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SOY00401 Tourism Theories Practices Assignment 1 2006 FLMR
SOY00401 Tourism Theories Practices Assignment 1 2006 FLMR
Students and professionals can gain knowledge of whole tourism systems by:
Research journals and text books can be of immense value throughout the learning
process of gaining knowledge, understanding, and applying concepts in relation to the
study of tourism provided that those who peruse them, read widely, are selective in their
choice, and realise the purpose of, and the context in which, such publications are
written. An extensive array of periodicals including Annals of Tourism Research,
International Journal of Tourism Research, Journal of Tourism Studies and Journal of
Travel & Tourism Marketing, amongst a wealth of others, provides a gamut of
information including original and empirical research, theoretical concepts, statistical
data, research techniques and methodological articles encompassing most aspects
related to the field of tourism.
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XVII), a reference guide to the vast range of definitions, themes, concepts, issues,
perspectives and institutions embraced by tourism with contributions from over 300
academics and tourism professionals. Tourism Management, Leiper (2004: V), designed
for students studying and individuals interested in expanding and developing their
knowledge of tourism, delivers a substantial contribution to management theories and
practices. Man On Earth – A Celebration of Mankind authored by British anthropologist
John Reader, which provides a captivating narrative of the fundamentals of human
ecology from a contemporary viewpoint.
(Leiper 2004: 29-36) explains the concept when defining three contexts of the
meaning for ‘tourist’. Popular meanings, used in everyday conversation and mass
media that are imprecise, have a wide variation of meanings with no definitions required
form one category. Technical definitions used for statistical purposes by corporations
such as the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) for measuring economic
growth/international tourist arrivals, traveller generating regions (TGRs) and tourist
destination regions (TDRs) where precision is desirable form a second category.
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Heuristic concepts and definitions used by students and professionals researching
tourists’ activities and other aspects of their behaviour form a third category.
Using the same logic and depending on what purpose and in what context the
definition is used, tourism can be defined as: the theories and practices of tourists
(Leiper 2004: 44), the science, art and business off attracting and transporting visitors,
accommodating them and catering to their needs (Mcintosh and Goeldner 1977, cited by
Leiper 2004: 42), study of man away from his usual habitat, of the industry which
responds to his needs, and of the various impacts he and the industry have on the host
socio-cultural, economic, and physical environments (Jafari 1977, cited by Jafari and
Ritchie 1981: 15).
By comparing and understanding the different contexts in which definitions are used
and through the application of systems theory, whole systems can be identified and
models expounding those systems can be utilised for learning and teaching purposes. A
wide variety of whole tourism system models have, over time, evolved and been
advocated as being beneficial to the study and understanding of tourism.
Several examples are noteworthy contributions. (Jarari’s 1989: 437-442) model based
on his springboard metaphor, figure 1.0, emphasises six phases, corporation,
emancipation, animation, repatriation, incorporation and omission, which he
considers as elementary components of tourists behaviour and movement through the
contexts of the ordinary world (routine) and the non-ordinary world (during trips).
Jarari’s model is particularly useful when considering the motivating factors and
emotional stages one experiences throughout the process of expectation, revelation and
reflection as part of the touristic experience.
ANIMATION
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ORIENTATION VALEDICTION
DECLARATION
REVERSION
EMANCIPATION
REPATRIATION
ON
I
SUBMISSION
SEPARATION
EMISSION EMULSION
CORPORATION OMISSION INCORPORATION
FIGURE 1.0
Leiper’s systematic model illustrating a whole system, interdisciplinary approach for
Jafari’s tourism model based on the springboard metaphor.
Source: Jafari, J. The Structure Of Tourism, in Tourism
studying tourism consists of tourists as an elementary component, three geographical Marketing
&Management Handbook (1989) Prentice Hall, London, pp.437-442.
elements: traveller generating regions where a tourist’s journey begins and normally
ends; transit routes (TR) – places where a tourist’s main travelling activity occurs;
Leiper’s (2004) systematic model illustrating a whole system, interdisciplinary approach
for studying tourism consists of tourists – as an elementary component; traveller
generating regions – where a tourist’s journey begins and normally ends; transit
routes – places where a tourist’s main travelling activity occurs; tourist destination
regions – places where a tourist’s main visiting activity occurs, and tourism industries
– as organisational elements i.e. collections of organisations that support tourism. This
model promotes a cohesive and holistic understanding of the multifaceted nature of
tourism. However, an apparent weakness is that the procedures for integrating the
interdisciplinary strands are not vigorous and as such those strands may become obscure
(Leiper 2004: 51, 54, 60).
(Jafari’s 1977 model, Jafari and Ritchie 1981: 23), portraying sixteen disciplines
around the rim of wheel in which the hub is termed ‘centre of tourism studies’
advocates a multidisciplinary approach to the study of tourism. This method is
beneficial to students as it delivers a wide expanse of knowledge of tourism’s many
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facets by drawing on the multiple perspectives of a range of disciplines. However, this
approach can lead to excessive discipline subjectivity, which leads students to believe
they should be developing their knowledge of a particular discipline whilst their main
objective is to augment their comprehension of tourism. In addition, there is a risk that
contributions from certain disciplines will be overemphasised diluted or distorted (Jafari
2000: 179182).
A possible method for overcoming or at least reducing the disadvantages associated
with Leiper’s interdisciplinary and Jafari’s multidisciplinary approaches, is to join the
two models resulting in the consciousness of a unified approach to the study of tourism,
figure 1.1. Leiper’s model becomes the hub of the wheel, providing the foundation
concepts in the delivery of tourism education – becoming a recognised discipline in its
own right. Jafari’s model continues to provide a multidisciplinary perspective with the
added benefit of a more holistic approach. An alternative technique in delivering this
approach would see the various disciplines from Jafari’s model become condensed, with
educators delivering a general rather than specific knowledge and thus diminishing the
possibility of discipline subjectivity. Postgraduates would then undertake an exhaustive
analysis of disciplines previously reviewed.
Personal Observations
During 1997 – 2000 the author undertook a journey of the East Coast of Australia,
The Nullarbor Plain and the South West corner of Western Australia. The journey was
broken into three legs: 1997-1998: Sydney, N.S.W. (TGR) via train (TR1) to Brisbane,
Q.L.D. (TDR1) via train (TR2) to Townsville, Q.L.D. (TDR2) and via train (TR3) to
Cairns, Q.L.D. (TDR3). The second leg of the journey: 1998 – 2000 can be described
as: Cairns (TDR3) via motor vehicle (TR4) to Lamington National Park, Q.L.D.
(TDR4) via motor vehicle (TR5) to Broken Hill, N.S.W. (TDR5) via motor vehicle
(TR6) to Streaky Bay S.A. (TDR6) across the Nullarbor Plain via motor vehicle (TR7)
to Cocklebiddy Caves W.A (TDR7) via motor vehicle (TR8) to Esperance W.A. (TDR8)
via motor vehicle (TR9) to Perth (TDR9). The homeward journey, the third leg, across
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the Nullarbor Plain to Sydney whilst involving different (TDRs) involved the same
mode of transport.
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Design Climbing Equipment; N.S.W. Country Rail; Brisbane Transit Centre;
Queensland Rail; Brisbane Youth Hostels Australia (YHA); Magnetic Island Ferries,
Coconuts Backpacker Resort, Magnetic Island; Townsville Tourist Information Centre;
Great Barrier Reef Marine Authority; Cairns Tourist Information Centre; Rainbow
Forest Retreat and Cairns City Nightclub.
The second leg of the journey involved the utilisation of services including: revive
and survive rest stops, service stations, tourist information centres, Woolworths Fresh
Food, Broken Hill Caravan Park, Great Australian Bight Cultural Information Centre,
Streaky Bay Caravan Park, Esperance Caravan Park and numerous National Parks.
Whilst the author’s decision to undertake the journey was tinged with sadness due to
the result of personal tragic circumstances, as time progressed and more miles were
covered, the desire for emancipation and total freedom from restraint grew and by the
second leg of the journey, the actual fact of being emancipated helped in the grieving
process. Primitivism in the form of sleeping in a tent, in particular at Cocklebiddy
Caves – a massive underground network of river systems 11 kilometres west of
Cocklebiddy and 5 kilometres east of the highway corridor linking South and Western
Australia proved to be a highlight of the journey. Indeed it was whilst camping on The
Hampton Tableland that the author experienced a similar experience to that described by
(Barth 1964, cited by Chatwin, B. 1989: 220), “a ‘religious’ catharsis, revolutionary in
the strictest sense in that each pitching and breaking of camp represents a new
beginning”.
Internet Sites
The Internet is a public communications system, created by an interconnecting
network of computers that spans the terrestrial globe. The World Wide Web (WWW) is
an information service that integrates information that is stored on different computers
the world over with the ability to combine texts, graphics, sounds, movie clips and
numerous other multimedia components (Jafari 2000: 327, 316). In terms of educational
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and research value the very nature of the (WWW) provides access to the most extensive
database of electronically stored information in the world.
Secondary data are data collected and recorded by someone else prior to, and for
purposes other than, the prevailing needs of the researcher. Secondary data are usually
historical and do not require access to subjects or respondents. The primary advantage
of secondary data is that it is almost always less expensive to obtain than primary data.
An innate disadvantage of secondary data is that such data was not designed to meet the
researcher’s needs. Researchers must consider and evaluate the pertinence of
secondary data, figure 1.2, and verify data accuracy wherever possible by crosschecks
of data from multiple to determine the similarity of independent projects. When data is
found not to be consistent, researchers should attempt to identify reasons for the
differences and/or determine which data are most likely to be correct Zikmund (1997,
144146).
The Australian Tourism Export Council (ATEC) www.atec.net.au is the national
peak body of the $17 billion tourism export industry. With over 30 years experience
(ATEC) has developed a favourable reputation for delivering professional business
services, industry development initiatives and government lobbying in order to optimise
the business success of its members so that the resulting economic and social impact of
Tourism Australia, (www.tourism.Australia.com) established on 1 July 2004,
comprising four separate organisations: the Australian Tourist Commission; See
Australia; the Bureau of Tourism Research and the Tourism Forecasting Council, is the
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Federal Government statutory authority responsible for International and domestic
tourism marketing and the delivery of research and forecasts for the tourism sector. The
key objectives of Tourism Australia are to:
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Do the data help to answer No
questions set out in the Stop
problem definition?
Yes
Yes
DoDo
thethe data
data apply
apply to to
the No
Applicability to population of
of interest?
interest? Can the data be
population
the Project reworked?
Objectives
Yes
Stop
Do other terms and If yes,
No
variable classifications continue
presented apply?
Yes
Yes
If possible, go to the
original source of the data.
Yes
Yes
No
Is using the No No
Can the accuracy of data
data worth Stop
collection be verified?
the risk? Yes (Inaccurate
or unsure)
No Yes (accurate)
FIGURE 1.2
Evaluating Secondary Data
Source: Zikmund, W.G. Business Research Methods
(5th ed.), 1997, The Dryden Press, Fort Worth. P.147
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Help increase the economic benefits to Australia from tourism.
Newspapers
Newspapers are printed publications usually issued daily or weekly, which most
commonly contain: domestic and international news; business – financial, commercial
and trade items; editorial comment; travel and entertainment features and
advertisements. When evaluating content value of newspapers, readers should consider
whether articles are objective – existing independent of the thinking subject, or
subjective, biased thought resulting from a mental construct. Articles related to tourism
in the business section of newspapers often refer to infrastructure development,
financial position and proposed initiatives of national carriers, and government
diplomatic efforts working in alliance with private industry to secure trade with other
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countries. General news sections of newspapers at times refer to environmental impacts
of tourism and details of new industry venture whilst editorial comment often ask
questions as well as purporting a particular point of view. Travel sections of newspapers
contain feature articles espousing the merits of tourist destinations. Newspapers
regularly contain information about social, cultural, physical, economic, political and
technical environments that interact with whole tourism systems.
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took 13 days of leave a year while Thais averaged four days a year. The survey
indicated stress levels for Australians had increased by 48 per cent since the previous
year (Molina, L. 2006 p.37).
(Hodge, A. 2006 p.5) writes, Tourism, once viewed as an economic saviour of many
rural towns was taking its toll as councils struggled to maintain services on small
budgets. The National Seachange taskforce chief executive Alan Stokes said “It’s not
just an environmental or planning issue. A whole of government approach is required is
required because it impacts on every area you can imagine”. Protecting the
environment, building infrastructure and maintaining community cohesion need to be
considered as well as providing healthcare, education, public transport and employment.
(Daily Mail cited by Weekend Courier Mail 2006 p.19) reports the £300 million
($705 million) Queen Victoria is set to become the shiniest jewel in shipping company
Cunard’s crown. She will boast a three story grand lobby, a museum, conservatory and
6000 book library. The 90,000-tonne liner, being built at the Fincantieri yard in Venice,
will be able to carry more than 2000 passengers and about 900 crew. The 300m-long
vessel will be capable of speeds of more than 23 knots, using up to 10 tonnes of fuel an
hour. Fares will range from £999 to £8679 per person.
Travel feature (Chester, R. 2006 p.1) describes the 80km six day adventure of
Tasmanian wilderness between Cradle Mountain and Lake St Clair as one of Australia’s
greatest walks. With three options of how to traverse the Overland Track: do it yourself
staying in your own tent or the public huts found along the track; travel with a guided
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group, where someone else carries the tents and you stay in the public huts if the
weather turns bad or trek along with Cradle Mountain Huts & Bay of Fire Walks which
has private huts along the track and was recently voted “the country’s best
Eco/Wilderness Adventure Experience”.
Conclusion
The complex nature of tourism is best understood through the concept of whole
tourism systems. There are several fundamental topics in the study of tourism including:
tourists - as an elementary component; places – traveller generating regions, where a
tourist’s journey begins and usually ends, tourist destination regions, where a tourist’s
main visiting activity occurs; transit routes – where a tourist’s main travelling activity
occurs; organisations – which support the activities and provide services to tourists,
together which form whole tourism systems. To understand the effects of tourism it is
necessary to examine social, cultural, economic, physical, political and technical
environments that interact with whole tourism systems. Sources of knowledge in
relation to the study of tourism include research journals, internet sites, newspapers and
personal observations.
REFERENCES
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Better Bloody Work: Why Does The Tourism Industry Need Taxpayer Help? [Opinion].
2006, February 24. The Australian, p.17.
Easdown, G. 2006a, Feburary 17. QANTAS to Wield Jobs Axe. Courier Mail, p.31.
Easdown, G. 2006b, March 11-12. Virgin Bids for US Air Rights. Weekend Edition
Courier Mail, p.39.
Hodge, A. 2006, January 24. Seachangers See An Area, Then They Change It. The
Australian, p.5
Jafari, J. & Ritchie, J.R. Brent. 1981, Towards a Framework for Tourism Education:
Problems and Prospects, Annals of Tourism Research, VIII(1):13-34.
Leiper, N. 1981, Towards A Cohesive Curriculum in Tourism: The Case for a Distinct
Discipline, Annals of Tourism Research, VIII(1):69-84.
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SOY OO411 Topic one readings, 2006. Southern Cross University, Lismore.
McCullough, J. 2006, Feburary 13, Beattie in Big Push for Cruise Ports. Courier Mail,
pp. 15, 16.
Molina, L. 2006, Feburary 18, High Stress Culture Catching on Here. Weekend Edition
Courier Mail, p.37.
The Australian Tourism Export Council (ATEC). 2005 [Home page of ATEC].
[2006, April 10].
[Online]. Available: http://www.atec.net.au/about.htm
Tourism Australia 2004 [Home page of Tourism Australia]. [Online].
Available:http://www.tourism.Australia.com [2006, April 10].
Tribe, J. 1997, The Indiscipline of Tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, vol.24, No3:
638-657.
World Tourism Organisation (WTO) 2005 [Home page of World Tourism Organisation].
[Online]. Available:http://www.world_tourism.org.htm [ 2006, March 30].
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