ent r

Is There A Philippine Public Administrati t tt

nal i:
ked 1

ing t
define
ONor.RE D. COP"PIJZ* purpos
lves?
:and the
Philippine public administration is shaped by three major institu-
tions: education, politics and govemment. Beiigyteak in history and science,
the educational system fostered distorted se.nse of values that considers pre- T}
cision and quality as a nuisance and ignores the lessons of the past. Politics people
ond government is best descibed as rule of the elite few and even with the
introduction of American-styled governance, did not significantly evolve would j

through the years to chonge the social order existent since the Spanish natter
regime. unboun
expecta
There has been a rightful discussion on the role of government because this situ
government occupies an important part of life. But there is another equallli tably fa
important aspect of life that distinggished human beings from citizens, that
has to be preserved beyond public authority. One must think both of the Is
role of government and the scope of that role, so that one will know the ti on off
scope of one's life that remains his private dominion, inviolable from public pr itic
poli ics,
s,

invasion. n nyIo_
man c_

After the role of government has been defined, how does this impinge
upon the private rights in society, upon the rights of its members as private
persons? This is the moral question. It goes with a pragmatic question: How
much can government effectively accomplish, having in mind its financial iic
:atic
Ed rca
and manpower resources? These questions must be asked not only to estab-
lish the propriety of government action, but also to establish the efficacy of rii
Phi
P
government activity. One cannot even begin to didcuss the financing of w
row
Uell hc
govemment, except futilely, before the scope of proper government activity faileedItobo
have been defined. pro vidldes
9S

worrld;t; irit
d;
One is yet to hear of any seminar among Filipinos on the role of gov- winrdo owt
lo' nrs
ernment that did not end with the conclusion that this is good, therefore the
government must do it; and this is bad, therefore the government must do But
sombthing about it; or this is being done in some foreign country, then the that his 1
government must do it too; and so all these things must be put together, and kind; its
make sure nothing is left out because the government should do everything by name
that is good. tenths oI
In times of economic hardship, it is tempting to assuage the people's among F
anxieties through expanded government action. The Revolutionary Govern- provide i
fiscal yei
rnay estE
*Senior Consultant, Development Academy of the Philippines. bureaus \

368 ,1gg6
 'THERE A PHILIPPINE PUBLIC EOMINISTRATION? 869

ent has pro.bably fueled escalating popular expectations. It is unfortqnate

at the Constitutional Commission includes persons who do not pay per-
nal income ta:res for the support of our Republic. These persons have not
Lsked themselves: is it the government's role to attain for the people every-
ing that it thinks is good for them? And, is it not right that the people
define their good for themselves, and that the governmeut governs for the
ipurpose of enabling them to attain as much of that go'od for and by them-
,6elves? If the latter, then the government can focus its efforts on the poor
tior ins tittt- d the unfortunate who cannot adequately attain the good by themselves.
and sctenc€, , ,

'nsiders pre- There is an expressed apprehension for the government and for the
'ost. Politics people if the ConCom draft constitution were to be ratified; the people
en with the
fuould have been asked to authorize what amounts to a blank check in the
rt tly evolve
'he .Spanlsft
inatte.r of the scope of what the govemment should do; the government's
trnbounded obligations would be faced with the people's own unbounded
expectations, and both government and people will be deeply frustrated. In
'n**_'-,ilt bgcauge this situation the present goverriment and its successor will surely and inevi-
inother equally tably fail.
n citizens, thst
rk both of the
will know tlre
rle from public

's this irnpinge

bers as privete
luestion: How
I its financiel Dducation
only to erhb'
he efficacy of
Philippine education is weakest in history and science. _History would
f' ',ncing, of
lell how the ancestors fared; it is the story of how the people became or
rrn*./t actitdty failed to become what they wanted to be; it is the door to the past. Science
lBrovides the understanding of the nature and workings of the physical
,world; it tells what is physically possible; it is one of mankind's principal
e role of'Sott
indows to the future.
thereforc ths'
nent mugt do:
But there is still no Filipino histories. As late as L982, Marcos claimed
rtry, then the
together, ind,,
this Tadharu was the h:story of the Filipinos; it is in fact nothing of the
Co everyfrilng,
ind; its protagonists are foreigners; ninety percent of the people it mentions
by name are Spaniards, despite the fact that they were no more than two-
tenths of one percent of the native population. The lack of a sense of history
ong Filipinos is fateful. The school system is occasionally expected .to
tovide a brand new sense of values in the youth not later than the next
cal year. In the civil service, there is only a fuzzy s€nse of nationhood; one
lnay establish a US Statehood Movement chapter in most of government
ureaus without being thought un-Filipino.

986
 PHILIPPINE dOURNAL OF

Great progress has been achieived in the craft of influencing mass nde
iences via the media nowadays, more in the field of illusion and i unl
rather than of news and reality. The new Philippine Airlines (PAL) de
tising pitch is that the Philippines is "a country of a million heroes." Thisl comr
a current indication of inhospitality towards science and technology - titi
field of fact and reality. Many seem to believe that standards of precisio
and quality are a nuisance. The government pays,"no attention to the B
of Standards; it is the most neglected bureau in the Republic; local consu.i ep
nnc
iThis
"politi
world because even elementary gtade tebchers, are called professors. It is
the same reason for the admittance of having many intellectuals in the
country; the title is not denied to people who do not understand philosophy. ,Can Ct

perioc
Politics 00
"L7

The existing politics is that which is described in western modern 'J

terms. It is in fact essentially a direct evolution, little changes from centuries combj
back, from Spanish colonial experience. The Spanish regime made Christians, tury.
not citizens, of the forefathers who were not then Muslims. The people were the p(
depived of any meaningful experience in the politics of civil government. social
The .members of the principals who were named gobemadorcillos of the politic
pueblos were merely figureheads of the friar curates. A hundred proofs of come
this can be provided. From the seventeenth to the late nineteenth century it 'gives t
was noted that members of the principalia were spending money to avoid 'relatio
being named gobernadorcillos - service then was compulsory. is that
'cians \
Nevertheless, the principalia or local upper class developed a politics of admira
its own outside the politics of civil government. This was the ilolitics of the ,been a
pueblo religious fiesta. The leading pueblo families vied with each other for
the post of hermano mayor, the sponsor and presiding officer of the celebra. Gouert
tions. This post, entailed effort and personal expenditures for a few weeks,
but it was capped by a few days of personal glory, without abuse from the M
Spanish curate. were e
books
The development of the politics of the principalia and the fiesta was ended,
crucial. However ill construed in its essence at times, and however complex house;
in its manifestations most of the time, the politics of civil government is would
always elevated by a higher objective, the well being of the community. 'eertific
Moreover, the means employed in this process are normally subjected to nistrati
community standards.
Bt
sular g(
It was very different with the politics of the fiesta. The end or goal in
this process was simply that one prevailed over his opponents; success meant a color
coaling
the attainment of personal ambition and the advancement of family interests.
colonia
This end was entirely private and had nothing to do with the common weal.
October 986
 THERE A PHILIPPINE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION? 371
ADMINI

rencing mass eu nder the circumstances there was no need to justify these ends to the com-
lusion and im unity. Freed of this obligation, the upper class of pueblo society was free
ines (PAL) ad Lo devise and employ its chosen means to success, and there-were no formal
'n heroes." This community processes for enforcing proper and improper conduct in this
technolory tr ; politics.
lards of precision
ion to the BureaU'* , As for the'people, they again were kept out of fiesta politics beciuse
rblic; local consu. trhe post of hermano mayor was not public. It was contested only by the
:d quality control',i principalia, the final choice yvas arranged, often in private, with the curate.
This old potitics of the fiesta seenis to be the leitmotif even today, in the
litics of our civil government.

;ellectuals in the i The pueblo elites became the basis of Philippine politics into the Ameri-
tand philosophy, n,can colonial period. The old political ethics did not die away over the brief
i,period 1900 -L946, because it had served the pueblo upper class from before
1700 until the end of the nineteenth century.

wbsd'ern modern The old and the new political ethics have become one, a syncrisis or a
)sfrom centuries lcombination of often contradictory eiements, since the beginning of the cen-
made Christians, t tury. The victorious elites affirm the triumph of democracy, the victory of
The people were $ ttr" people; and the latter listen to finely crafted speeches on nationalism,
ivil government, social justice, and the popular welfare. But the archetypal lider in Filipino
dorcillos of the ,politics is still he who gets the most jobs for his followers, increases-his in-
:come when his faction is in power (while paying less in income taxes), and
ndred proofs of
eenth century it gives the most help in various forms to his followers' families. This is the
money to avoid relationship between a Mafia don and his "soldiers." What is Filipino in this
,is that, the rewards distributed by politicians are public resources; the politi
cians who are out of power regard their counterparts in power with envy and
)ed a politics of iadmiration, and no practitioner of this highly developed Filipino art has even
e politics of the been accused of anything but success.
r e^qh other for
' \_-/he celebra- Gouernment
rf a few weeks,
abuse from the f Modern governrnent arrived just before the century. The Americans
iwere efficient in their way. Each item of equipment from tables to tools to
ibooks was assigned an official service life. Every year, as this service life
the fiesta wag iended, the corresponding items of equipment were piled high by the school-
wever complex house; the property officer, the auditor, the town officials, and the public
government is iwould gravely watch; the condemned equipmenf, was bumed, and official
re community. $certifications to this effect were made. There was quality in the public admi-
y subjected to jrnistration in those days; There was little or no pilfering of office property.

But govemment under the Americans was the first and the last procon-
end or goal in Sular government. It was limited and was meant to govern the Philippines as
success meant :a colony and to maintain the US presence in the Far East in the form of
rmily interests. $coaling stations and naval bases. The limited nature of.government under the
common weal. olonial regime is illustrated in the scheme of responsibilities for operating

October 986
 /fiost important socia program: vo6ational schools andi-,highg ,Jec
were funded and nrn by the national,,government; general high +l

the provincial governrnents; and elem€rrtary schools (there was qx t

subsidy for Grades 5-7) by the municipal governments. ... dr
der
Whatever it did not do for the masses, the colonial regime did no cia
turb the social fabric. Filipino society continued with the old principa mea
ilustrado families on top, and the common people or tao made up the
The Americans thought in good faith that they had established a woi T
democracy; after all they had instituted popular elections (this was, er tl
nally restricted to males; there were also age, literacy, and property q a
cations). In fact the new system became merely an overlay for the old on's I
tem of local elites and their personal conceptions of ends and means that
taken over the new politics of government. T,
of th,
with the establishment of autonomy in 1935, the Filipino notions'ot,$
ent (

politics and government asserted themselves. The pro'cess began with th ating
school system. The national government assumed total control over elem :l dbe
ary schooling, and for good measure, it shortened the grade school blic
y t ationl
from seven to six. The expansion of the national government has not stdp:1
ped since then; today it operates the largest number of state colleges and ore t
universities in the whole world relative to the country's resources, cement', isis h
olvin
factories, steel plants, commercial banks, a gambling casino, an oil refin
:
hat is
as well as all kinds of wondrous and exotic undertakings.
nclus
ilipint
With big government has come stifling and labyrinthine regulationiO".f
private business. 'In order to escape this, private businessrnen have to de In
"connections" with the regulators and the politicians. They pay the ecuti
through the nose. This is the clear origin of cronyism. There may n terpr
again be as big cronies as there were durihg the Marcos era, but unless pu ore ir
regulation of private enterprise is soon reduced, c:ohyism on a smaller lr unsa
could multiply a hundredfold. rougt
ief hr
It can then be appreciated now why, even in the best of times, pu irector
administration cannot perform well in all its varied roles. If it did well, ppeare
one project, the isolated success is hailed as a triumph. Cases in court drag I gnec
for.years, recently paved highways are cracking, the Gross National ProdU$jj onl
(GNP) is negative and the people's incomes are ravaged, public hospitals 4 on. Al
schools are run down. But then a new bridge or building project hap
be completed at long last; all else is forgotten, and the government is No
with success. mth
ere ar
Administrators deliberately focus the people's attention to these und
projects, they are state-of-the-art; they are visible and politically "sexy." times
government pours riesourees (mostly foreign loans) on these projects, af, dint
scant local funds are provided for epic inaugurations. There is a series of'
a

Oe
 iects on the drawing boards; the rounds of inaugural speeches hail the
ivent of Eilipino self'reliance and modernization; but now, last yea's pro'
iCr have been forgotten, and they have begun to deteriorate. As for the
drum govemment offices that service the masses of citizens,they languistl
der conditions of malicious and perverse neglect. Only'well organized
ciations of urban squatters, because they promise rich votes, receive
me attention during election years or in times of disaster.

The tremendous media resources that the national government has built
er the last two decades keep the situation under a steaming lid. Citizen
property q ation with government senrices is swamped by news of the administra-
for the old I on's latest plans and foreign loan negotiations.
i means that
The list goes on, but it must be clear by now that the Philippine case is
of the usual one. The institutions of education, civil politics, and govern-
pino riotions ent do not have a continuity with the past. They are young institutions
br r with ating back to no more than the beginning of the century. The government
rl o-ver element. been nrn independently for just the last four.decades, managing most of
le school Vearg:t ublic affairs in a language that is not native to the citizens. The period of
It has not st0f tionhood is. much shorter than the history of colonial'experience. The
ore thoughtful are unbasy about the lack of definition in self-image. The
isis had to be coped in this state fitting together the pieces of new and
volving life as best as possible. A good job have nQt been doire of it, but
hat is on hand can only reflect realrty, and therefore, the not so surprising
nclusion to make is that the existing public administration is faithfully
llipino.
In government offices, the comfort rooms stink. Tissue in the favored
xecutive toilets is pilfered. Office personnel and their spouses bring free
rere m8y nevgr: terprises into the 'offices, selling jewelry or clothes'or food to the staff.
rt unless pub ore important, supenrisors never rate any of their subordinates inefficient
r unsatisfactory - haawaawa naman As a result, misfits are weeded out not
rough the rating system, but via the disciplinary process - after some mis-
ief has been perpetrated. The old system of cabinet secretaries and bureau
,f times, public rs rewarding individual good performers with salary increases dis-
f it did well ppeared during the previous administration, so that ministries are no longer
1 court dmg o igned funds for staff promotions in their budgets. Good civil servants
rtional Product r only despe-rately resort to novenas or to political padrinos for recogni-
ion. All this is very Filipino.

No politicd party has ever stood for serious civil service reform. Aside
m this not being a politically exciting issue, the fact of the matter is that
ere are no political parties. What is there ane groupings and factions built
und a leader. In more politically mature countries, the m4iority parties
times of crisis change their go{ernment leaders, even their prime ministers,
d in this way often ride out the crisis. This is because the parties as organi,
tions are normally stronger than the individual leaders. This is not possible

986
in the Philippine pqlitical soene, because the faction's existenbe deB
on the goup but on the one-man leadership. And so, the poiitical
does not offer means for regarding the public administration system,
nically. The electorate have been conditioned to looking at the civil si
only in terms of graft and comrption charges against the party in
and not in terms of good recmitment, career development, technical
tise, and the other standards of modern public administration. 'RAUL

The civil service commission is now hadly anything but a national.

p
sonnel records office. Civil senrice tests have become useless as ins
for civil senrice development and improvement. Cheating and collusion c

notorious. One cannot cure the defects' of public administration by j e

t
repeating the naive formula that the civil service commission shall be a con*
titutional commission. All this is the fruit of political culture, which a
little room for regarding the civil service as the foundation of governm Public
,iaif.:
minist
The civil service is like the Pasig River which, in the bygone era, used a neec
be a pulsing and living artery of commerce and life. It will always be th
Ithe pt
whichever group of political leaders capture the government. Today, and k
Pasig is silted, dirty, and dead with the detritus of households and industry.r:
istudy?
.

The government grandly declares that they will plan and pyogram and,
bring about development, provide justice, prosperity, happiness, and sa.fety:;
for the people. It seems that if a government cannot keep its toilets clean o[ 'featurr
public
cleanse one dying river and bring it'to life, then it can neither govern w ,tics or
nor attain development for the people, except trrough accident. What runique
more certain is failure for a government that do not improve public adminis in othe
tration.
If
modek
elp e:
well
minded to can still pursue their illusions and interests hotrorably and wo ,
henor
ily in their private worlds, doors closed to ill conceived laws and mischievo ,teachir
regulations. But.how about those people who do not have the sanctuary
a tolerable private life? Presumably, it will take the space of at least T
generations to discipline and wisen people, in ord * to have a public a ,artalyzt
nistration that will not be an unforgiving mirror of frailties, but an image of i rcracy ,
higher ideals and virtues. at a a

prn(
me ii
bureau
,conten
learninr

*c
f Publir
 ".._r. rJ:. :. .......
., l*
ili/fine Jotcnal of A.dminispation, VoL XXX, No. 4'

rnc€ d€
olitical st
ron systetr
s There A Philippine-Public Administration?
the civil,'
party in ffir -(z',)
technical ex
UL P. DE GUZMAN*

Public Administration is discussed and defined from different pers'

pectives, i.e., as governmental buredtcracy and as a field of srudy, and con'
cludes that public administation is largely determined by the socio'cultutal,
nd collusion
economic, and political setting. However, it is'obsertted that public adminis'
istration by
tration as a science is yet to be realized.
rshall be a co
e, which affo
of governmsr - there is a Philippine Public Administration as there is American
Yes
Public Administration, French Public Administration and Thai Public Ad-
'or rra, used Hii fministration. But it is not enough to raiieand answer that question. There is
ia need to ask and answer other questions such as: what is the reference when
alMys be therc;: ithe phrase "public administration" is used? Is it to government in action
3nt. TodBV, thg,.,i 'and to the public bureaucracy? Or to public administration as a field of
- :11

ds and industry. study? Or to the profession of managing the affairs of government?

1d program and,i

public bureaucracies in other countries? What are the behavioral characteriy

,tics or patterns of behavior presumed to be bureaucratic which are, again,
iuniquely Filipino and which are similar to bureaucratic behavioral patterns
in other socio-cultural settings?

If the reference is to public administration as a freld of study, are there

models and analytical concepts which Filipino scholars have foruulated to
help explain the interrelated processes in politics and public administration
as well as to assist in unravelling the potentials.and complexities of these
ably and worEt henomena? Is there a body of literature in the field which could be used as
md mischievo ':.1..
teaching material?

This paper will attempt to answer these questions. It will describe and
analyze the structural and behavioral characteristics of the public bureau.
cracy in the country and determine whether some features are peculiarly
Filipino or are shared with other large public organizations. It will provide
i ome illustrative cases of patterns of bureaucratic behavior in the Philippine
bureaucracy. In the latter part of this paper, the changing emphasis in the
content of public administration as a field of study in institutions of higher
ing shall be described.

*Chancellor, University of the Philippines at Los Baios, aud hofessor, tIP College
f Public Administration.

375
 Wmt is hblic Administration?
rva
,by pr
'not b
toa
'gener

the public btueaucracy, the private sector, or in non-governmental T

tions aimed at delivering sendces to ttre people." group

persor
1'for fl
'hierar
tions
sociocultural, economic, ffid political factors bearing on them. It dealr As a (
the systematic study of institutions and processes and the be eff,
factors involved in authoritative decision.making on goals, in i
therp,. and in achieving desired results. Behau

v
buraur
Public Administration as Govenmental Bureaucracy associi
tions. t
Structural Features qion at

There arre sevefat generally accepted organizational features commonto c

all public btfteaucracies. These are: 1) hierarchical structure of authoritt6, Rober
2) creation of sub-units based on differentiation of functions or speci -;i from
tion; 8) recruitment and promotion based on merit and competence; and featurt
4) a system of rules and procedures to guide action in the organization. frustra

The bureaucracy in the Philippines, exhibits these structural

tics. The government is organized into ministries, bureaus, di th
sections and into regional field offices and local governments which are hlefi in rela

willing

T,
actual
also wl
flexibil
througi
,Tj
Lr
mentors, the rank-and-file and the general public. b
whereb
While the Philippine bureaucracy may have these structural divided
formally differentiated of specialized agencies, hierarchy of Congre'

986
 icruitment based on merit, and a body of rules and regUlations, the norms
r values appropriate to these new structures have not been fully accepted
!y public functionaries and the people in'general. The traditional values have
"

Vbe
im not been quite displaced by the new nonns, and they continue to influence
:esses ,'0o a gfeat extent the behavior of government officials/employees and the
]r general public.
vhether
ental I Moteover, family, kinship, religious, socio-economic, political and other
ups continue to impinge on the performance of government agencies and
lpersonnel. In turn, public administrators and elnployees continue the search
ifor flexibility in their operations within the rdstricting confines of a
oncerned ffi hierarchical bureaucratic stmcture and h body of policies, rules and regula-
tation and -j. tions which define, beforehand, what they can do and what they cannot do.
l. It deals iAs a consequerlce, what may be formally prescribed in government may not
I interplay be effectively practiced.
implemen
'::,8
ehau i oral Charfl c t eris tics

While opinion may vary on what kind of behavior could be labeled as

lburaucratic, one view is to emphasize "normal, desirable, functional traits
:y iassociated with the attainment of the objectives of bureaucratic organiza-
,tions." One author (Carl Friedrich) stressed traits such as objectivity, preci-
. qion and consistency, erd discretion.

es cornmon On the other hand, other authors (Vicor Thompson, Fred Riggs, and
of authori iBobert Merton) highlightcd dysfunctional behavioral traits which develop
or specialil rfrom the rationalistic orientation of the bureaucracy and the structural
ufeatures designed
xpeteflCe;"i to maintain it. These negative behavioral patterns tend to
rization. ifrustrate the realization of the goals towards which administrative agencies
$-are supposed to be'working. For example, strict adherence to rules and
regulations induces conservatism and extreme caution, even timidity, on
the part of administrators. Emphasis on impersonality majr lead to conflict
in relations with the general public hansacting business with the bureau-
,cratic organizations. Other negative traits include lack of initiative, un-
fwillingrress to delegate, rigidity and inflexibility, red tape and buckpassing.

To illustrate the conflict between what is formally prescribed and

actgal practice, some case reports will be presented. The cases will show
lalso what is being done by public administrators to achieve some degree of
flexibility within a bureaucratic system that emphasizes accountability
through its body of nrles and regulations.
L-

The "50-50" Agreement. The "50-50" agreement wari a scheme de-

ised by members of the House of 'Representatives in the Old Congress
Whereby the filling up of all new positions in the 1959 budget would be
divided on a 50-50 basis between the Executive (Malacafrang) and the
Congress. The plan was arrived at, after newly-elected congressmen from the

986
mqiority ipatty cdmplained that their recorfimendees for the new poi andl
in the budgeLthey had approved were being'ignored or not acted u actir
the department heads and btrreau directors. Instead, preferential trea
was given by the department secrretruies and directors to, recommendee$i
the Presideqt and/or the veteran and more influential members of Cong[b cann
requ
how

positions on a regional or geographical basis. While the Congressmen we Vieu

asked to submit their {ecommend@s, they were requested to observe ths
qualification requirements for the vacant and new positions.
first
This case described the implementation of the merit system in ou tered
country and showed how partisan politics, geographical ties, the compadre using
system, familial obligations and the personal factors influenced public ofti. Heidr
cids. It sholved also how they had attempted to reconcile the formally the n
prescribed norms with the apparently conflicting demands of particularistic
interests and the traditional values in society. This case may be considered
typical of what had happened in the Philippine bureaucracy in regard to the ' inclut
merit system. Administrators generally accept civil service eligibility as a l' and c
minimum requirement, but between two or three civil service eligibles, they
, havio
pIOIIlr
could then choose the one recommended by a politician, a compadre, or a
relative. Accor
' an acl
Cases on the implementation of merit system under the new political
,: as cor
leadership may reveal, however, different results. In a number of cases, there 'ft
may even be a complete disregard of the civil service eligibility requirements. : Public
In son
change order No. r. change order No. 1 ,was a modification of a for strr
counterpart project in the old Bureau of Public Works of the Department of approv
Public Works and Communications. It would have used savings in the, r' ment c
amount of P4,143.44 from a P108,880 NEC-AID project for the construct- i went i:
ion of twenty observation wells. The Change Order went through a series i, emploJ
of trineteen clearances in four agencies and took 2?3 days to secure the final extra \
approval; the construction of the wells was finished in twenty-one days. matter,
' form o
This case illustrated the problem of delay in processing paper work in which (

government. The document that was needed to implement the change order governr
was held up for long periods awaiting review and signature of certain offi- i of the <

cials. As brought out in the case report, it seemed nobody was sufficiently uPt
interested in the Change Order to follow up on the officials who were sup wrong
posed to approve it. not us€
orlat le
In Philippine public administration, one has to speed up the process of rnent o:
getting permits and licenses or approvals of project proposals, appointment
papers arrd customs release documents by personal follow-up or by con- Bt
tacting friends, relatives, miiitary officers, politiciins, rcligious leade$,r that th,

,19g6
ew post and/or other influential persons. Or ong has to gtve a bribe to secule prcmpt
:ted upo action on the papers.

nmendeel There are many other cases before and even now to show that one
of Consn cannot rely on policies, rules and regulations to get sorde action on one's
their co request from government agencies. One must know whom to approach and
. The 5(}.E( how and what is the price for quick action.
rcies to new
Views on Gruft and brruption
There are two prevailing points of view on graft and cornrption. The
first which is generally followed in Western countries is the public office cen-
rstem in our tered definition. This means that an action, a decision or a behavior is judged
he compadre using the norms or standards of the public office as a basis. As stated by
I public offi. Heidenheimer, the core of this definition is "the concept of public office and
the formalllr' the norms binding on its incumbent."
tar ularistict The second point of view which is dominant in developing counhies
re rvosidered
including the Philippines is the public interest centered definition of graft
regard to the', and conuption. This means that the public official's action, decision or be-
igibility as a havior is judged on the basis of whether the power of authority is used to
,iigibl€s, they promote the public interest or the personal gain of the public official.
mpadre, or a, According to Heidenheimer, this line of thinking uses the compatibility of
an act with public interest as a decisive element by which it could be judged
as cormpt.
In the $ureaucraticBehavior Project conducted by the UP College of
Public Administration, practices were studied in several government offices.
In some offices, the approving authority and subordinate officials did ask
for straight ten percent commission. In other offices, the agency heads who
approved the contracts or the purchase of supplies, materials and equip
ment did ask also for a ten percent commission. But the commission money
went into an office fund to be used for payment of overtime services of
employees who otherwise could not be compensated properly for their
extra work in view of stringent government rules and regulations on the
matter. And in some cases, the agency heads asked for donations in the
form of equipment, e.g., typewriters, airconditioners, and micro-computers
aper work in : which could not be bought for lack of funds for the purpose or becauee of
government prohibitioris, but which are badly needed for efficient operation
of the office.
Public administrators in the Philippines generally would r* nbtnittg
wrong with the latter example. From their point of view, as long as one does
not use the commission money for oire's personal gain, then it is acceptable
or,at least tolerable. One is able to acquire resources needed for the attain-
he procegs ori ment of agency goals.
appointment
I Or by con;i''' But public administrators in Western countries would have no doubt
ious leadersr],, that the above examples constitute acts of comrption. If one needs an air-

,1996
 t

conditioner in theoffice, one must present that as a separate request and tl

an
get it through bloated pricing for-eertain: s-upplies ail materiar. on.' and d
secure the lowest price for these items and rebates should proglr
entered in the books.
n-p.iry
COIIIpt
appro
Foundations and other similar Arcangements
\
C

ly inv
Philip
the d
methc

I
of Pul
The foundation serves as a mechanism to provide some flexibility in the ternal
receipt and disbursement of funds without observing all the and
and n
auditing nrles and regulations of the government which impede"""ourrt-irrg
the efficien- in loc,
cy and effectiveness of agency operations. In some cases, the foundation the e(
mechanism has been used to privatize or "liaunder" public funds. The search underl
is for flexibility in the handling of funds, ahd consequently easier manage- the dl
ment and implementation of programs/projects.
I
In other cases, one does not need to resort to a foundation mechanism. were i
One needs only a special Presidential Decree (PD) or Executive Order to set policy
aside all Office of Budget and Management (OBM) and Commission on Audit feel o
(coA) regulations on the operation of the project, the Task Force, or of a
there
new agency. in the
N
Rtblic Administration as a Field of Study "pubIi
to ID€i
As mentioned earlier, public administration is considered both as a pro- been f
fessional and scholarly discipline. It is generally offered in the Philippines at issue (
the graduate level and serves as a second freld of specialization. More than interpr
sixty universities, colleges, &d schools now offer degree programs in public or deli
administration. But what is being taught to the students American or then tl
Philippine public administration? Refeience is made to the- Americans be native
cause many books still used are on American public administration, and, at tions a
one time, in the College of Public Administration there was even a course on system
"State Governments in the U.S." but no course on the Philippine Adminid-
trative System. Tj
in the
Additional questions could be asked: Would curricular programs in pub- followi
lic administration enable the students to acquire a broad understanding of cations
the process of social change and the various cultural, social, economic and nous t,
political factors which influence the development effort in the country? technic
Would the program eguip the students riith the specialized knowledge on concep

October 1986
)quest and n iand the analytical ability to understand the development goals, the structure
ais. One mur rand dynamics of political and administrative institutionsl policy isrues, and
I properly programs/project implementation problems? Would the programs and the
component courses be too "theoretical," academic, and prescriptive in
approach? Would there be discussion on etNcal issues and questions?

Some colleagues in the College of Public Administration who are active-

ly involved in the Association of Schools of Public Administration in the
Philippines (ASPAP) may have more knowledge about curricular programs in
the different schools, their faculty; teaching materials and the teaching
ve University- I
methods and techniques being used.
sion on Audit
During the early years (the 50s and the early 60s) in the then Institute
of Public Administration, the emphasis in the curricular program was on in-
:xibility in the ternal management - and the staff functions in government - organization
ccorrnting and and management, personnel and fiscal administration - witb some courses
e : efficien- ,,,
in local goyernment. Later on, courses on public administration and politics,
teYoundation the economy, and social change were introduced to give students a better
ls. The search understanding of the ecology of public managdment in the country agrd of
,asier manag€. the dynamics of social change.

In the seventies, courses on program administration and public policy

l mechanism. were added to give students better acquaintance with at least some major
I Order to set policy area or program, e.g., health, agricultpre, education and housing and a
iion on Audit feel of problems in "Iine" or program/project management. In the eighties
'orce, of of a there is renewed concern about accountability in government which resulted
in the reintroduction of a course on ethics in the public service.
More recently, there has been a reexamination of the concept of
"public" in public administration. For a long time, that has been interpreted
to mean "governmental" and therefore teaching and research efforts have
x t._-
as a pro- 'been focused primarily on problems of the public bureaucracy and on the
.)hilippines at issue of increasing its administrative capability. Now, "public" is being
{1. More than interpreted to refer to "people" - public administration is administraiion
ams in public or delivery of services to the people. If this interpretation is fully accepted,
American or then the students of public administration could rightfully look into alter-
-mericans be- native delivery channels, e.g., the private sector, non-governmental otganiza-
rtion, and, at tions and cooperatives and on how to strengthen the capability of receiving
1 a course on systems in benefitting from the services.
ine Adminis-
There is still the continuing problem of achieving relevance and realism
in the teaching of public administrdtion in the country. The needs are the
1rams in pub' following: (1) getting faculty members who have both the academic qualifi-
rrstanding of cations and administrative experience; (2) the production and use of indige-
conomic and nous teaching materials; (3) the use of innovative teaching methods and
he country? techniques, and (4) the formulation of more relevant models and analytical
nowledge on concepts.

Octobert''' 1986
 :+ . ."41
.:. I$;has been obsenred that public- administration is inevitably
.;-

centric,or culture-bound. The socio-cultural, eronomic and:politibal x

in which public nranagement operates has long been recogniaed as a
determinant of the patterns of administration that evolve. Similarly,
influence of the environment of public administration is, an increasi
strong determinant for changes in the system. Consequently, in
cowrtry, the patterns of public administration that develop is,in some
distinctive.

Ilr 1947, Robert Dahl published in the Ptlb'Iic Administration Review an

article on "The Science of Public Administration: Three hobleps." He
wrote:

". . .Conceivably there might be a science of American public adminigtration

and a science of British public administration and a scignce of French public
administration, but can there be a 'science of public adminishation' in the
sense of a body of generalized principles independent of their peculiar na-
tional setting? " I
I
t
In 1956, Comell University started a quarterly publication called I?re o
Administratiue Scienee Qwrterly. The lead editorial then expressed the hope
f'
that within a ten-year period, administrative science would be recognized ii
and accepted. r

At this stage, that goal is still far from being realized.

culum
''develc
tional
i develo

. Presider,
Guia pr,
riculum
assistant
i edged, a
; pated ir

Octo ber
 I,rt " rs,
,x
If' has been observed that public administration is inevitably e
centric, or culture-bound. The socio-cultur"al, economic andl"potitiiat se EI
in which public nranagement operates has long been reoogrized as.a r
determinant of the patterns of administration that evolve. Similsrlt,
influence of the environment of public administration ie an increasi
strong determinant for changes in the system. Consequently, in
eotmtry, the patterns of public administration that develop is,in some
di5tinctive.

In 1947, Robert Dahl published in t}lte Hlbtie Administrstion Reuiew an

article on "The Science of Public Administration: Three Probleps." He
wrote:

". . .Conceiyably there might be a science of American public adminigtration (

and a science of British public administration and a ecience of French public (
administration, but can there be a 'scienee of public administration' in the
(
sense of a body of generalized principles independent of their peculiar na-
tional setting? " I
I
t
In 1956, Comell University started a quarterly publication called ??re
0
Administrative Scienee Qtnrtedy. The lead editorial then,expressed the hope p
that within a ten-year period, administrative science would be recognized ii
and accepted. r

At this stage, that goal is still far from being realized.

culum
,,develc
tional
trainir
develo

v
for tn
focuse

'Presider,
Guira pr,
riculum
assistant
i edged, a
pated ir