Department of Mechanical Engineering Graphic Era Hill University,

Bhimtal

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------

LABORATORY MANUAL
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------

NAME OF THE LABORATORY

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY

Faculty Associate. Yogesh Chaudhary

CHECKED BY

Faculty Associate. Yogesh Chaudhary

APPROVED BY

Asst. Prof. Kamal Sanguri

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 1

 CONTENTS

S. NO. CONTENTS PAGE NO.

1 Performance Analysis of four strokes S.I. Engine determination 3-10
of indicated of and brake thermal efficiency, specific fuel
consumption at different loads, energy balance.
2 Performance Analysis of four stroke C.I. Engine determination 11-17
of indicated of and brake thermal efficiency, specific fuel
consumption at different loads, energy balance.
3 Study & experiment on gear box. 18-20
4 Study & experiment on Differential gear mechanism of rear 21-22
axle.
5 Study & experiment on steering mechanism. 23-27
6 Study & experiment on automobile braking system. 28-31
7 Study & experiment on chassis and suspension system. 32-35
8 Study & experiment on ignition system of I.C. engine. 36-40
9 Study & experiment on fuel supply system of S.I. engine 41-42
carburetor, fuel injection pump and MPFI.
10 Study & experiment on fuel supply system of C.I. engine 43-44
carburetor, fuel injection pump and MPFI.
11 To study the HP. Of I.C. Engine by morse test 45-52
12 To study the vapour compression air conditioning cycle. 53-55

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 2

 EXPERIMENT NO.1
OBJECTIVE:
To study the Multi cylinder four stroke petrol engine & its characteristics.

AIM:
To determine

 Brake Power
 Fuel consumption
 Specific fuel consumption
 Brake thermal efficiency
 Indicated Power
 Mechanical efficiency
 Swept volume
 Air consumption
 Volumetric efficiency
 Heat balance sheet

THEORY:

The most commonly used source of power for motor vehicles, introduced by the German
engineers Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz in 1885. The petrol engine is a complex piece of
machinery made up of about 150 moving parts. It is a reciprocating piston engine, in which a
number of pistons move up and down in cylinders. A mixture of petrol and air is introduced to
the space above the pistons and ignited. The gases produced forces the pistons down,
generating power. The engine-operating cycle is repeated after every four strokes (upward or
downward movement) of the piston, this being known as the four-stroke cycle. The motion of
the pistons rotates a crankshaft, at the end of which a heavy flywheel is connected. From the
flywheel the power is transferred to the vehicle’s driving wheels via the transmission system
of clutch, gearbox, and final drive.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 3

Multiple Cylinders

The vast majority of internal combustion engines used more than one cylinder. This is entirely
a question of efficiency. The limitation of the Otto Cycle is that it only provides power to turn
the crankshaft a quarter of the time. The logical solution is to have multiple cylinders with
pistons turning the crankshaft so at any time there is always one cylinder in the power stroke
and the crankshaft is turned at a fairly even rate. An even more powerful method is to use
extra cylinders at intermediate points in the cycle so that one power stroke starts before the
previous one has finished.

Description:

Three Cylinder, Four Stroke, Petrol Engine Test Rig with hydraulic brake dynamometer
arrangement mainly consists of:

 Loading Arrangement (Hydraulic brake dynamometer).

 Fuel Input Measuring Arrangement,
 Air intake measuring arrangement.
 Arrangement for measuring the heat carried away by cooling water from engine jacket.
 Arrangement for measuring the heat carried away by exhaust gases.
 Panel Board Arrangement

A brief description and particulars on this test rig is given below:

Loading Arrangement (Hydraulic Brake Dynamometer):

Hydraulic brake dynamometer works on the principle of dissipating the power in fluid friction
rather than in dry friction. In principle its construction is similar to that of a fluid flywheel. It
consists of an inner rotating member or impeller coupled to the output shaft of the engine.
This impeller rotates in a casing filled with fluid. This outer casing, due to centrifugal force
developed, tends to revolve with impeller, but is resisted by a torque arm supporting the
balance weight. The frictional forces between the impeller and the fluid are measured by the
spring balance fitted on the casing the heat developed due to dissipation of power is carried
away by a continuous supply of the working fluid, usually water. Regulating the sluice gates,

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 4

which can be moved in and out to partially or wholly obstructive flow of water between
impeller and the casing, can control the output.

Fuel Input Measuring Arrangement:

Consists of self-mounting type fuel tank which is suitably mounted on a stand. The stand
fixed on the air tank, fuel goes from the reservoir to fuel filter through a burette. The burette
facilitates the measurement of the fuel consumption for a definite period of time with the help
of a stopwatch.

Air Intake Measuring Arrangement:

Consists of an air tank having on orifice plate with orifice and a manometer to measure the
flow rate of air sucked by the engine.

Arrangement For Measuring The Heat Carried Away By Cooling Water:

Suitable piping system is fitted to the engine for circulating the cooling water for the engine.
Thermocouples are provided to measure the inlet and outlet temperature of cooling water.
For measuring the rate of flow of cooling water, a water meter is provided. With these entire
arrangements one can find the heat carried away by cooling water.

Arrangement For Measuring The Heat Carried Away By Exhaust Gases:

It consists of exhaust gas calorimeter to measure the heat carried away by exhaust gases.
Exhaust gas calorimeter consists of a central tube and an outer jacket. Exhaust gases
passes through central tube and water is circulated in outer jacket to get the maximum
Temperature difference of exhaust gases at inlet and outlet of calorimeter. The volume of
water circulation is measured with the help of measuring cylinder and stopwatch.
Thermocouples are provided to get the inlet and outlet temperature of exhausts gases and
water circulated.

Panel Board Arrangement:

 The units fitted on the Panel board are: An ignition and starting switch to switch on the
ignition circuit and to start the engine.
 A Pilot lamp indicator for ignition.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 5

  A high voltage switches assembly for cutting of each cylinder for Morse Test. With the
help of the four individual switches each cylinder can be cut off.
 Throttle valve control mechanism to control the position of the throttle in relation to the
speed of the engine.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Close all the valves..

2. Fill oil in the oil sump of engine. It should be in between the marks provided on the oil
dipstick. If oil level is reduced, add clean oil (SAE–40) to the crank case by opening
the cover of valve provided, at top of engine.
3. Fill the petrol in petrol tank.
4. Fill the manometer with water up to half of its height.
5. Fill the burette with petrol by opening the valve provided.
6. Supply the fuel to the engine by opening the valve.
7. Switch on the main supply to the panel.
8. Connect water supply to the engine.
9. Connect the pipes from engine water outlet, calorimeter water outlet to drain.
10. Set a flow rate for engine cooling water by valve..
11. Set a flow rate for calorimeter cooling water by valve..
12. Note down the reading of sensor T3/T4.
13. Ensure that load on the dynamometer is zero.
14. Rotate the key and switch on engine.
15. Set a pressure between 0.5 to 1 kg/cm2 of hydraulic brake dynamometer by valve V8.
16. Let the engine run for 5 minutes.
17. Increase the RPM.
18. Apply load on engine by dynamometer.
19. Wait for 10 minutes so that temperatures can stabilize.
20. Note the reading of load from control panel.
21. Note the RPM.
22. Note down the manometer readings.
23. Note down the temperatures by D.T.I.
24. Close the valve of fuel tank and note down the time to consume 10-20 ml of diesel by
stop watch.
GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 6
 25. Open the valve of fuel tank.
26. Measure the flow rate of water through engine jacket with help of water meter and stop
watch for engine cooling.
27. Measure the flow rate of water through calorimeter with the help of water meter and
stop watch for calorimeter cooling.
28. When the experiment is over reduce the load on engine. Reduce the accelerator
gradually.
29. Rotate the key and switch OFF the engine.
30. Close the fuel supply to the engine by valve.
31. Close the cold water supply to engine after 10 minutes.
32. Drain the calorimeter water by valve.

OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:

Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m/sec2

Calorific value of fuel CV = 44650 kJ/kg
Co-efficient of discharge for orifice Cd = 0.64
Specific heat of water Cp = 4.186 kJ/kg °C
Density of air ρa = 1.21 kg/m3
Density of fuel f = 720 kg/m3
Diameter of orifice do = 0.027 m
Diameter of piston D = 0.0686 m
Stoke length of piston L = 0.0711 m
Number of cylinder NC = 3
Number of cycles n = 2

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Ta = ___________ °C (Reading of sensor T3 / T4 before starting engine)

S.No.
N (RPM)
h1 (cm)
h2 (cm)

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 7

W (kg)
x (ml)
t (sec)
T1 (°C)
T2 (°C)
T3 (°C)
T4 (°C)
T5 (°C)
T6 (°C)
VE (ltrs)
tE (sec)
Vc (ltrs)
tc (sec)

Where,
h1 and h2 = manometer reading of high and low level respectively
N = revolutions per minute
T1 = temperature of water inlet for Engine jacket
T2 = temperature of water outlet for Engine jacket
T3 = Temperature of exhaust gases at inlet of calorimeter
T4 = Temperature of exhaust gases at outlet of calorimeter
T5 = Temperature of water at Inlet of calorimeter
T6 = Temperature of water at Outlet of calorimeter
Ta = Ambient air temperature
t = Time taken to consume x ml of fuel
tc = Time for VC
tE = time for VE
VC = Volume of water flows through calorimeter
VE = Volume of water flows through engine
W = load cell reading
x = Volume of fuel consumed

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 8

CALCULATIONS:

𝑊 𝑋 𝑁 𝑋 0.746
Brake power, BP = kW
2000
𝑥 𝜌𝑓
Fuel consumption, W f = 𝑋 kg/sec
𝑡 106
𝑊𝑓
Specific fuel consumption, W sf = kg/kW-sec
𝐵𝑃
Heat supplied by the fuel, Hf = W f x Cv (kW)
𝐵𝑃
Brake thermal efficiency, ηBT = x 100%
𝐻𝑓

𝑉𝐸 𝜌𝑤
Mass of water entering the engine cooling jacket per second, m ew = 𝑋 kg/sec
𝑡𝐸 103

Heat carried by water from engine cooling jacket, Hecw = mew x Cp x (T2 – T1) kW
𝑉𝑐 𝜌𝑤
Mass of water entering calorimeter, mcw = 𝑋 kg/sec
𝑡𝑐 103

Heat carried by water from calorimeter, Hccw = mcw x Cp x (T6 – T5) kW

𝐻𝑐𝑐𝑤
Heat carried out by exhaust gases, Hexh = x (T3 – Ta) kW
𝑇3 − 𝑇4

Heat lost in radiation or uncounted heat, Hun = Hf – (BP + Hecw + Hexh) kW

Air consumption, Qa = Cd x a0 √2𝑔𝐻 (m3/sec)
𝜋
Area of orifice, a0 = 𝑑02 m2
4
ℎ1 − ℎ2 𝜌𝑤
Head causing flow of air through orifice, H = ( − 1) m
100 𝜌𝑎

𝜋𝐷2 𝐿𝑁𝑁𝑐
Swept volume, Vs = m3/sec
4 𝑋 60 𝑋 𝑛
𝑄𝑎
Volumetric efficiency, ηvol = x 100%
𝑉𝑠

PRECAUTION

1. Change engine oil after every 100 hours of total running or 6 months whichever is
earlier.
2. Open cold water supply to the engine before starting the engine.
3. Fuel tank and fuel line should be clean and free from foreign particles.
4. The Morse test should be carried out only after the engine running conditions are
stabilized at the required BP.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 9

 5. When a cylinder is cut off adjust the speed and load of the engine quickly because
large time laps might result in the change in the working conditions of the engine.
6. Do not attempt to cut off two cylinders simultaneously, since it can develop severe
engine vibration.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 10

 EXPERIMENT NO.2
OBJECTIVE:
To study the single cylinder four stroke diesel engine & its characteristics.
AIM:

 To determine
 Brake Power
 Fuel consumption
 Specific fuel consumption
 Brake thermal efficiency
 Heat carried out by water from calorimeter
 Heat carried away by engine jacket
 Heat carried out by exhaust gases
 Air consumption
 Swept volume
 Volumetric efficiency

THEORY
A Diesel engine is almost the same as a petrol engine but it burns a different type of fuel.
Diesel is named after its inventor Rudolf Diesel, a German who first developed this type of
fuel in the early 1900’s. Diesel engines have mainly been used in lorries and buses because
of their increased power and their reliability. They tend to be noisy and smelly compared to a
petrol engine but are more economical to run.
In a diesel engine the compression stroke only compresses air and not fuel. In the ignition
stroke compressed air is present with very high pressure and then fuel is injected into the
engine cylinder with the help of an injector, resulting in generating enormous heat, which then
ignites the fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber at that precise moment of
maximum pressure. There is no need for a spark plug in a diesel engine. The compressed air
is hot enough to cause the fuel to explode. This is because a diesel engine has a far higher
"compression ratio" than does a petrol engine.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 11

CONSTRUCTION
A Rope Brake Dynamometer arrangement with a brake drum coupled to the engine shaft and
provided with a cooling water arrangement and spring balances. The load can be varied by
increasing the rope tension on the brake drum with revolving the hand wheel provided on the
top of frame.

Fuel Input Measuring Arrangement

This arrangement consists of a fuel tank of suitable capacity mounted on a stand. The fuel
goes to the engine through a burette. The burette facilitates the measurement of fuel
consumption for a definite period with the help of stopwatch.

Air Intake Measuring Arrangement:

It consists of an orifice, a diaphragm base manifold and a U- tube manometer. With the help
of orifice and manometer, the volume of the air sucked can be calculated.

Arrangement For Measuring The Heat Carried By Cooling Water From Engine Cooling
Jacket:
Suitable pipefitting is provided for circulating the cooling water into the engine water jacket.
For measuring the rate of flow of cooling water, a water meter is provided. With these entire
arrangements, one can find the heat carried away by cooling water. The temperature of inlet
and outlet water can be directly read from the Digital Temperature Indicator.

Arrangement For Measuring The Heat Carried Away By Exhaust Gases:

It consists of exhaust gas calorimeter to measure the heat carried away by exhaust gases.
Exhaust gas calorimeter consists of a central tube and an outer jacket. Exhaust gases
passes through central tube and water is circulated in outer jacket to get the maximum
Temperature difference of exhaust gases at inlet and outlet of calorimeter. The volume of
water circulation is measured with the help of water meter and stopwatch. Thermocouples
are provided to get the inlet and outlet temperature of exhausts gases and water circulated.

PROCEDURE:

1. Close all the valves from V1 to V8.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 12

 2. Fill oil in the oil sump of engine. It should be in between the marks provided on the oil
dipstick. If oil level is reduced, add clean oil (SAE–40) to the crank case by opening
the cover of valve provided, at top of engine.
3. Fill the diesel in diesel tank.
4. Fill the manometer with water up to half of its height.
5. Fill the burette with diesel by opening the valve V6, V5, V3 provided.
6. Supply the fuel to the engine by opening the valves V4.
7. Switch on the main supply to the panel.
8. Connect water supply to the engine.
9. Connect the pipes from engine water outlet, calorimeter water outlet and brake drum
water outlet to drain.
10. Open the valve V1 and V2.
11. Set a flow rate for engine cooling water by valve V1.
12. Set a flow rate for calorimeter cooling water by valve V2.
13. Note down the reading of sensor T3/T4.
14. Adjust the weight balances to zero.
15. Start the engine with handle and let it run for 5 minutes at no load condition.
16. Partially open the valve V8 for brake drum cooling.
17. Apply load on engine with help of spring balances.
18. Wait for 10 minutes so that temperatures can stabilize.
19. Note the reading of spring balances.
20. Note the RPM.
21. Note down the manometer readings.
22. Note down the temperatures by D.T.I.
23. Close the valve V5 and note down the time to consume 10-20 ml of diesel by stop
watch.
24. Open the valve V5.
25. Measure the flow rate of water through engine jacket with help of water meter and stop
watch for engine cooling.
26. Measure the flow rate of water through calorimeter with the help of water meter and
stop watch for calorimeter cooling.
27. Repeat the experiment for different load.
28. When the experiment is over remove load on engine by hand wheel of spring balance.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 13

 29. Stop the engine.
30. Close the fuel supply by valve V4.
31. Close the cooling water supply to the engine and calorimeter after 10 minutes.
32. Open the valve V7 to drain the water from calorimeter.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m/sec2

Calorific value of fuel CV = 43500 kJ/kg
Co-efficient of discharge for orifice Cd = 0.64
Specific heat of water Cp = 4.186 kJ/kg oC
Density of air ρa = 1.21 kg/m3
Density of water ρw = 1000 kg/m3
Density of fuel f = 804 kg/m3
Diameter of brake drum dB = 0.2 m
Diameter of rope dR = 0.012 m
Diameter of orifice do = 0.017 m
Diameter of piston D = 0.08 m
Stoke length of piston L = 0.11 m
Number of cylinder NC = 1
Number of cycles n = 2

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Ambient air temperature, Ta = ___________ °C (Reading of sensor T3 / T4 before starting

engine)

S.No.
N (RPM)
h1 (cm)
h2 (cm)
W1 (kg)
W2 (kg)

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 14

x (ml)
t (sec)
T1 (°C)
T2 (°C)
T3 (°C)
T4 (°C)
T5 (°C)
T6 (°C)
VE (ltrs)
tE (sec)
Vc (ltrs)
tc (sec)
Where

h1, h2 = Manometer reading (high and low level respectively)

N = Revolutions per minute
T1 = Temperature of water inlet for Engine jacket
T2 = Temperature of water outlet from Engine jacket
T3 = Temperature of exhaust gases inlet for calorimeter
T4 = Temperature of exhaust gases outlet from calorimeter
T5 = Temperature of water inlet for calorimeter
T6 = Temperature of water outlet from calorimeter
Ambient air temperature
t = Time taken for x ml
tc = Time for Vc
tE = Time for VE
Vc = Volume of water flows through calorimeter
VE = Volume of water flows through the engine jacket
W1 = Applied weight
W2 = Dead weight
x = Volume of the fuel consumed

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 15

CALCULATIONS:
𝑑𝐵 + 2𝑑𝑅
Mean effective radius, Re = m
2
Torque, T = (W 1 – W 2) x g x Re (N-m)
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Brake power, BP = (kW)
60 𝑋 1000
𝑥 𝜌𝑓
Fuel consumption, W f = x (kg/sec)
𝑡 106
𝑊𝑓
Specific fuel consumption, W sf = (kg/kW sec)
𝐵𝑃
Heat supplied, Hf = W f x Cv (kW)
𝐵𝑃
Brake thermal efficiency, ηBT = x 100%
𝐻𝑓

𝑉𝐸 𝜌𝑤
Mass of water entering the engine cooling jacket, m ev = x (kg/sec)
𝑡𝐸 103

Heat carried out by water from engine cooling jacket, Hecw = mew x cp x (T2 – T1) (kW)
𝑉𝑐 𝜌𝑤
Mass of water entering the calorimeter, mcw = x (kg/sec)
𝑡𝑐 103

Heat carried out by water from calorimeter, Hccw = mcw x cp x (T6 – T5) (kW)
𝐻𝐶𝐶𝑊
Heat carried out by exhaust gas, Hexh = x (T3 – Ta) (kW)
𝑇3 − 𝑇4

Heat lost in radiation and uncounted heat, Hun = Hf – (BP + Hecw + Hexh) (kW)
𝜋
Cross-sectional area of orifice, a0 = 𝑑02 (m2)
4
(ℎ2 – ℎ2 ) 𝜌𝑤
Head causing flow of air through orifice, H = ( - 1) (m)
100 𝜌𝑎

Air consumption, Qa = Cd x a0 √2𝑔𝐻 (m3/sec)

𝜋 𝑋 𝐷2 𝑋 𝐿 𝑋 𝑁 𝑋 𝑁𝐶
Swept volume, Vs = (m3/sec)
4 𝑋 60 𝑋 𝑛
𝑄𝑎
Volumetric efficiency, ηvol = x 100%
𝑉𝑠

PRECAUTION:

 Always check the oil level in the engine before starting and make sure that sufficient oil
is present in the engine.
 Never starts the engine at loaded condition.
 Change engine oil after every 100 hours of total running or 6 months whichever is
earlier.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 16

  Open cold water supply to the engine before starting.
 Fuel tank and fuel line should be clean and free from foreign particles.
 If diesel tank was empty before filling the diesel, remove air trapped in fuel line by
opening the vent screw.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 17

 EXPERIMENT NO. 03

OBJECTIVE: Study and Demonstration of gear box.

EQUIPMENT: A working or a non working model of any gear box such as constant
mesh, sliding mesh, synchromesh, semiautomatic or automatic.

THEORY: There are three reasons to have a transmission (gear box and its associated
units) in the power train or drive train. These are:
i) The transmission provides the torque needed to move the vehicle under a
variety of road and load conditions. It does this by changing the gear ratio
between the engine crankshaft and vehicle drive wheels.
ii) It can be shifted into reverse so the vehicle can move backward.

iii) It can be shifted into neutral for starting the engine and running it without
turning the drive wheels.
There are two basic types of transmissions: manual and automatic. Manual
transmissions are shifted manually by hand. Automatic transmission shift
automatically, with no help from the driver.

SLIDING MESH GEAR BOX:

Fig. sliding mesh gear box

It is the simplest type of gear box. The arrangement of gears is shown in fig. in neutral
position. The gear housing and bearings are not shown. The clutch gear is rigidly fixed to

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 18

the clutch shaft. It remains always connected to the drive gear of the countershaft. Three
other gears are also rigidly fixed to the countershaft (lay shaft). They are the second
speed gear, first speed gear and reverse speed gear. Two gears are mounted on the
splined main shaft which can be slided by the slider yoke when the shaft lever is
operated. These gears are the second speed gear and first and reverse speed gear.
They can be connected to the corresponding gears of the countershaft. A reverse idler
gear is mounted on another shaft and always remains connected to the reverse gear of
the countershaft
Constant Mesh Gear Box:

Fig. Constant Mesh Gear Box

Fig shows a constant mesh gear box. It consists of a clutch shaft, a countershaft and a
main shaft. Gears(2), (3), (5) ,(7) and (9) are fixed to the main countershaft but do not
slide alone it. Gear wheels(4),(6) and (8) are not fixed to the main shaft. Therefore these
gears can revolve freely around it. Gear (4) of the main shaft is in constant mesh with
gear (3) of the counter shaft. Similarly, gear (6) is in constant mesh with gear (5), and
gear (8) with gear (7). All the gears are shown in neutral position.

Synchromesh Gear Box:

Fig. collar and gear wheel revolving together

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 19

 Fig. synchromesh unit
The modern cars use helical gears and synchromesh devises in the gear boxes, that
synchronize the rotation of gears that are about to be meshed. This eliminates clashing
of the gears and make gear shifting easier. The synchromesh gear box is similar to the
constant mesh gear box, but this gear box is provided with a synchromesh device by
which two gears to be engaged are first brought into frictional contact which
equalizes their speed after which they are engaged smoothly. In most of the cars,
the synchromesh devices are not fitted to all the gears. They are fitted only on the top
gears. Reverse gears and in some cases the first gear, do not have synchromesh
device, since they are intended to be engaged when the vehicle is stationary.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 20

 EXPERIMENT NO. 04

OBJECTIVE: Study of differential gear mechanism of rear axle.

EQUIPMENT: A non working model of differential gear mechanism of any vehicle.

THEORY: The purpose of the differential assembly is to allow the two drive wheels to
turn at different speeds when the car goes around a corner. This is necessary because
when cornering, the wheel on the inside of the turn goes through a smaller arc or corner
than the wheels on the outside. If the wheels were not allowed to turn at different speeds,
they would tend to skip around the corner and steering would be very difficult.
Differentials are used in:

i) The rear drive axle of front engine, rear wheel drives vehicles.
ii) The transaxles of front engine, front wheel drive and rear engine, rear wheel drive
vehicles.
iii) The front drive axle and rear drive axle of four wheel drive vehicles.
iv) The transfer case of some four wheel drive vehicles.

Both the front drive and rear drive differential have the same job to do. They also have
many of the same parts. The basic difference is the way in which engine torque is
delivered to the differential assembly. Power enters the rear axle assembly from the final
drive which consists of bevel pinion

connected through a rear universal yoke to the propeller shaft. The bevel pinion is
meshed with the crown wheel, which is bolted to the case. This arrangement allows the
bevel pinion to turn the crown wheel.

As the crown wheel turns, the case attached to it also turns. A shaft through the case
also goes through the middle of two small pinion gears. As the case turns, this shaft turns
the small pinion gears, each of which meshes with a side gear. Each side gear is
attached to a shaft called an axle, which on a rear drive system runs through housing to
one of the rear wheels.

When the automobile is travelling in a straight line, the power flow through the system is
fairly simple. The crown wheel turns the case. The case, through its shaft and pinion
gears, turns each of the side gears at the same speed. The axles or drive shafts turn the
drive wheels, which drive the vehicle.

When the vehicle makes a turn, however, the power flow becomes more complicated. If
the automobile is making a left turn, the left drive wheel must go through a sharper corner
or travel through a shorter distance than the right drive wheel. The crown wheel turns the
case.

Since the left wheel is going through a sharp corner, the left axle is slowed or stopped
momentarily. The pinion gears in the case still turn with the case but they also rotate on
the case shaft. Thus they can walk around the slowed or stopped left side gear and
GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 21
provide all the power to the right side gear so the right wheel will turn faster than the left
wheel.
During a right turn there is more resistance on the right axle, because the right wheel
must turn through a sharper corner than the left. The pinions in the case walk around the
right side gear and drive the left axle gear.

Fig. Differential construction & working

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 22

 EXPERIMENT NO. 5

OBJECTIVE: To study the on constructional details, working principles and operation

of the following Automotive Steering Systems:
a) Manual Steering systems
b) Power Steering Systems

EQUIPMENT : Automotive Steering System Model

Purpose of Steering System

The steering system allows the driver to guide the vehicle along the road and turn left or
right as desired. The system includes the steering wheel, which controls the steering
gear. It changes the rotary motion of the wheel into straight line motion. Manual systems
were popular but now power steering has become popular. It is now installed on about
90% of the vehicles being manufactured.

Types of Steering Systems

Pitman arm steering. The steering knuckles are attached to the steering arms by ball
joints. The bal joints at each wheel permit the steering knuckle to swing from side to
side. This movement turns the front wheels left or right so that the car can be steered.

Fig. recirculating ball steering gear

The recirculating ball steering. In these units, the worm gear on the end of the steering
shaft has a special nut, running on it. The nut rides on rows of small recirculating balls.
The recirculation balls move freely through grooves in the worm and inside the nut. As the
steering shaft is rotated, the balls force the nut to move up and down the worm gear. A
short rack of gear teeth on one side of the nut mesh with the sector gear. Therefore, as
the nut moves up and down the worm , the sector gear turns in on direction or the
other for steering.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 23

The recirculating balls are the only contacts between the worm and the nut. This
greatly reduces friction and the turning effort or force applied by the driver for steering.

The balls are called recirculating balls because they continuously recirculate from one
end of the ball nut to the other end through a pair of ball return guides. For example,
suppose the driver makes a right turn, then the worm gear rotated in a clockwise
direction when viewed from the drivers seat. This causes the ball nut to move upward.
The ball roll between the worm and the ball nut. As the balls reach the upper end of the
nut, they enter the return guide and the roll back to the lower end. There they reenter
the groove between the worm and the ball nut.

Rack and pinion steering gears

The rack and pinion steering gear has become increasing popular for today’s smaller
cars. It is simpler, more dire acting and may be straight mechanical or power assisted
operation. Figure shows a complete rack and pinion…

fig. simplified Rack and pinion steering

Rack and Pinion Power Steering

A power rack and pinion steering gear is another design of integral power steering The
rack functions as the power piston. The tie rods are attached between the rack and the
spindle steering arms. The control valve is connected to the pinion gear Operation of the
control valve is similar to that for the integral power steering gear When the steering
wheel is turned, the resistance of wheels and the weight of vehicle cause the torsion
bar to twist. This twisting causes rotary valve to move in its sleeve, aligning the fluid
passages for the left, right, or neutral position. Oil pressure exerts force on the piston
and helps move the rack to assist the turning effort. The piston is attached directly to the
rack. The housing tube functions as the power cylinder.
The gear assembly is always filled with fluid, and all internal components are immersed
in fluid. This makes periodic lubrication unnecessary, and also acts as a cushion to
help absorb road shocks. On some rack and pinion power steering gears al fluid
passages are internal except for the pressure and return hoses between the gear and
pump.
GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 24
Steering Linkages

Steering linkage depends upon the type of the vehicle, whether it is a car which
has independent front suspension or a commercial vehicle having generally a rigid axle
type front suspension. Each of these linkages will now be described.

Fig. steering linkage for a conventional rigid axle suspension

Steering linkage for vehicle with rigid axle front suspension.

Figs show such a steering linkage. The drop arm (also called pitman arm ) is rigidly
connected to the cross shaft of the steering gear at its upper end, while its lower end is
connected to the link rod through a ball joint. To the other end of the link rod is
connected the link rod arm through a ball joint. Attached rigidly to the other end of the
link rod arm is the stub axle on which the road wheel is mounted. Each stub axle has a
forge track rod arm rigidly bolted to the wheel axis. The other ends of the track rod arms
are connected to the track rod by means of ball joints. The design of these ball joints is
such that the expanding spring compensates for wear or mis-adjustments. An adjuster
is also provided in the track rod to change its length for adjusting wheel alignment.

The steering gear provides mechanical advantage so that only a small effort is required
at the steering wheel to apply a much larger force to the steering linkage. Moreover it
also provides the desired velocity ratio so that much smaller movement of the stub axle
is obtained with large angular movement of the steering wheel. When the steering wheel
is turned, the swinging action of the drop arm imparts a near linear movement to the link
rod. This movement is transmitted through the link rod arm to the stub axle so as to
turn the later about its pivot, which may be a king pin or ball joints. The other wheel is
steered through the track rod. Thus only one wheel is positively steered.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 25

Power Steering

Larger amount of torque is required to be applied by the driver for steering of medium and
heavy vehicles. The power steering system provides automatic hydraulic assistance
to the turning effort applied to the manual steering system. The power system is
designed to become operative when the effort at wheel exceeds a predetermined
value, say 10N. the system is always so designed that in the event of the failure of the
power.

Fig. power steering

system, the driver is able to steer the vehicle manually although with increased effort. Fig
shows a typical power steering system installed on a car.

The power steering systems are operated by fluid under pressure. The fluids usually
used are oils of viscosity rating SAE 5 W or SAE 10 W or higher depending upon
atmospheric conditions. The systems operate under fairly high pressures which may be
as much as 7 MPa.
The principle of working of all the power steering systems is same. The slight movement
of the steering wheel actuates a valve so that the fluid under pressure from the reservoir
enters on the appropriate side of a cylinder, thereby applying pressure on the side of a
piston to operate the steering linkage, which steers the wheel in the appropriate
direction.
When the driver applies a force on the steering wheel to steer, the far end of the torsion
bar, being connected to the spool of the rotary valve and the worm offers
resistance. When the force at the wheel exceeds a predetermined value, the spool
turns through a small angle, when the return line is closed and the fluid under pressure
goes to one side of the rack piston and moves it to effect steering in the desired
direction. The torsion bar is meant to give a feel of the steering to the driver. The
rotation of the steering wheel in the opposite direction connects the other side of the
steering gear to the pressure line. In the neutral steer position both sides of the piston
(nut) are shut off to the pressure line and so they are at the same pressure but the return
line is open due to which the fluid goes on circulating through the valve without causing
any steering effect.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 26

 fig. General arrangement of a steering system

Fig. layout of steering system

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 27

 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

OBJECTIVE: To study and prepare repot on the constructional details, working principles
and operation of Automotive Brake
Systems.

a) Hydraulic and Pneumatic Brake Systems

b) Drum Brake System
c) Disc Brake System

EQUIPMENT: Model of hydraulic brake system

THEORY: Labelled Diagram, Constructional Details, Working Principle and Operation of

the above Steering Systems

PRINCIPLE: It goes without saying that brakes are one of the most important control
components of vehicle. They are required to stop the vehicle within the smallest
possible distance and this is done by converting the kinetic energy of the vehicle into
the heat energy which is dissipated into the atmosphere.

BRAKING REQUIREMENTS:

1 The brakes must be strong enough to stop the vehicle within a minimum distance
in an emergency. But this should also be consistent with safety. The driver must
have proper control over the vehicle during emergency braking and the vehicle must
not skid.
2 The brakes must have good antifade characteristics i.e. their effectiveness
should not decrease with constant prolonged application e.g. while descending hills.
This requirement demands that the cooling of the brakes should be very efficient.

HYDRAULIC BRAKES:

Most of the cars today use hydraulically operated foot brakes on all the four wheels
with an additional hand brake mechanically operated on the rear wheels. An outline of
the hydraulic braking system is shown in fig. the main component in this is the master
cylinder which contains reservoir for the brake fluid. Master cylinder is operated by the
brake pedal and is further connected to the wheel cylinders in each wheel through steel
pipe lines, unions and flexible hoses. In case of Hindustan Ambassador car, on front
wheels each brake shoe is operated by separate wheel cylinder (thus making the brake
two shoe leading) whereas in case of rear wheels there is only one cylinder on each
wheel which operates both the shoes (thus giving one leading and one training shoe
brakes.) As the rear wheel cylinders are also operated mechanically with the hand brake,
they are made floating. Further, all the shoes in the Ambassador car are of the floating
anchor type.

The system is so designed that even when the brakes are in the released position, a
small pressure of about 50 kPa is maintained in the pipe lines to ensure that the cups
of the wheel cylinder are kept expanded. This prevents the air from entering the
wheel cylinders when the brakes are released. Besides, this pressure also serves the
following purposes.
(i) it keeps the free travel of the pedal minimum by opposing the brake shoe retraction
GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 28
springs.
(ii) During bleeding, it does not allow the fluid pumped into the line to return, thus quickly
purging air from the system.

Fig. Master cylinder

DRUM BRAKES:

In this type of brakes, a brake drum is attached concentric to the axle hub whereas on the
axle casing is mounted a back plate. In case of front axle, the back plate is bolted to the
steering knuckle. The back plate is made of pressed steel sheet and is ribed to
increase rigidity and to provide support for the expander, anchor and brake shoes. It
also protects the drum and shoe assembly from mud and dust. Moreover, it absorbs
the complete torque reaction of the shoes due to which reason it is sometimes also
called torque plate. Two brake shoes are anchored on the back plate as shown in fig.
Friction linings are mounted on the brake shoes. One or two retractor springs are
used which serve to keep the brake shoes away from the drum when the brakes are
not applied. The brake shoes are anchored at one end, whereas on the other ends
force F is applied by means of some brake actuating mechanism which forces the brake
shoe against the revolving drum, thereby applying the brakes. An adjuster is also
provided to compensate for wear of friction lining with use. The relative braking torque
obtained at the shoes for the same force applied at the pedal varies depending upon
whether the expander (cam or toggle lever) is fixed to the back plate or it is floating,
whether the anchor is fixed or floating and whether the shoes are leading or trailing.

Fig. band brake

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 29

DISC BRAKES:

As shown in fig. a disc brake consists of a cast iron disc bolted to the wheel hub and a
stationary housing called caliper. The caliper is connected to some stationary part of the
vehicle, like the axle casing or the sub axle and is cast in two parts, each part containing
a piston. In between each piston and disc, there is friction pad held in position by
retaining pins, spring plates etc. Passages are drilled in the caliper for the fluid to
enter or leave each housing. These passages are also connected to another one for
bleeding. Each cylinder and contains a rubber sealing ring between the cylinder and the
piston.

When the brakes are applied, hydraulically actuated pistons move the friction pads into
contact with the disc, applying equal and opposite forces on the later. On releasing the
brakes, the rubber sealing rings act as return springs and retract the pistons and the
friction pads away from the disc.
For a brake of this type
T = 2µpaR
Where
µ = coefficient of friction
p = fluid pressure
a = cross sectional area of one piston
R = distance of the longitudinal axis of the piston from the wheel axis

Fig. Disc brake

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 30

BRAKE SYSTEM FOR MARUTI (SUZUKI) 800 CAR:

The front wheel brakes are of the disc type, whereas for rear wheels drum type brakes
(leading trailing shoes) are employed. Parking brake is mechanically operated by a wire
and link system and works on the rear wheels only. Same brake shoes are used for
service and parking brakes. The layout of the system is shown in fig.
A tandem master cylinder is employed. The hydraulic pressure produced there is applied
to two independent circuits. One circuit is for front left and rear right brakes, whereas the
other is for front right and rear left brakes. Due to this reason, the braking system in the
Maruti has greater safety because even if a pressure leak occurs in the brake line of one
circuit, the other braking circuit works, due to which a certain degree of braking is still
available to the vehicle.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 31

 EXPERIMENT NO. 07

OBJECTIVE: Study and experiment on Suspension system.

EQUIPMENT: A model of suspension system.

THEORY :
Need of suspension system:
1.) To prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to the vehicle components.
2.) To safeguard the occupants from road shocks.
3.) To preserve the stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling, while in motion.

Types of suspension:
1.) Leaf spring suspension system 2.) Coil Spring Suspension system
3.) Mc-Persion strut suspension system (4.) Torsion bar suspension system

Suspension springs:
1. Steel springs
(a) Leaf spring (b) tapered leaf spring (c) Coil spring (d) torsion bar
2. Rubber springs
(a)Compression spring (b) Compression Shear-spring (c) Steel-reinforced spring
(d) Progressive spring (e) Face shear spring (f) Torsional shear spring
3. Plastic spring
4. Air spring
5. Hydraulic spring

Constructional details and characteristics of leaf spring:

The most commonly used leaf spring is the semi-elliptic type, consisting of one main
leaf, whichusually has its ends formed into eyes for connection with the spring
brackets, and a number of shorterleaves, the length of which gradually and uniformly
decreases from the main leaf. The various leaves areheld together by a centre bolt.

Fig. leaf spring between frame and axel casing

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 32

Constructional details and characteristics of Coil spring:
Coil springs can store about twice as much energy per unit volume as that of leaf springs.
Thus for thesame job coil springs need weight only about half that of leaf springs. But
leaf springs serve both thepurposes. Cushion the shocks and to guide or control
cushioned motion.

Fig. (a) coil spring concentric with shock absorber (b) coil spring between axle casing and
frame

Constructional details and characteristics of Torsion bar spring:

Fig. torsion bar between frame and control arm

A rod or tube acting in torsion can work as a torsion-bar spring. The torsion-bar spring
is a bar of spring steel that is anchored to the frame at one end while the other
end is freely supported and connected to a lever arm. The lever-arm is pin-jointed to
the axle spindle or steering head. The action of torsion-bar springs is essentially same as
that of coil spring.
Rubber suspension:
The advantages of using rubber as a means of suspension are:
1. It can store greater energy per unit weight than the steel. For this reason rubber
springing system can be made more compact.
2. The rubber has excellent vibration damping properties.

3. The absence of squeaking which is always present in steel springs.

4. The number of bearings is reduced considerably for the rubber suspension

system. This means longer life.
5. Rubber is more reliable. A rubber suspension cannot suddenly fail like the metal
springs.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 33

Air suspension:

The advantages of air suspension system are:

1. A variable space for wheel deflection is put to optimum use by virtue of the
automatic control devices.
2. Because the vehicle attitude is also constant, changes in headlamp alignment
due to varying loads are avoided.
3. The spring rate varies much less between the laden and unladen conditions, as
compared with that of conventional steel springs. This reduces the dynamic loading.
4. The improved standard of ride comfort and noise reduction attained with air
springs reduces both driver and passenger fatigue.

Fig. (a) bellows type air spring Fig. (b) piston type air spring

Shock absorbers:

Fig. shock absorber

Shock absorbers are necessary because springs do not “settle down” fast enough. After
a spring has been compressed and released, it continues to shorten and lengthen, or
oscillate for a time.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 34

This is what happens if the spring at the wheel is not controlled. When the wheel hits a bump,
the spring compresses. Then the spring expands after the wheel passes the bump. The
expansion of the spring causes the car body and frame to be thrown upward. But,
having over expanded, the spring shortens again. This action causes the wheel to move
up and momentarily leave the road at the same time that the car body and frame drops
down. The action is repeated until the oscillations gradually die out. Such spring action on a
car would produce a very bumpy and uncomfortable ride. It could also be dangerous,
because a bouncing wheel makes the car difficult to control. Therefore, a dampening
device is needed to control the spring oscillations. This device is the shock absorber.

The shock absorber is the direct-acting tubular or telescope type. In operation, the
shock absorbers lengthen and shorten as the wheels meet irregularities in the road. As
they do this, a piston inside the shock absorber moves in a cylinder filled with fluid.
Therefore the fluid is put under high pressure and forced to flow through the openings
slowly. This slows the piston motion and retains spring action.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 35

 EXPERIMENT NO. 8

OBJECTIVE:To study battery ignition system for four cylinders S.I. engines and
requirements of ignition system.

Equipment: Battery ignition system

Theory: Ignition which is the initiation of combustion is a very important step in SI

engine. In a four cylinder petrol engine, ignition does not take please in all the four
cylinders at a time. There is a lag between the time point of ignition in one cylinder
and that in the next. The firing order and the number of cylinder in the engine
determine the phase angle between the four cylinders. Generation of the spark
between the two electrodes of a spark plug is some thing, but keeping the
sequence of firing as required is something is different. The ignition system
ensures timely spark in all the engine cylinders. The purpose is to generate a spark
in each cylinder near the end of the compression stroke in that cylinder without
misfires so that more or less a uniform torque is maintained on the engine
crankshaft during the successive power or expansion strokes. The spark in each
cylinder must be generated exactly at the right moment in the cycle and repeated at
a rate of a few thousand times in a matter of a minute. The problem is more severe
in high speed engines. Therefore, spark generation and its accurate control are
very essential for an efficient of the engine without any misfires.

Components of ignition system:

(i) Battery: the battery is the main source of the electrical energy required not only
for producing the ignition spark but also for satisfying the other electrical needs of
the automobile. It is the main source of power when the vehicle is parked or when
the vehicle is running at low speed.
The battery is an energy converter. It converts electrical energy into chemical
energy during charging and converts chemical energy into electrical energy while
discharging.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 36

 Fig. storage battery

(ii) Ignition coil: the storage of an automobile can supply high current at a low
voltage of 12V. it is in the order 2 or 3 kv. Using the principle of electromagnetic
induction, the voltage from the storage battery is stepped up from the primary coil
to the secondary coil.

Fig. Ignition coil

(Iii) Condenser: the condenser is an electrical device consisting of two thin

metallic plates, normally made of lead, tin, silver or aluminum foil, separated by an
intermediate insulator. The insulator can be made from mica laminations or some
paper specially treated for the purpose. The condenser is a capacitor which can
store some amount of current.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 37

 Fig. condenser types

(iv) Distributor : The distributor is required for sending the high voltage current
received at its central portion to the individual spark plug electrode in a sequence
know as the firing order through points. There are as many points arranged along a
circle around the central point as there are number of cylinders in the engine.
Requirements of Ignition system:

(i) To supply high voltage current of order of 20000 to 30000 voltages to

spark plug to induce spark at the spark plug gap.
(ii) Spark should take place at the correct time just before the compression
stroke is completed.
(iii) System should function efficiently at all speed of the engine.
(iv) System should be light , compact and easy to maintain.
(v) It should not cause any interference in working system of the engine.

Types of ignition system:

Battery Ignition system:
1. Current for primary winding of induction coil is provided by battery.
2. if battery is discharged the system will fail to work.
3. spark intensity is good even at low speed.
4.spark intensity is poor at high speed. Efficiency of the system decreases.
5. starting is easy.
6. It is less costly.
7. maintenance is more and occupy more space.
8. used in cars using SI engines.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 38

 Fig. battery ignition system

Fig. battery ignition system for a six-cylinder engine

Magneto Ignition system:

1. Current for primary winding is produced by a magnet rotating in a fixed
armature.
2. The system will continue to work even if the battery is discharge.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 39

3. Spark intensity is poor at low speed.
4. Spark intensity is good at high speed. Efficiency of the system improves.
5. Starting is slightly difficult.
6. It is more costly.
7.Mantenance is less. It is more compact.
8. Used in two wheelers engines, racing cars, air craft etc.

Fig. high tension magneto

ignition system

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 40

 EXPERIMENT NO. 9

OBJECTIVE: To study and prepare report on the constructional details, working

principles and operation of the following fuel supply systems
a) Carburetor
b) Diesel fuel injection system
c) Gasoline fuel injection system

EQUIPMENT: Model of fuel supply & distribution system

THEORY: To study and construction details, working principle and operation of the
fuel supply systems.

Functions of a carburetor

The main functions which a carburetor is required to perform are

1 To keep a small reserve of fuel at a constant head

2 To vaporize the fuel to prepare a homogeneous air fuel mixture
3 To supply correct amount or the air fuel mixture at the correct strength
under all conditions of load and speed of the engine

Fig. simple or elementary carburetor

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 41

Simple carburetor

To understand the principle on which a carburetor works, consider a simple

carburetor as shown in fig. The main parts are a float chamber, fuel jet, venturi,
nozzle and a throttle valve. The float in the float chamber is made of deep drawn
brass sheet and is kept hollow for lightness. Such floats have a tendency to leak
along the joint seams. Due to this reason floats are now made of nylon plastic or
expanded synthetic rubber. The needle valve attached to the float lever serves to
close or open the fuel inlet to the float chamber depending upon the requirements.
The needle valve consists of a cylindrical stem with a conical tip made of steel or
else a solid steel stem with a rubber seat tip. Alternatively, there may be a three
piece valve with a rubber seat tip and a spring – loaded ball in the body of the
stem. The later two types maintain the liquid – tight seal during vibrations,
which is not possible with ordinary single piece needle valve. When the fuel
level falls below a definite predetermined value, the float also falls along with fuel
level, thus opening the passage for the fuel supply. The fuel starts flowing in and
the float rises gradually till the fuel level reaches the desired value. At this time,
the float needle closes the fuel inlet passage. Thus a constant head of fuel is
maintained in the float chamber. This constant level of fuel is slightly below the
nozzle outlet, so that the fuel may not drop all the time from the nozzle, even
when the engine is not working. This provision also prevents the fuel from spilling
out when the car is tilted on account of hilly or highly cambered road. In practice fuel
level in the float chamber is maintained about 5mm below the nozzle outlet. A
small vent in the float chamber keeps the pressure inside atmospheric. In modern
practice it is preferred to vent the float chamber to the air intake of the
carburetor. Such an arrangement prevents dust particles from mixing with the petrol
through the vent as there is always an air cleaner on the intake side of the
carburetor which filters the incoming air.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 42

 EXPERIMENT NO.10

OBJECTIVE: Study & experiment on fuel supply system of C.I. engine carburetor,
fuel injection pump and MPFI.

Fig. individual pump injection system

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 43
Fuel Injection System:
The function of a fuel injection system is to inject proper quantity of fuel into the
engine cylinders at the correct time and at a predetermined rate. The fuel injection
systems may be broadly classified into the solid injection system and the air
injection system. In the solid injection system, only the liquid fuel is injected,
whereas in the injection system liquid fuel is injected along with compressed air.
The air injection system is less reliable, less efficient and requires an air
compressor for supplying air at 7 Mpa or higher pressures (which consumes upto
10% of the power output of the engine) due to which reasons it has become
obsolete. The solid injection system will, therefore, be discussed here in detail.

Two types of solid injection systems are in use:

1. common rail fuel injection system
2. individual pump fuel injection system

Layout of a common rail fuel injection system is shown in fig. This type of fuel
supply system is used in the Detroit diesel engine, commonly known as Jimmy
diesel. In this a single injection pump with injector, called as unit injector is
employed on each cylinder. The unit injectors are operated by rocker arms and
springs similar to the engine valves. A linkage connects the control racks of all the
unit injectors, so that fuel injection in all the cylinders may be equal and
simultaneously controlled.

The fuel is taken from the fuel tank by the feed pump and is supplied at low
pressure through a filter, to all the unit injectors. This avoids the high pressure fuel
lines necessary in the individual pump system. Any excess fuel from the relief
valve is returned to the fuel tank.

Individual pump fuel injection system using in line injection pump is shown in fig.
Fuel is drawn from the fuel tank by means of a fuel feed pump which is operated
from the injection pump camshaft. Generally, the plunger type or the diaphragm
type of fuel feed pumps are employed in automobiles. The pump is provided with
hand priming lever so that the diesel oil can be forced into the system and the air
bled out without turning the engine. The fuel is then passed through a filter and
thence to the fuel injection pump. Without the filter or with a poor quality filter,
abrasive matter would reach the fuel injection pump and injectors, resulting in
poor starting,
irregular idling and deterioration in performance due to decreased fuel delivery from
the injection pump. The abrasive matter would also cause faulty spraying and
leakage in the injectors thus resulting in increased fuel consumption and heavy
exhaust smoke. MPFI is used to specify a technology used for petrol engine MPFI stands
for multi point fuel injection. It is a system which uses a small computer to control car’s
engine. In case of MPFI engine, there is one fuel- injector installed near each cylinder,
that in why they called multipoint fuel injection.
Working of MPFI is more intelligent than that of a simple carburetor the computer controls
what amount of fuel is to be injected into each carburetor this is based on the input it
reads.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 44

 EXPERIMENT NO.11
OBJECTIVE:
To study the HP. Of I.C. Engine by morse test
AIM:
To determine

 Brake Power
 Fuel consumption
 Specific fuel consumption
 Brake thermal efficiency
 Indicated Power
 Mechanical efficiency
 Swept volume
 Air consumption
 Volumetric efficiency
 Heat balance sheet

THEORY:
The most commonly used source of power for motor vehicles, introduced by the
German engineers Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz in 1885. The petrol engine is a
complex piece of machinery made up of about 150 moving parts. It is a reciprocating
piston engine, in which a number of pistons move up and down in cylinders. A mixture
of petrol and air is introduced to the space above the pistons and ignited. The gases
produced forces the pistons down, generating power. The engine-operating cycle is
repeated after every four strokes (upward or downward movement) of the piston, this
being known as the four-stroke cycle. The motion of the pistons rotates a crankshaft, at
the end of which a heavy flywheel is connected. From the flywheel the power is
transferred to the vehicle’s driving wheels via the transmission system of clutch,
gearbox, and final drive.
Multiple Cylinders
The vast majority of internal combustion engines used more than one cylinder. This is
entirely a question of efficiency. The limitation of the Otto Cycle is that it only provides
power to turn the crankshaft a quarter of the time. The logical solution is to have
multiple cylinders with pistons turning the crankshaft so at any time there is always one

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 45

cylinder in the power stroke and the crankshaft is turned at a fairly even rate. An even
more powerful method is to use extra cylinders at intermediate points in the cycle so
that one power stroke starts before the previous one has finished.
Description:
Three Cylinder, Four Stroke, Petrol Engine Test Rig with hydraulic brake dynamometer
arrangement mainly consists of:

 Loading Arrangement (Hydraulic brake dynamometer).

 Fuel Input Measuring Arrangement,
 Air intake measuring arrangement.
 Arrangement for measuring the heat carried away by cooling water from engine
jacket.
 Arrangement for measuring the heat carried away by exhaust gases.
 Panel Board Arrangement

A brief description and particulars on this test rig is given below:

Loading Arrangement (Hydraulic Brake Dynamometer):
Hydraulic brake dynamometer works on the principle of dissipating the power in fluid
friction rather than in dry friction. In principle its construction is similar to that of a fluid
flywheel. It consists of an inner rotating member or impeller coupled to the output shaft
of the engine. This impeller rotates in a casing filled with fluid. This outer casing, due to
centrifugal force developed, tends to revolve with impeller, but is resisted by a torque
arm supporting the balance weight. The frictional forces between the impeller and the
fluid are measured by the spring balance fitted on the casing the heat developed due to
dissipation of power is carried away by a continuous supply of the working fluid, usually
water. Regulating the sluice gates, which can be moved in and out to partially or wholly
obstructive flow of water between impeller and the casing, can control the output.
Fuel Input Measuring Arrangement:
Consists of self-mounting type fuel tank which is suitably mounted on a stand. The
stand fixed on the air tank, fuel goes from the reservoir to fuel filter through a burette.
The burette facilitates the measurement of the fuel consumption for a definite period of
time with the help of a stopwatch.
Air Intake Measuring Arrangement:

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 46

Consists of an air tank having on orifice plate with orifice and a manometer to measure
the flow rate of air sucked by the engine.
Arrangement For Measuring The Heat Carried Away By Cooling Water:
Suitable piping system is fitted to the engine for circulating the cooling water for the
engine. Thermocouples are provided to measure the inlet and outlet temperature of
cooling water. For measuring the rate of flow of cooling water, a water meter is
provided. With these entire arrangements one can find the heat carried away by cooling
water.
Arrangement For Measuring The Heat Carried Away By Exhaust Gases:
It consists of exhaust gas calorimeter to measure the heat carried away by exhaust
gases. Exhaust gas calorimeter consists of a central tube and an outer jacket. Exhaust
gases passes through central tube and water is circulated in outer jacket to get the
maximum Temperature difference of exhaust gases at inlet and outlet of calorimeter.
The volume of water circulation is measured with the help of measuring cylinder and
stopwatch. Thermocouples are provided to get the inlet and outlet temperature of
exhausts gases and water circulated.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

33. Close all the valves..

34. Fill oil in the oil sump of engine. It should be in between the marks provided on
the oil dipstick. If oil level is reduced, add clean oil (SAE–40) to the crank case by
opening the cover of valve provided, at top of engine.
35. Fill the petrol in petrol tank.
36. Fill the manometer with water up to half of its height.
37. Fill the burette with petrol by opening the valve provided.
38. Supply the fuel to the engine by opening the valve.
39. Switch on the main supply to the panel.
40. Connect water supply to the engine.
41. Connect the pipes from engine water outlet, calorimeter water outlet to drain.
42. Set a flow rate for engine cooling water by valve..
43. Set a flow rate for calorimeter cooling water by valve..
44. Note down the reading of sensor T3/T4.
45. Ensure that load on the dynamometer is zero.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 47

 46. Rotate the key and switch on engine.
47. Set a pressure between 0.5 to 1 kg/cm2 of hydraulic brake dynamometer by
valve V8.
48. Let the engine run for 5 minutes.
49. Increase the RPM.
50. Apply load on engine by dynamometer.
51. Wait for 10 minutes so that temperatures can stabilize.
52. Note the reading of load from control panel.
53. Note the RPM.
54. Note down the manometer readings.
55. Note down the temperatures by D.T.I.
56. Close the valve of fuel tank and note down the time to consume 10-20 ml of
diesel by stop watch.
57. Open the valve of fuel tank.
58. Measure the flow rate of water through engine jacket with help of water meter
and stop watch for engine cooling.
59. Measure the flow rate of water through calorimeter with the help of water meter
and stop watch for calorimeter cooling.
60. For morse test cut off the 1st cylinder by switch.
61. Reduce the load by dynamometer without changing throttle to attain constant
RPM approximately same to RPM without cutting the cylinders.
62. Note down the load.
63. Note down the RPM.
64. Now cut on the 1st cylinder and set the original RPM, by increasing the load.
65. Repeat the steps for remaining cylinders (one at a time).
66. Repeat the experiment for different load.
67. Repeat the experiment for different RPM.
68. When the experiment is over reduce the load on engine. Reduce the accelerator
gradually.
69. Rotate the key and switch OFF the engine.
70. Close the fuel supply to the engine by valve.
71. Close the cold water supply to engine after 10 minutes.
72. Drain the calorimeter water by valve.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 48

OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m/sec2
Calorific value of fuel CV = 44650 kJ/kg
Co-efficient of discharge for orifice Cd = 0.64
Specific heat of water Cp = 4.186 kJ/kg °C
Density of air ρa = 1.21 kg/m3
Density of fuel f = 720 kg/m3
Diameter of orifice do = 0.027 m
Diameter of piston D = 0.0686 m
Stoke length of piston L = 0.0711 m
Number of cylinder NC = 3
Number of cycles n = 2
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Ta = ___________ °C (Reading of sensor T3 / T4 before starting engine)

S.No.
N (RPM)
h1 (cm)
h2 (cm)
W (kg)
x (ml)
t (sec)
T1 (°C)
T2 (°C)
T3 (°C)
T4 (°C)
T5 (°C)
T6 (°C)
VE (ltrs)
tE (sec)
Vc (ltrs)
tc (sec)
W1 (kg)

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 49

N1 (RPM)
W2 (kg)
N2 (RPM)
W3 (kg)
N3 (RPM)
Where,
h1 and h2 = manometer reading of high and low level respectively
N = revolutions per minute
N1 = revolutions per minute after cutting first cylinder
N2 = revolutions per minute after cutting second cylinder
N3 = revolutions per minute after cutting third cylinder
T1 = temperature of water inlet for Engine jacket
T2 = temperature of water outlet for Engine jacket
T3 = Temperature of exhaust gases at inlet of calorimeter
T4 = Temperature of exhaust gases at outlet of calorimeter
T5 = Temperature of water at Inlet of calorimeter
T6 = Temperature of water at Outlet of calorimeter
Ta = Ambient air temperature
t = Time taken to consume x ml of fuel
tc = Time for VC
tE = time for VE
VC = Volume of water flows through calorimeter
VE = Volume of water flows through engine
W = load cell reading
W1 = load cell reading after cutting first cylinder
W2 = load cell reading after cutting second cylinder
W3 = load cell reading after cutting third cylinder
x = Volume of fuel consumed

CALCULATIONS:
𝑊 𝑋 𝑁 𝑋 0.746
Brake power, BP = kW
2000
𝑥 𝜌𝑓
Fuel consumption, W f = 𝑋 kg/sec
𝑡 106

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 50

 𝑊𝑓
Specific fuel consumption, W sf = kg/kW-sec
𝐵𝑃
Heat supplied by the fuel, Hf = W f x Cv (kW)
𝐵𝑃
Brake thermal efficiency, ηBT = x 100%
𝐻𝑓

𝑉𝐸 𝜌𝑤
Mass of water entering the engine cooling jacket per second, m ew = 𝑋 kg/sec
𝑡𝐸 103

Heat carried by water from engine cooling jacket, Hecw = mew x Cp x (T2 – T1) kW
𝑉𝑐 𝜌𝑤
Mass of water entering calorimeter, mcw = 𝑋 kg/sec
𝑡𝑐 103

Heat carried by water from calorimeter, Hccw = mcw x Cp x (T6 – T5) kW

𝐻𝑐𝑐𝑤
Heat carried out by exhaust gases, Hexh = x (T3 – Ta) kW
𝑇3 − 𝑇4

Heat lost in radiation or uncounted heat, Hun = Hf – (BP + Hecw + Hexh) kW

Air consumption, Qa = Cd x a0 √2𝑔𝐻 (m3/sec)
𝜋
Area of orifice, a0 = 𝑑02 m2
4
ℎ1 − ℎ2 𝜌𝑤
Head causing flow of air through orifice, H = ( − 1) m
100 𝜌𝑎

𝜋𝐷2 𝐿𝑁𝑁𝑐
Swept volume, Vs = m3/sec
4 𝑋 60 𝑋 𝑛
𝑄𝑎
Volumetric efficiency, ηvol = x 100%
𝑉𝑠

MORSE TEST
𝑁1 𝑋 𝑊1 𝑋 0.746
Brake power after cutting first cylinder, BP1 = kW
2000
Indicated power after cutting first cylinder, IP1 = BP – BP1
𝑁2 𝑋 𝑊2 𝑋 0.746
Brake power after cutting second cylinder BP2 = kW
2000
Indicated power after cutting second cylinder, IP2 = BP – BP2
𝑁3 𝑋 𝑊3 𝑋 0.746
Brake power after cutting third cylinder BP3 = kW
2000
Indicated power after cutting third cylinder, IP3 = BP – BP3
Indicated power, IP = IP1 + IP2 + IP3
𝐵𝑃
Mechanical efficiency, ηmech = x 100%
𝐼𝑃
𝐼𝑃
Indicated thermal efficiency, ηIT = x 100%
𝐻𝑓

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 51

PRECAUTION

7. Change engine oil after every 100 hours of total running or 6 months whichever
is earlier.
8. Open cold water supply to the engine before starting the engine.
9. Fuel tank and fuel line should be clean and free from foreign particles.
10. The Morse test should be carried out only after the engine running conditions are
stabilized at the required BP.
11. When a cylinder is cut off adjust the speed and load of the engine quickly
because large time laps might result in the change in the working conditions of
the engine.
12. Do not attempt to cut off two cylinders simultaneously, since it can develop
severe engine vibration.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 52

 EXPERIMENT NO.12

OBJECTIVE:
To study air conditioner using the model.
APPARATUS USED:
Air conditioning test rig.
THEORY:
Air conditioning is the simultaneous control of the temperature, humidity, motion and
purity of the atmosphere in a confined space. Air conditioning applies in the heating
season as well as in the cooling season. Air conditioning has wide applications in
submarine ships, aircrafts and rockets. Air conditioning is associated with the human
comfort and controlling the humidity ratio.
Air conditioning may be defined as the process of removing heat from a substance
under controlled conditions. It also includes the process of reducing and maintaining
the temperature of a body below the general temperature of its surroundings. This is
widely used for cooling of storage chambers in which perishable foods, drinks, and
medicines are stored. Figure shows the schematic of the unit with complete description.
Compressor:
The main function of compressor is to raise the pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant by the compression of the refrigerant vapour and then pump it into the
condenser.
Condenser:
Condense the high pressure vapour refrigerant into the high pressure liquid by
condenser fan and passes it into the receiver tank for recirculation
Capillary Tube:
Expands the liquid refrigerant at high pressure to the sub cooled liquid refrigerant at
low pressure so that a measured quantity of liquid refrigerant is passed into the
evaporator.
Evaporator:
Evaporates the sub cooled liquid refrigerant by absorbing the sensible heat into vapour
refrigerant and sends back into the compressor.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 53

VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE:
The refrigerant starts at some initial state or condition, passes through a series of
processes in a definite sequence and returns to the initial condition. This series of
processes is called a cycle.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 54

The Standard Vapour Compressor Cycle (SVCC) consists of the following processes:

1. Reversible adiabatic compression from the saturated vapour to a super heated

condition. Reversible heat rejection at constant pressure (sub cooling liquid and
condensation of the refrigerant).
2. Irreversible enthalpy expansion from saturated liquid to a low pressure sub cool
liquid.
3. Reversible heat addition at constant pressure.

GEHUB, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,BHIMTAL CAMPUS Page 55