectives

-  Step 2 Screening: eliminate materials that cannot do

the job

-  Step 3 Ranking: find the materials that do the job

best

-  Step 4 Supporting information: explore pedigrees of

top-ranked candidates
 Step 1: Translation
Translation: “express design requirements as constraints and objectives”
Design requirements

Analyse:
Function What does the component do ?

Constraints What essential conditions must be met ?

Objectives What is to be maximized or minimized ?

Free variables Which design variables are free ?

Terminology
l  A “solution” is a material choice that meets all the constraints
 Translation Example
Translation: “express design requirements
as constraints and objectives”
Example: Contain, protect CD

Design requirements Translation

l  Contain CD Function CD enclosure

Strength
l  Protect without scratching Constraints Toughness
Transparency
l Optically clear to allow label Minimze cost
to be read Objectives Minimize eco-impact

Must be cheap Choice of material

l  Free variable
and process
l  Eco-friendly?
 Example: Heat Sink for microchip
Translation: “express design requirements
as constraints and objectives”
What would you make it from?

What are the design requirements?

Design requirements Translation

Function Heat Sink

l  High thermal conductivity
Material must be a good
electrical insulator
l  Low electrical conductivity Constraints ρe>1019 µΩ.cm

l  Able to withstand ~200oC Objectives Maximize thermal

conductivity, λ
Free
Choice of material
variable
 Step 2: Screening
Screening: “eliminate materials that
can not do the job”

Function Heat sink

Constraints Retain materials with:

• operate at 200oC
1. Max service temp > 200 C
• be electrical insulator
2. “Good insulator”, or e > 1019 µohm.cm
• conduct heat well
3. “Good T-conductor” or T-conduct. λ > 100 W/m.K
Free variable Choice of material
 Screening using Bar Charts
(max service temperature >200oC)
WC
Max service temperature (K)

Steel

Copper Alumina
CFRP

PEEK
Glass 2000C
PP GFRP
Aluminium

PTFE
Zinc Fibreboard

Lead

Metals Polymers Ceramics

Composites
Screening using Material Property Charts
Screening usingρProperty
(λ>100W/m.K, e>1019µΩ.cm)Charts
ρe=1019

λ=10
0
 Ranking on a single property
Ranking: “find materials that do the job best”

Function Conductor for oh cable

•  Length L and section A are L

Constraints specified
•  Must not fail under wind load σ > 80 MPa
ts
requiring tensile strength
L
Objective •  Minimise electrical resistance R = ρe
A
Electrical resistivity
Free variables •  Material choice

Procedure: screen on strength, rank on

resistivity
 Material Indices and Performance
•  Combination of material properties which
characterize performance in a given application
•  Performance of a structural element:
⎡⎛ Functional ⎞ ⎛ Geometeric ⎞ ⎛ Material ⎞⎤
p = f ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟, ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟, ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥
⎣⎝ Needs, F ⎠ ⎝ Parameters, G ⎠ ⎝ Characteristics, M ⎠⎦

For OPTIMUM design: MAXIMIZE or MINIMIZE the functional P

Consider only the simplest cases where these factors form a

separable equation.
p = f1(F) f2(G) f3(M)

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 Simplification of Performance

•  Performance for all F and G is maximized by

maximizing f3 (M)
–  f3 (M): Material Index
–  f1 (F) f2(G) : Related to Structural Index
•  Each combination of function, objective, and
constraint leads to a material index.

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 Examples of Material Indices
Function, Objective, and Constraint Index

Tie, minimum weight, stiffness E/ρ

Beam, minimum weight, stiffness E1/2/ρ

Beam, minimum weight, strength σ2/3/ρ

Beam, minimum cost, stiffness E1/2/Cmρ Cm =cost/mass

Beam, minimum cost, strength σ2/3/Cmρ

Column, minimum cost, buckling load E1/2/Cmρ

Spring, minimum weight for given energy storageσYS2/Eρ

Thermal insulation, minimum cost, heat flux 1/(α Cmρ) α =thermal cond

Electromagnet, maximum field, temperature rise κ Cpρ κ =elec. cond

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Example: Calculation of Material Index for
a Light, Strong Tie
A = x-area
•  Function: cylindrical tie rod F
•  Objective: minimize the mass
•  Constraints: (a) length l specified; (b) support tensile
force F without failing
•  Objective Function
–  Mass (m) = Area (A) * Length (l) * Density ( ρ )

•  Goal: minimize ‘m’ by varying ‘A’

•  Constraint: A must be sufficient to carry tensile
load, F F
≤σ f
A
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 Example: Material Index
•  By eliminating ‘A’ from these equations we obtain

m ≥ F ⋅ l ⋅ (ρ σ f )
•  The lightest tie which will carry F safely is that made of the
material with the smallest value of
ρ σf
•  Therefore, the material index can be defined as
M =σ f ρ
•  A similar calculation for a light and stiff tie leads to the
index
M =E ρ

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Strength vs. Density Chart
For fixed M: log M = log σf – log ρ = constant = C

•  What are units of M=σf /ρ ?

•  For fixed M, look at

log σf = (1/1) log ρ + C

•  For fixed M, you look for

lines of slope = 1.

•  Along each line materials

have the same M values! But
NOT the same materials
properties (σf or ρ ) e.g. some
less dense (lighter).

M.F. Ashby. Materials Selection in Mechanical Design. Pp39 ©1999 26

 Strength vs. Density Chart
Maximizing
Best Choice
CFRP f/ρ

Increasing
f/ρ
Example: Calculation of Material Index for
a Light, Stiff Beam (trave)
F
b
•  Function: beam L b
•  Objective: minimize the mass δ=deflection
•  Constraints: (a) length l specified; (b) support bending
force F without deflecting too much
•  Objective Function
–  Mass (m) = Area (A) * Length (l) * Density (ρ)

•  Goal: minimize ‘m’ by varying ‘A’

•  Constraint (bending stiffness):
1/ 2
C1EI
F M =E ρ
S= ≥ 3 I=
b 4
=
A 2

δ l 12 12 28
Young’s Modulus vs. Density Chart

Best Choice
CFRP, wood
And ceramics

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Example: Calculation of Material Index for
a Cheap, Stiff Column Radius, r

•  Function: column Buckle

deflection
•  Objective: minimize the cost d L
•  Constraints: (a) length l specified; (b) support
compressive load F without buckling
•  Objective Function
C = AlρCm
•  Goal: minimize ‘C’ by varying ‘A’
•  Constraint: 1/ 2
nπ 2EI M =E Cm ρ
F ≤ Fcr = πr 2A2
l2 I=
4
=
4π 30
Young’s Modulus vs. Relative Cost Chart

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Procedure for Deriving Material Indices
1.  Define the design requirements:
(a) function; (b) objective; (c) constraints
2.  Develop an equation for the objective in terms of the functional
requirements, the geometry and the material properties (the
objective function)
3.  Identify the free (unspecified) variables
4.  Develop equations for the constraints (no yield; no fracture; no
buckling;...)
5.  Substitute for the free variables from the constrain equations into
the objective function
6.  Group the variables intro three groups: functional requirements, F;
geometry, G; and material properties, M
Performance characteristic ≤ ≥ f1(F)f2(G)f3(M)
7. Read off the material index, expressed as a quantity M, which
optimizes the performance characteristic
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 Material “indices”
Function has a
FUNCTION Each combination of Constraint characterising
Objective material index
Tie
Free variable
CONSTRAINTS
Minimise this!
Beam
Stiffness OBJECTIVE
specified
Minimum cost
Shaft IINDEX
Strength NDEX
specified Minimum
⎡ ρ ⎤
Column weight = ⎢= ⎡⎢1/ ρ2 ⎥⎤⎥
MM
Fatigue limit ⎣E⎢ σ y⎦⎥
⎣ ⎦
Maximum energy
Geometry storage
specified Minimise this!
Mechanical, Minimum
Thermal, eco- impact
Electrical...
 Case Study: Oars
Function: light, stiff beam
Objective: minimize the mass
Constraint: (a) length l specified
(b) Bending stiffness S specified
(c) Toughness G>1kJ/m2
(d) Cost Cm<$100/kg
M = E 1/ 2 ρ

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Selection of
materials with high
values of M=E1/2/ρ
Contours of
constant E1/2/ρ
appear as a family
of lines of slope 2

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 Case Study: Precision Instruments
Function: force loop (frame) for
precision device
Objective: maximize positional
accuracy (minimize distortion)
Constraint: (a) must tolerate heat flux
(b) must tolerate vibration

dT dε αdT ⎛ α ⎞
q = −λ = = ⎜ ⎟q
dx dx dx ⎝λ⎠
ε = α (T0 − T ) λ
E 1/ 2 M1 =
M2 = α
ρ

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37
Case Study: Precision Instruments

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 Case Study: Torsionally Stressed Shaft

•  Function: torsion element

•  Objective: minimize the mass
•  Constraints: (a) length l specified; (b)
support twist moment
•  Objective Function
–  Mass (m) = Area (A) * Length (l) *
Density (ρ)
m = ρπR2 L
2
τf / 3
•  Goal: minimize ‘m’ by varying ‘A’
•  Constraint: τ f 2M t
M=
= ρ
€ 3
S πR 39
 Strength vs. Density Chart

τ 2 /3
M= ρ ⇒
100
log τ = 3/2 log ρ
30
+ 3/2 logM
10

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 Additional Constraints

•  Additional constraints
may be added, such as
strength having minimum
value, e.g., σf > 300 GPa

•  Seach area is then limited

to the area in plot above all
lines (if maximizing)

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 Cost Factor
Considering mass

Maximize:
M = τ2/3/ρ

CRFP are best!

Considering M = τ2/3/Cmρ
(Cost/mass)*mass
22x10–3
Maximize: 13x10–3
M = τ2/3/Cmρ 11x10–3
9x10–3
4340 Steel is best! 1x10–3

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Details: Strong, Light Torsion Members
τ2/3
f
• Maximize the Performance Index: P=
ρ
• Other factors:
--require σf > 300MPa.
--Rule out ceramics and glasses: KIc too small.
• Numerical Data:
material ρ (Mg/m3) τf (MPa) P (MPa)2/3m3/Mg)
CFRE (vf=0.65) 1.5 1140 73
GFRE (vf=0.65) 2.0 1060 52
Al alloy (2024-T6) 2.8 300 16
Ti alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) 4.4 525 15
4340 steel (oil 7.8 780 11
quench & temper)

• Lightest: Carbon fiber reinf. epoxy

(CFRE) member.

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Details: Strong, Low-Cost Torsion Members
• Minimize Cost: Cost Index ~ m$ ~ $/M (since m ~ 1/M)
• Numerical Data:
material M (MPa)2/3m3/Mg) $ ($/M)x100
CFRE (vf=0.65) 73 80 112
GFRE (vf=0.65) 52 40 76
Al alloy (2024-T6) 16 15 93
Ti alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) 15 110 748
4340 steel (oil 11 5 46
quench & temper)

• Lowest cost: 4340 steel (oil quench & temper)

• Need to consider machining, joining costs also.

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 Case Study: Safe Pressure Vessel
Design requirements σ = pR/t
Function: contain pressure, p
Objective: maximum safety R 2a
p
Constraints: (a) must yield before break
(b) must leak before break
(c) t small: reduces mass and cost
t
t
pR
σ =
Stress required to make the CK IC 2t
crack propagate σ=
(for small pressure vessels that πac
can be efficiently checked)

Leak-before-fail criterion CKIC

(for large pressure vessels that
σ=
cannot be efficiently checked) πt
2
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Fracture Toughness vs.Strength Density Chart

Steels
Cu-alloys
Al-alloys

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 Other Materials Selection Charts
•  Modulus-Relative Cost •  Facture Toughness-
•  Strength-Relative Density
Cost Modulus- •  Conductivity-
Strength Diffusivity
•  Specific Modulus- •  Expansion-
Specific Strength Conductivity
•  Fracture Toughness- •  Expansion-Modulus
Modulus •  Strength-Expansion
•  Fracture Toughness- •  Strength Temperature
Strength •  Wear Rate-Hardness
•  Loss Coefficient- •  Environmental Attack
Modulus Chart
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 Failure
•  Can be of many types
–  Wearout
–  Fracture Pipeline Failure
–  Corrosion
•  Important to be aware of appropriate
repair methods available
•  Failure mode can be anticipated based
on material type
Environmental Attack Chart

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 Costs
• Current Prices on the web: TRENDS
-Short term: fluctuations due to supply/demand.
-Long term: prices increase as deposits are depleted.

• Materials require energy to process them:

- Energy to produce - Cost of energy used in
materials [GJ/ton] processing materials [$/GJ]
Al 237 (17) elect resistance 25
PET 103 (13) propane 11
Cu 97 (20) natural gas 9
steel 20 oil 8
glass 13
paper 9
Recycling indicated in green

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Relative Costs of Materials

$/kg
$=
($/kg)ref material

• Reference material:
-Rolled A36 carbon steel.

• Relative cost fluctuates less

than actual cost over time.

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