3NJ/9

"
J VfAA I1f/1.
lilA/I(W Vllii
AM, Rev. Fluid Mech. 1981. 13:9-32 . ,
tI~/4
Copyright C> 1981 byAnnual Reoie\jls Inc.,1.Jf rights reserved

iMr /t,~t~I;,~{;;,Jv /

,GOASTAL SEDIMENT /'J.tAJ!..£A,'

IffhiV"" tJi~816:
/fWw .* ".

.J
i
PROCESSES
-c'. ~ /)i~'
!
Kiyoshi Horikawa
I /MA' f.AtA Department of Civil Engineering, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113,
Japan' .'

~J4rrr-~ 1 INTRODUCTION
m~I.4't.-t.I4/
""
.D~'OIVl;W~ , .
' :The study of coastal sediment processes has been systematized over the
,

past half century byc6astal geomorphologists,while the dynamics of

~r J .;0/
. .

1M..
nearshore sediment movement has" been treated only <turmg t~e past
twenty years by workers in the fields of coastal' engineering and
(:'STAl"? nearshore oceanography. For OUt,u ases here, the term*'coasta.l
sediment processes" will cover the tin1e history of enumerousphe-.
nomena related to sediment movement in:.theooastal area. From the
per$pectiveof engineering science,.coastal sedimentpbenomena are
closely/related t6 various importa:nt practical problems such as siltation
of harbor basins and .beach erosion. ,

It was' not so long ago that most coastal projects were carried out by
trial andenor because of a lack ,of knowlelige of the underIyi1lg
mech~Il1S of coastal sediment processes. Durlngthe last few decades,
large quantities of, data have been taken in st\ldi~ of the transport of
f( ::;'
,l.r' [~l.t; ~ ;>'~;' ,-:,,;~~."~':':'"j;~
.
J:<: "'.,.-:"
..,.;
'.~...~.~
.\,~ coastal sediment ,through.field 1tnd'labotatory 'investigations. Although
. .!..
~:~~. ,
~''f'';'~

.
,' '
'
. ..
"i
.,
'~~' "..
"'
. ..
.'-
,' -"
. . .:' .~... . ;"'..~."
'" '
these data are helpful, the phenomena are very compl~x and as y~t most
- ;"'''~'
"

are understood ",.anlyin a qualitative 'sense. Therefore, more basic

re~earch effort is required before we can confidentl}' deal with practical
problems. The extensive researchact1vities carried out in recent years by
groups all over the world hol,d.p,tonrise of a, better understanding of
.
coastalsediInent processes. '~~.' d .

'.f:i~
~~~~~~~#~> '

. :'~~
{
~". . 2 VARIOUS APPROACHES AND RELATED
ELEMENTS'
'eo,astal sediment processes are extremely oomplex and include phenom-
ena having quite different 'scales in' SpAce and in time. For purposes of

t
~
j:
~
'I'
f.
'j'
~:
'i
1
~'

.
t;,
?
~

I1I)G
 /--'\

10 HOfUKAWA COASTALSEDlMENT PROCESSES 11,

j,
"'
T~le 1 Qassificatiop. or coastal process scales 2.2 Mesoscale Approach
Mesoscale Micrtiscale Changes in shoreline and sea-bottom topography, bar and cusp forma-
Macroscale
~
tion, and nearshore currents all fall in the categ.ory .of mesoscale
Time scale year day/hour second phenomena. Numerous investigations have been. carried .out on, these
Space scale kilometer meter millimeter
- subjects, and certain details are understood at least qualitatively. Be-
.
causeourunderstil11ding of nearshore dynamits has tremendouslyim-
proyed over the last decade, fluid <motion may be 'predidedJairly
.

clarificati9..?'. ..1"l?tik~Wa~1~7?)".ffQ~$~.'.'CI~Sif~i~g..~~!~.~hel1()1!l~na
inw;three.c1lttgoriesasm3.croscale;' mesoscale/'and:riticrosca.Iei These
scales can be roUghly described as shown itl Table 1. Specific examples
for each- scale will.be given in thefollQwing sections. . e:nvironment. For example, no precise expression for the coastaf-
Theoretically speaking, the completesuperpo~ition<?f 1DicrQ~~l~.PEe-
Domena should compose .the mesoscatephenomena and that. of the
mesoscatephenomena, the macroscate pheQomena. At pr~ent, ..die
above connections cannOt be made. It is therefore suggested tful.tcoastal
engineers devote their efforts to clarifying the mechaniSms of these
different scale phenomena in parall~t,- and to trying to fill in the great
~ gaps still cxistillg anlong thenl.
/ continuityequalion.4erived under simplified conditions yields a predic.
2.1 Macroscale Approach
To fre~t macroscalephenomena, -the approach of the geologist and
geomorphologist is quite helpful for understanding. the. general tende~-
des of .coastal processes. But the tim~scale of their interest is usually
too longcforengip.eering purposes; hence coastal engineers have devel-
oped their own measures and devices Jor obtai11ingdata on the rela-
tively short-term variatiQn. of coastal processes. This "short". term,
roughly.Jthespan of human life, is still quite long when considering
nor11!~L~~g~!l.e..~!mK-p-ractice. Nevertheless, the. historical sea-level
change; gr.ound-Ievelvariati.on due t.o crustal movement, as well as
changes due to artific.,ialinterference,. must an be taken. into considera-
tion at theJocations where th~y .occur.
fa additmh to natural. processes, COMWengineers sl10uld be con-
cerned with effects produced mainly by the cofistruction of C{J8stal
structures asweU as by various -other similar sources. Tbese man-made
influences are occasiOfiallythemamcauses .ofthe beach erosion occur-
. .
precisely under a.ppropriate assumptions. But.. actual coastal sediment
processes have not been sufficiently itlvestigated: 'dt1~ to the complexIty
~
ofooastal sediment m.ovement and the formidable nature of the coastal
sediment. transport rate is yet available. For this reason we cann.ot at
present c.ombine the. fU)1damentalequations of fluid motion and the
conservati.on.ofsediment material to ca.lculatethe
.
bottom chan~e
nearshorearea. '
In ordetto surmount tbisprobLem f.orpracticaIapplications, numer~
,I ous.longshore-transport formulas have been proposed based. i~e
part on empirical results. Combfning one of these formulas ,and' the
tion .ofshoreline change, somedetaitsof which will be given later. This
kind of approach is quite useful for practical purposes, ..buttheassump-
tions made in.the above treatments are not always.correct. .
Inorderto simulate charigesin the sea-bottom.config:yration,we start
-
with thefollowingequation:
,-.
\
(1 ":'X)(8hj8t)-aqxj8x-8qy/8y=-o, (2.1)
where x and y denote theh.orizoo.tal ~xes, A is the porosity of the
sediment, h the water depth at a particular point (XIy) at a particular
timet, and qx,qythe sediment transport rates through a unit length in
either~he yor x directiOn, respectively, per unit tim.e. To close theab<?~
equation; lJ" and should be -evaluated using' the wave characteristics
%'
(wave height, wave period, andwave angtekwlite'r depth h, and grain
.
characteristics (grainsited, densilyp", and porosity X). As stated above,
at present fiO reliablef9rmulas f.or '1."an.d lJlI-itr~available.~c ..
Sedintent particles will be' lransported. by fluid motion. Fluid 111otio~

ringon coastsevet1'Wher~. ... . !I.(f4.A<-:iiw in the nearshore area is mainly caused. by wave action. Therefore.w~ve
.. ..

Based on the above considerations, it is frequently. realized that

'
WAVf li~fflA(.n'~
transformation in shallow water, that is, wave refracti.on, wave diffrac-
various natural and artificial causes combine at a given location: But in .
~f(.{(.i"'~";
tion, waverefle~ti.on, and wave breaking should be determitled before~
the future, man-made effects ma.y steadily increase their contribution to (
!>il: A."- IVI
hand. The computation of wave transformation can be successfully
the beach~erosion problem. Therefore, long-term coastid changes should done, atleaslina first approximati.on. The next step is the prediction~of
the nearsl}ote current, .which is. presently possible with adequate a.ccu-
.
I be predi~table..~ith
. ~..."drnr.tton vrOlect.
sufficient accuracy befote starting any coastal W(Att.Hf",,-t Cc.Altt""T
racy. - -

L-
,--
.-.
/1

12 l-lORlKAWA COASTAL SEDIMENT PROCESSES 13

2.3 Microscale Approach aim of our investigations is to clarify these complex relationships. In
In order to correlate the sediment-transport rate with wave action, the orderto treaHhem,a suitable approach must be selected from among
detailed mechanisms of fluid an.d sediment tnovemen.t must be known. i
..1I
the three discussed above.
j
Howcver, our knoWledge on these. subjects is. still inadequate, and
,
further work is needed, . ! 3 NEARSHORE DYNAMICS
The important problems to be solved are listed below, and most ate i
i
g.,~1k?
classified in the microsca.leregime. Theseproble::ns are I Phen otnena/ obsetVed,in the n ear Sh,ore area are extr7mety complex, and
j
seem to elhde any kind of analytical treatment. Smce the end of the
... . . . . .
. . ,
.
,

1. Characteristics of oscillatory boundary-layer flow due to the

.

1940s,a number of workers have treated these probiems t1-JIoughlabora-

coexistence of waves alld currents, such as. the velocity distribution
and bottom snear streSs, under hydrodynamically smooth or rough
conditions,
2. Vertical distribution of the momentum-exchange coefficient (or the
eddy viscosity) and of the diffusion coefficient in the wave field,
3. Vertical distribution of the mass~transport velocity,
4. Wave deformation and velocity field on a.sloping bottom,
5. Interaction between waves and wave~inducedcurrents.
6. Ripple formation and ripple size, disappearance of ripples and
-~
tory and field investigations, and .numerous semi-empirical r~lations or
I
i correlations have been found involving nearshore phenomena. Our next
I iilterest is. to understand their mechanisms,. if only partially:
The radiation~stress concept proposed by Longuet-Higgins & Stewart
! (1960, .1962) opened a new era in the analysis of nearshore dynamics,
Lundgren (1963) independently derIved and named the same term as
.the wave thrust. In the prese:nt article, treatments relating directly to
I
coastal sediment processes will be discussed briefly.
I

formation of
. sheet flow, . i -3.1 Dynamical uEquationsand .()ejihitiolto! Radiation )
! --"
7. Vertical distribution of the suspended~sedimentconcentration inside I St(it$SBS'
!
and outside the breaker zone, i
Following Phillips (1977), the dynamical"equations for the coexistent
8. Detaited mechanisms of sediment transporLdJ,le.'to 'waves and I field of. waves and a current with. vertically. uniform velocity will be
currents.
given. These are the conservationeqitations of mass, momentuin, and
2.4 Interactio1JSamong Waves, Currents,.Topography,land ; energy derived by integrating the corresponding basic equatiQnswith
Sediment Transport
I
i respect to. thevettical axis from the bottom .(z== -h) to the water
I surface (2:=;) and taking a time average over many wave periods,
Figure i schematiZes the relations among the various elements such as I
waves, nearshore currents, sediment transport,. and topography. etc; The i a -. aM~
alP[ ( h+t) ]+ ax(I =0,
I (3.1 )
!
I
rf a. Wave Deformalic>n (Refraction.
Dlffrac.llqn, Reflection, elc.) ,
I
I aM. a( N N.

ax Ua,Mp+Sa.p ) ==Ta.+R..,
I
+ (3,2)
b. Nearshore 'Currenl
-1
I
- Up.
~/ .

c. 5edimentTransporf .Rate (511$- J

pended and Bedload Transport)
d. Topollrap/Jlc CMnge due to :t[~ii..Mp+ ~pg(f2_h~)- ~M;;P(h+f)+ff]
Sediment Transport
e. Wave-Current Interaction
f. Mechon/col. $courll'llJ (Breaking
+ a:J Ma,(101+gf)-IUa,Mi/p(h+f}+u..ff
Point. SWash Zone)
II. Wind-blown Sand
h. Sediment S,",pplled. fronl Rivers +F..+ ~sa,pl+(rate ofenergyloss)=0, (3.3)
and StreiHnS .

Figure J Relationship among waves. nearshore currents, sediment transport, and topog- where the horizontal axes Xt and X2 are taken on the still-water level
raphy (adapted from Ftorikawa, Harikai & Kraus 1979). and the vertical axis:t in the upward direction, hence a,/3= 1 and 2. The
,--
,..,
"

COASTAL SEDIMENT PROC~SSES 15

14 H01tlKA W A

notations p, f, and jJ represent the fluid density, mean sea-level rise due
to the interference between waves and current, and wave energy per
unit surface area. In the present treatment, the horizQntal veloc~ty
component u.. was split into the uniform v~locity co~ponent V..and ~.e
horizontal component u~ of the wave-partIcle velocity. Also, the defffil-
tiens
i- pgH2/8, p the fluid~ensity, g the gravitati9nallicceleration,8 the
wave direction angle, C the wave celerity, and Cgthcgroup velocity.
3.2 Wave Set-Down and Wave Set-Up
.
As 'a typical application of the radiation-streSs concept to nearshore
phenomena., we will consider.the simple case where waves arrive normal
to the shoreline (y axis) from offshore to. a beach wit,h a unifortply . ,

f gentie slope. Taki11gthe x axiSfrom offshore toward shore, and consid-

f
M..=
. -h
pu~dz,
,
M..= ffpUcjdz =p(h+f)U..,
-h ering the steady sta.te, Equation (3.l) becomes dM,Jdx,=O, that is
f Mx=M:x+Mx=p(h+f)Vx+Mxo=(:Onstant. Due to the existence of the
and Ma=
f -h
pu~dz beach, the cQnstant,should be zero. Therefore Equation (3.2) can be
written in the foUowmg form under the Msumption. that the frictional
were introduced. Therefore u.. ==V..+ u~, and Ma::: M.. + M... The other term Rx is negligible:
terms included in the above equations are
dSxxldx ==- pg( h +0 dfldx. (3.9)
S..p= J~h(pu~up+P8ap)dz~ tP~(h+f)28ap Integratioll of the libove equation outside and inside the surf zone
separately under the appropriate assumptions yields theresuIt that the
-M..MfJ/p(h+f), (304) I mean sea level is reduced from the deep-water level to a certain value at
(3.5) I. the breaking' point, then rises up toward the shore. The former and
Ta=-pg.(h+i)af/3x.., ii latter phenomena. are called "wave set-down" and "wave set-up"respec-
f (3.6) I lively. .
R"= o'rpa/oxpdz +Tr..-"'TIt..,
.f .,-h I Laboratory investigations (nOWeh, Inman & Simmons 1968) have
confirmed that the above theoretical treatment predicts. well 'the ob- ,
F..= pf~hu~Bu?+g(z~f)+p/p] dz, (3.7) served Wave set-down and wave set-up, but that there are still some
discrepallcles remaining, especially in the vicinity of the breaking point.
where pis the pressure, 8ap the Kronecker delta. (i.e., 811== 822 == I, and
~ =~
Un = 0) the stress C0 mp ollent inducin g
_ . the interferenc e be- 3.3 Longshore..Current Velocity .Distribution
"fJa 't
,

UI2 ,

.
,
, ,

tweep waves and current, and Tf..,Thathe mean shear stresses at the free -
It has been realized for many years that the longshore current is the
surface and at the bottom respectively. most important agent for the lQngshore sediment transport. In order
The tetm SaSis the.radiation-stress ten~or, which correspo~ds to the to estab1isha relationship between the longshore currenland the
excess momentum flux tensor, 1;..the honzontal force per wut surface lonstShore-sedimenHransport rate, it is necessl!1)'to know the horizontal
area induced by the free..surface gradient, R.. the frictional term con- and verticallongshore-curtent velocity distributions in !Jle nearshore
sIsting of the lateral and.boundary frictionalterms, and F,. the mean area:. Here we will take the simplest case,where the bottom slope is
energyfluxbYthe fluctuatingmotion alone..
The radiation-stress tensorS for the case of, a train of waves.
. r - i
I
Unifotn1,the depth oontour is paral1eLto a straigbt shoreline, and the
wave..i1iducedcurrent motion is steady. The x and y axes are t3.ken
(}
= Pi COS(XI k cos + x2ksinO "":ot}is expressed by I perPendicular (towlirds offshore) and parallel to the shoreline, respec-
i'
t tively. The basic equation m this case is simply written as follows:
I
(cg/C)COS20+ Hit'; c-l) Hcic)sin20'
! dSxy/dx=ft.,. (3.10)
S=ff (Cg/c)siulO+ H2cg/c-l)
,

HCg/c)sin20 ,
.

]
!-
.. ,

I .We wiU consider the nearshore zone in separate regions, outside an<:i
(3.8) inside. the surf zone. Outside the surf zone, we can assume that the
I
energy flux is conserved and thatSneU'slllw/is applicable. Applying this
where H is the wave height, k the wave number, (1the angular frequency,
I
 16 HORIKAW
- A COASTAL SEDIMENT PROCBSSES 17

law, we can derive Sx)'=constant. Therefore Equation (3.10) be20mes , For the bottom frictional term, Bowen and Longuet-Higgins took the
F..y =dS ~', jdx=O.'' (3.11) expressions,
- pCt) (Bowen) (3.15a)
Inside the surf zone, the Waveheight!l is well expressedby.H~"(h+n, -
~'thy= - (LQnguet-Higgins) (3.15b)
where "( is a constant. Bowen (1969a) and Longuet~H1ggms
(1970) ['I IPj",luwlilv=pfwubJl1Vj'IT
.
evaluated dSxy/dx under approxiinations leading to the equations, -

where C and jw are both friction coeffici~nts,luWhl the absolute-time-

(lj4)pgy2( h+ f)sinabcos abd(h+ Ojc1x average, and UbJl1the amplitude of the orbital velocity at the bottom
(3;12a) induced by wave action. The former expression is based on a linear
(Bowen) friction law, while the latter is based on a quadratic law with the
Ry=
(5j16)pg"(2(h+f)sinad( h+f)/c1x asswnption that the longshore-current velocitY,t)is small compared with
~

,(Longuet~Higgins) (3.12b) the wave orbital velocity.

By using the above expressions for the lateral and bottom friction
where «is the angle between the wave crest and bottom contour,' and terms,Bowen. an~L6~g\lC}t;1:Iig1?nsobtainedrealistic . velocity-
.- distrit,ut10neurvcs.ot-thelongshote
the subscript bdenotes the value .at the breaking point. ,
currell\; Their contribution tollie
The ne~t task is, to determine the expression for the frictional term," "

coastal engineering field wasextr~~~ly itt)l'?rta~t be~ause'theydemon~

Ry. Considering Equation (3.6), and neglecting ~e frictional stress. at strated. that the wavC,"it1<1uc~.curtentca.n.be'calculated analytically.
the surface, TC«'we can construct the l1extequation as a general one, However, the ass\1mptiortsUsted below were made and, as a result, .the
,
- (3,.13) applicability of .the solutions is restricted to a certain range., Thes~
R)' =CI(t"ut)/8x)juX-1'hY'
,

assumptions are:Q)The bottom beach slope is unifpnnG)rhe incident

where t) is the longshore current velocity and t,. is th~moment~. wave angle is smallQ)The lateral and bottom frictional terms are valid
. exchange coefficient. The first and second terms .onthe nght-hand s1de '
under certaifi limited conditions; an~The wave height inside the surf
are the lateral and bottomfricuonterms. respectively. ,,' - zone is',simply,expressedas being proportional to the water depth.
For 'the lateral friction term, 130wen and' Longuet-Higgins' used, the . The last assumption seems to be applicabletoon1y a uniformly
,
expressions; sloping bottom. According to recentjnvestigations (Mizuguchi,Tsujioka
& Horikawa 1978,Hotta&. Mizuguchi 1978) the proportionality con-
p(h+f)A"d2vjdx2 stant "( is not constant in a real surf zone; it depends on the bottom
(Bowen) (3.1490) I ./
configuration
. and also the breaker typ~.
U(E"uvjux)/3x= Jonsson (1966, ~1976), Kajhira(L964, 1968)~ and Kamphuis (1975)
d[ /l~( h + f) d.,j c1xl/c1x-
,
treated the frictional stress along a horizontal bottom due to waves. The
(Longuet-Higgins) (3.14b) diagram prepared by Jonsson (1976) is,commonly used in longshore-
cW'rent computations. ,Inside the' surf zone, waves are' s,,!£erime?sed
obliqueIyon the longshore current.-Por a ease where the wave orbital
/lc=N~xVg(h+fJ O<N<O.Ot6, velocity is fairly large compared to the .longshore-current velocity, ,the
'
pr~ent treatnleritwouldbe acceptable. However, ina case where the
where'Ah and N are constants,' and x is measured from s~o~elin~. longshore~urtent velocity is comparable with the wave orbital velocity~
According to these expressions, the momentum':exc~ange'COeff1Clent1S it is expected that the' bottom frictional termwouJd be ofa different
assumed, to increase monotonically from the s?oreliile ?ffshore. be. ~ form and that a new frictional coefficient would be required. Neither of
yond the breaker line. This behavior i~ ~otphys1ca1ly.reahstic. That 1Sto thesequantitieshas been givensatisfactorily. '

say, the momentum-exchange coeff1cient. shonld !~crease from the Concernfug tbeeffec!of incident wave angle on the longshore-current
shoreline to the; breaker line,. but ,decrease In a certam manner beyond velocity distribution, 11u & Dalrymple (1978), I1:nd'Kraus & Sasaki
the breaker line. '
(1979) independently treated the phenomeno~CJf2un<!,~__~stemiillc
 ,.,.--..

COASTAL SEt:>1MENTJ>ROCBSSES 19
18 HORlI<AWA

c
of the an_g]eof wave approach on the' 10nl~shore-curre1.it
il1f1uence
yelos!~y-di~_tribution.
3.4. Nearshore Currents
There are complex. currellts induced by numerous elements in the
nearshore area.. Among these currents, the wave-induced .currents are
. most. closely related. to .coastal sediment processes. Mass. transport
. associated with waves, longshore. currents, 'and rip currents are .all
where D=h+f. The term onthe left-hand side, and the first and second
terms on the right-hand side of Eq\1ation(3.19) are the nonlinear,.
frictional, and forcing terms respectively.
Bowen. (19690) treated the idealiZed nearshore-current patterJlc of a
Closed cell produced by waves arriving norm31 to the shoreline. He
, introduced linear expressions fot the. bottom fri~tion terms and solved
, ., LffAf}
the, resultant equation .under the assumption that the wave heigh~'
periodically alon~ the shor~. The L1!1portant feature ofB6wen's treat-
.

wave-induced currents. that form the nearshore current. When waves

ment was that it paved the way for numerical calculations of the .

nearshore-current system~
arrive a1mostperpendicular to the shoreline, the region.bounded by tWo
Noda (1974) was the first to carry out numerical calculations for
adjacent rip currents fQrffisaunit cell. When the incident. wave angle
, increases, the closed cell disappears and forms a meandering current or nearshore curtents using realistic bottom contours and arbitrary inci-
a longshorecurrent.
.If
'- .

we use the horizontal velocityeomponents u and!? in place of Ux

. -
and 0 we can write M :::-p(h+f)u and My=p(h+nv. Introducing.
these ~~pressions into Equatiohs (3.l) and .(3.2). and considering the
steadystatc, we can derive the following equations:
dent-wave conditions. BottoUl friction _was included in this' model, but
nonlinear .terms were neglected. In order to evaluate the frictional terms,
he applied aquadratic resistance law with a constant-frictioncoeffi-
i
I dent. Sasaki (1975) used essentially the same model with a variable-
! friction coefficient based on J6nsson's diagram for oscil1atory flow, and
i

calculated values of the friction. coefficient at each. mesh point.. The

a[(lt+f)u )/3x+a(h+f)b]/ay=O,
.
(3.16) I
calculated results gave rather good agreement with. field-observation
uau/ax+vau/ay= [T,,+ Rx-(as":x/ax + aSXyjay ) ]lplh+O'
.

i! data in a qualitative sense,

.
~~ I
4 MECHANISM OF. COASTAL SEDIMENT
, !, /

uavlax+ vav/ay = [1;, +Ry- (aSxyla~+aSyyla~}]/p(h+f), I

~
MOVEMENT
'(3.17b) i
1- In tbe treatment of coastal sediment Jransport; for simplicity it is qui~ .

wherep=~onstmit. In order to satisfy Equation (3.16) a scalar function \ CommOnto. consider. separatelYsediroent movement perpendicular and
I. parallel to the shotelin~. Needless to say, the two kinds /of sediment
0/ is sometimes u~ed, defined by
movement are closely related to each other. However, onshore-offshore,
u(1t + f )=at/1/ay, sedimen.t movementisconsideredto be more significant for the short-
v(h+f)= -a4'/ax. (3:18) term vlUiationofcoastai processes, while longshore sediment movement
is rooresigniIicanHor the long4ehn variatiotl ofthecoastlil top()~aphy.
. The. scalar function '4'was introduced by Arthur (1962) and ~oo the
lnthe following section, we will discuss several topics telated to the
transPort stream function. ..- '

Remembering that Tx/ p( h + t)= - gauux ana TJ,/p( It+ n

>#
..'. - .1 mC(:ba.nismsof coastal sediment movement from the perspective of fluid
Ifi~hanics. However,the essential point and goal of the present subject,
--gaf/8y, we .cross-differentiate the first andsec?nd equations in th~t is, the evaluation.of the sediment-transport rate, haS not yet been
Equations (3.17a,b) with respect, to y a,ndx,. respect1v~ly,sU!?tract.~e fully clarified. The main reason for such an unfortunate state is the
second equation' from. the first,and wnte the result usmg the voI'tictty . ahnostlnsuperable difficulty in measuring. the rate and the direction. of
componentCAJ==8v/ax..,.au/ay, . f
sediment transport in the coastal zone, which must be performedlti
-' D[ u8(CAJ/IJ)/ax+va(CAJ/ D)/ay] t1 coniunction with measurinR the waves, currents, and bathymetry:
,
1
=a(Rxi pD)/ay -a(Ry/ pD)/ox 4.1 In~Pt1o7z of Sediment Movement
-a( {aSxx/8x+8Sxy/ay} /pD]!ay
-- '''''/nl/')... (3.19)
t, The water depth at which sediment particles are first influenced by
water motionis about 150 to 200.m~ depending upon the environmental
 -
/--

'If

20 HORIKA W A
COASTAL SEDIMENT PROCESSES 21
conditions, especially th~ wave characteristics. For engineering applica-
.
.
- lion, knowledg~ of the Wat~r . depth wher~ sediment particles move
appreciable distances under wave action is important for determining 5
the initial point of beach-profile change in the offshor~ region. .

Considerable. research has been conducted.. during the last three

~h!
2
decades concerning the critical water depth for the inception of sedi-
ment movement. A detailed discussion of past treatments of this subject J/vJ).
.
can be found elsewhere (Horikawa 1978b). E
.0
Horikawa & Watanabe (1967) treated the problem in the following t'-' IS

simple manner. The equiHbriu.mcondition for a particle on the sea

bottom can be expressed. by 2

RH=(W-Rv)tancp, (4.1)
102
wherc RH andRv are the horizontal and vertical components of the 100 101

wave for~e acting on the particle,... W is the. immersed. weight of the

Figure 2 Expcrhneiltaldata
S . d Jsod /4 V
on the initiation of sediment movement in oscillatory flow
particle, and~ is the critical angle of static friction of a grain on
the bollom in water. The values of Wand RH can be evaluated by the (adapted from Madsen & Grant 1976). .

following equations:
'W;(47T/3)(ps -p)g(d/2)3,(4.2)
RH = (l/4)K7Td, 2Tbm (4.3)
where d and p,.are the grain diameter and density r~pectively,p is the
fluid density, gthe acceleration of gravity, ""bmthe amp~itude of tangen-
tialstress acting on a grain due to the wave, and K a coefficient taking
on different. values depending upon the shape. of the sedimentpartic1e
and the lype of movement. The magnitude of Rv Was assumed negligi-
bly small compared with W, and the f(}llowingrelationship was ob-
tained:
'¥m=1brn/sp gd= 2j(3K) (4.4)
where s=(p, -p)/p and '¥rlIis 11kind of Shields parameter. The theory
of Kajiura (i968) .for the bottom ~hear stress due to oscillatory flow was
applied and comparisons made with experimental data on the inc~tion
of sediment-particle movement due to wave action. Based 9n these
resuhs, criteria. were proposed. for. general movement in laminar or
turbulent flow over a smooth surface,as well as 'for turbulent flow over
a rough surface. Here, general movement is defined as the state where
most of the sediment particles in the first layer are in :motion.. Based on
the above; Horikawa & Sasaki (1970) com\,iled tabl~ for ~hedir<:~t
determination of the critical water depth for general sand motion und~r
/J\ t.w>.~
'bl'"
Madsen. &:.Grant (1976) reanalyzed past results leading to the di~-
gram shown in Figure2; in which the ordinate is the Shields parameter
/
f/t~= Ttnn/sp,gd and the abscissa is S=dV(sgd)/4p, where p is the
'~ kinematIc. VIscosity of the fluid. Considering the scatter in the data We
may well be able to assume t/tm = constant. From this fact, 'Equ;tion
(4.4) still seems to be valid.
In this. section. we will consider onshore-:offshore sediment movement in
a region at adepth ~hanower than the critical. water depth. Dingler &
Inman (1976) eXamined ,the bed form ~nd type of onshore-offshore
sedimentl1love~e.nt in .the nearshore area. In the offsbote. zone; s~;
.
menttranspOrt ISInduced bywaveaction as a combination of bed load
~nd suspendedload~ and sand ripples on-the bed.playanimportant f(ji.e
m the mode of sedimentttansport. On the other hand, .the s~diment-
transport mode inside the surf zone is considerably <lifferent from that
outside. ~gitati(}n due to breakiJlg waves is so strong that bed materials
~~~~~~1l~~~t:g,..~t!~ili~~2£~~~~ti~~..2L§ip~d&rsedimcnTln: ..the
vlc~I1!~Y- Q!;!h~..~~e1l!s!1}.I:tEo~t~'c~p._<2E.~?~' The'amowu of
suspended
sediment .IS strongly depend~nt on the breaker type (Kana 1978).
.
Further shoreward,especlally m the swash zone, sheet flow is predomi-
. nant and sand ripplesdisappear. .

various wave conditions for sand p;rliins having diameters between 100 In order to predict the time history of bottom-profile change,' we :must
p.m and I mm: know the direction and the amount of net sediment transport due to
 ---
1-
22 ltOR1KAWA
wave action. However, at present, our knowledge on th~se subj~cts is
still inadequate, and only a small nuniber of results are available.
4.2.1 SANDRIPPI::.B)':ORMATION It has been known for many years that
sand ril'ples. are generated on the sea bed under the influence of waves.
Bagnold (1946) was probably the. first to systematically study the
..
process of ripple formation. He carried out experiments using an oscil-
lating board swung in an arc~ Sediment particles of various sizes and.
specific gravities were spread ~ver the board which was swung in a still
body ()f water. The experimental procedure originated by Bagnold Was
tontinued by workers at the University of California, Berkeley. Using
this kind of apparatus, Man()har (1955) obtained much data on sand
tipples, and investigated fully the processes of gen~ration, development,
and disappearance of sand ripples. At about the same time, Inman
(1957) measured the sizes of wave-generated tipples on the southern
California coast. - . in intensity of wave-induced vortices. Accordmg to laboratory measure-
The shapes of wave-generated.ripples are rather symmetrical.and. ar.e:'
completely different from the shapes of ripples generated by unidirec.
tionalflow. Therefore the shape of a wave-generated ripple can be
simply expressed by its height 1) and length X. Hom-ma & I-torikawa
(1962) applied dimensionaLanaly'sis to determine the functional rela-
tionships. amortg ripple size, gram size,. water depth, and, lOcal wave
characteristics.. These relationships are. . ./'
F.(.,,/X, Xfdo) =0, (4.5a)
F2(do/X, ubmdo/'" wod/,,) =0, (4.5b)
where. do =H/sinh(2Tfh/ L), ubm =TfH /[Tsinh(2TfhIL )], his water de-
pth, H, T,and L are the wave height, wave period, and waVe length, is
"
the fluid kinematic viscosity, wo the fall velocityofa grain, and d the
grain size. A subsequent study by Horikawa & Watanabe (1967) con-
firmed that the relationships expressed in Equations (4.51l.,b) were al~
applicable to materials other than. natural sabd. Furthertnore,Carstens,
. Neilson & Altmbilek (1969),Mogridge & Kampbuis.(l973), and Dingler
& Inman (1976) have continuedinvestiga:tions ofithe characteristics of
wave-generated ripples in nearshore sands. If has been realized that
'" seBnnenl >novemenl bY.wave
.::~~~ripples bavea. nnpo=',Ok
( which are well described by th~ two parameter~"m and Ubm/WO'Here
.4.2.2SEOIMi1N'1'TRANSPOR1'PATTBItNSON)\<BBACH Looking at the bot-
tom configuration of a gently sloping beach, We can find a certain
region where wa.ve-generatedsand ripples can be seen. in such a region
thecsediment-transport pattern is stronglyWluenced by the existence of
the sand ripples in the followifig manner: Incident waves arriving to
'r
COASTALSEt>IMENT PROCESSES 23
shore possess nonlinear characteristics-, thatisto say, th~ wave profile is
peaked at a crest and f1~tt~ned at a~trough. Corresponding to these
wave. characteristics, the onshore velocity displays a large maximum
over a shorter interval than that of the offshore velocity. Because of the
.
asymmetrical characwristics of the velocity field., the onshore-off~J!()~
sediment transport due to wave action is bot in halanc~ over a wave
. period.
Sediment particles are, generally speaking, transportoo in the form of
either bed. load or. suspend~d load. Owing to. the wave nonlinearity
discussed above, the net bed load in the present case would be in the
onshore direction. On the other hand, suspended sediment particles are
pi~ked up by vortices generated b~hind ripples and transported onshore
duringthe passage ora wave crest and offshore during the passage of a
waV~ trough. Inman & Bowen (1963) demonstrated that offshore sedi-
ment transport occurs due to ~pple asymmetry and resulting differences
ments. of suspended sedim~nt transport conducted by Sunamura, Bando
& Horikawa (1978), the net suspended-sediment transport from sole.!Y
these processes is in the offshore direction. . .
Based on observations of. transport in a wave flume, Horikawa,
Sunan1Ura.&;;$irlbayama (1917) ...classifiedsedimen t-transport. patterns
due.!,t(,)'~Il."eiactionibtothef()noWing.. four types:
. - ~
Typii: Bed-l()ad tr~sport is dominant, but no suspended sand cloud
/ exists. Therefore the net sediment transport is in the ()nshore
direction.
.
Type 2: Suspended. sand clouds are. formed,.hence both bed load and
suspended load should be considered. The net sediment-
.
transport direction is either onshore or. offshore depending on
the don1inance of the sediment-transport mode.
Type 3: Suspended-sediment transport is dOirtiriant. Suspended sand
clouds are formed only on the onshore sides of ripples. Hence
the net sediment transport is in the offshore direction.
Type 4: Suspended-sediment transport is dominant. Suspended sand
clouds are foenied on both sides of ripples, but the netsedi-
ment transport is m th~ offshore direction.
.
-
Shibaya.ma & Horikawa (1980) presented limits fQr each transport..tIpe
ubrn is the amplitude of the near. bed fluid velocity and wo the fall
velocity oCa sand grain.
Tun.stall & Inman (1975) treated fluid-energy dissipation due to
vortices formed by oscillatory flow over a wavy boundary!1sing a
standing-vortex theory. Sunamura, Bando & Horikawa (1978) recorded
 'r

24 HORlKA WA COASTAL SEDlMEN't I'ROCBSSES 25

}

sand-particle movement over a rippled bed. using a 16-mmhigh-sp~d ! average bed~l()ad transport rate, qb, nondiniensionalized by the fall
.' motion~analysis camera, and verified quantitatively that the niovement f velocity Woand the grain diaIIleter d, while the abscissa, o/m,is the
of thesus"ended sand clouds is one of the main factors in producinR }
'1
Shields para.meter. Their proposed curve is expressed by .

net sediment transport. Sawamoto &. Yamaguchi (1979) studied the

inotion. of vortices above a rippled bed using potential-flow .theory and
ii -I/J= 12.50/",.
3
(4.6)
estimated the suspend~d~sediment concentration above sucb. a rippled !
. bed. Shibayama & Horikawa. (1980) introduced a dissipation model of ! Watanabe, :Riho & Horikawa (1979) tested the above relationship
time-dependent vortex circulation formed by wave action on a wavy I between.~ and I{ill10utsidethesurf zone OJ}a sloping 'sand bed in a wave
flume bya.nalyzingexperim.entaldata of wavecha.racteristics and bot~
boundary and calculated the water-particle path. Visual observation x

verified. that the calculated water-particle path well represents the. mo-- I
it
tom-configuration chang~. The curves. obtained are well fit .by Equation
.
tion. of the suspended sediment particles. Owing to the above efforls,the (4.6).
, Shibayama& Horlkawa(1980) used the same pr~dure as Madsen &;
oscillatory. velocity field in the vicinity of a wavy boundary can be i

analyzed, hence the motion of an individual suspended sedinientpar-
..
tide .seemsto have been clarified in more detail.
4.2;~:SBbIMEiIT'"TRANSI'OR.'tTRATB At present, the available data for the
bed-load-transport rate are only those obtained by Manohar(1955),
Kalkanis (1964),and Abou~Seida (1965). Using these data and assuming
that a Brown-type formula for the bed-load transp()rt rate. under ~
unidirectional-flow condition is applicable to the instantaneous bed-load
transport rate by oscillatory Jlmy, Madsen &;Grant (1976) presented art
empirical relationship for the average rate of sedimenl transport in an
o~natory flowj as shown in Figure 3. The .
ordinate, q,==qb/wod is the ,
.','
'-
I Grant to ev~uate the suspended-sedi.n:tent transport rate and obtain~d a.
similar relationship. Their treatmentJ!).ade use of the fact thai bed-load
I particles are pick«l. up, confined within vortices..formed oehind sand
ripples,m.oved byibe wave oscillatory flow, andfinally depa.sited on the
. 'bed under gravitational force. In addition to these, Nielsell,Svendsen &;
.
I Staub (1978) conducted intensive studies on the suspended-sediment
I
14
traJl$port meel1a.nism.Sleath" (1978) measured the quantity of bed
materials inmotion as bed load at each instant of the oscillatory-wave
~ cycle.
i-
At any'cate,these relationships can be applied only to the sediment
movement outside the surf zone. In or9,erto look at the bottom change
inside the. sUrf zone, We must. have some a.ppropriate .formula for
. the

sedi"m.enttransport ratein.th~sheet~fl~region.
5
2
J 4.3
.
Longshore Sediment Transport
~

Figure 3 Empirical relationship for the
average rate of sediment transport in
oscillatory flow (adapted from Madsen
Grant 1976).
101'
- I . During the last two decades many approaches have been attempted to
5
I~ > detennine the longshore sediment-transport rate. Usually;. One of the
~ ,following general.. procedures is taken: LY measuring the amount of
i~ deposition at the upstream side of a coastal struCture such as ajetty Or a
~. breakwater, or of siltation inside a harbor basin; or@JJ1easuring the
~ i amountof the same kinds of sedimentina model basin. However,there
are numerous problems to be solved, including the accuracy of the
I hydrographic survey, the liniitedextent of the surveyed area, the accu.,
~t ra.cy of the wave-energy evaluation, and the influence of grain size on
.
.
I the transport ra.te.
n The longshorc-transportrate should bear a close relationship with the
longshore-current velocity,. but the e~act relation between them has n.ot
2 yet. been established. On the other hand, mallY attempts have been
r
&.
164
Ifl2 i made to correlate directly the wave-energyflux in the:".:alongshore
!
'\
direction, Ey, with the rate of longshore transport, Qy, according to the
 y

26 .
HOtUKAW A COAstAL SEt:>IMEN1' PROCESSES 27

following form, and comparison with Equation (iJ.8) necessitates the conclusion,
Q)I=aEyln, (4.7) tan/3/f.., ""'constant. (4;14)
. .

where « and mare' constants. to be determine4empirically. Caldwell How~ver, in the theory of Longuet~Higgins (197Q),the mean longshore-
(1956) initiiJ.tedthe above,treatment using field<iata:'~ubsequertt. to his currenevelocity depends on the parameter P=21TNtanf3/(rfw)'which
work numerous formulas have been presented dunng the last two describes. the importance of lateral mixing relative to bottom friction, N
decades. A comparison of these formulas was given bY,Galvi11& Vi!a1e and.y being constants. In order to make clear the above results on' the
basis of a theoretical treatment, it is essential to clarify the dynamics in
.

(1976) and Horikawa 0978a). .

!i;
,

One of the defects of EqutUion (4.7) is that it is not, dimensionally

" " "
'

"
','

thenearshore.area, especially inside the surf zone.

correct. I~order to eliminate the above defect, Inman & Bagnold (1963)
suggested the. use of the immersed-weigh~:transpott r~tel, instead~of~he
volume-transport rate. ,Komar & Inman (1910) established the .follo~ng
relationship "between,l, and the longshore power at the breaking pOint,
.
P,:
(4.8)
,The above formulas, Equations (4.8) and (4.11), are applicable for the
af-
total aJongsh()re sedhnent,.transpart rate inside the' breaker' line. , In
I
11-
recent years, a great effort, has been devoted. to ttieasuring the distribu~
\,
tiort of sediment.transport ra.te a(;ross the surf zone by, for example,
~ using sand traps in a Wave basin with a movable bed (Sawaragi &
. Deguchi 1978), or by taking a large number of cor~, samples during
.

I,=KP,. )dyed~sandtracer experiments in the field (N. C. Kraus, personal com-

The values of I, and P, are defined. respectively' as, munication) ..1979).This kind of approach, especially in the field, is tndy
I
(4:9) laborious, but holds promise for advancing our knowledge of- longshore
I,=a'(ps ~p )gS" sediment tr~nsport.
~ .

(4,10) ti There is a standing debate on the subject of the dominant sediment~

P,=(Ecg)bsina\>cos(X\>, ~.I .
' transport mode comprising longshore sediment transport. Tha.t is to say,
.
where Sf is thesand-volume~transport' rate, Ps' the sand density, p the ~
wbich;js)tl10reT~ignificafi4s\1spend(kt transport()rbed-loadtransport? .
~ The, impression that the suspended load is much more iinportant',Viihin-
fluid density, a' the correction factor for the pore space oLthe beach ;.

sand (approximately 0.6)" g the acceleration. of gra~ity, E the wave ~.

~he surf mnehas been supported hiditionally (Dean 1973). On the
energy density,c ,the group velocity, a the angle between a way~ crest f~ other hand, 'Komar (1976) roughlY.estimated the 'suspended load and
and bottom contour, and the subscript "b" indicates the condition at I
.
concluded'that the suspended load comprises no more than apptoxi~.
t mately one fifth of the total transport. At present, iUs fairly difficult to
the breaking point. The l'roportionality constant K is dimensionless and ~
~ determine. pretiseiy the ratio between. the suspended' and bed transport
has been found equal to about 0.77 fora limited number of measure,.
ments. Komar &. Inman (1970) CQrrelated[fwith the longshore-current rates. Therefore it may' be~u:nore suitable approach to focus on the
velocity based on the Bagnold (1963) model, and presented the follow- total longshore tran.sport'rate. Dyed-sattci experiments Souchas initiated
,- I by KOfi).at &. Inman (1970) ,are, being activ~ly performed by ,the
ing rela.tionship, .'
i
i N~atshore.Sediment,Ttans~ort Study Group (Seymour & Duane 1978)
If =0.28(Ec~)b(cosab)v/Ubm' (4.11) .
andin the Writer's re$eatch group; Detailed analysis of ooresamples can
~ .
yieldimPQrtant iri.fortnation on distribution of the fi).oving.layer thick.,
where vis the, mean longshore-cUrrent velocity, and ubmthe maximum
i
~ ness and of the sanda.dvection velocity ofsedimenfpartic1esacro~s the
velocity under a breaking wave~ The value of Uomis calculated by !~ surf zone. These data can. be correlated With the wave and current
(4.12) i. characteristics at each sampling site.
uo.n=(2Eblphbr11. ,
~r
Based on'the calculation of Longuet-:Higgins (1970), v is given by
.
5 SIMULATION OF SHORE PROCESSES
v=(51T/4)(tanfJlfw)ubmsinab (4.13) t .
#i. II! order to treat coastal processes, as stafed previously; we commonly
i~ separate th~ phenomena into two uparts, namely onshore-offshore.
.. . ~.~-- _1__-
under the assumption that horizontal mixing is negligible, whe~e tan/3 is
~;.h.,tit11t;t'\n of Eouation (4.13) iritoEquation (4.11) .~ proCesses and alongshore processes~ Beach-profile changes are consid-
/- --
, ,
...
'

28 HOR1KA W A COASTAL SEDIMENT PROCBSSES 29

ered to have a seasonal variation, that is to say, beach profiles seem to I OJ

follow an approximately one-year cycle. In contrast, the alongshore
. chan~e in beach topography is caused mainly by the local balance of f
I Equilibrium
alongshor~ sediment transport; variation in the longshore transport rate ! y
along the shoreline is the principal mechanism governing erosion and
deposition of beach sediment. From this standpoint lwagaki (1966)
formulated the following equation: I
I
Sand Dtif o~e
"'
I
oI7/at=( I-J;/hdoh;/CJt+ (aQy/CJy)/(I-X)B (5.1) 00 .

i .
,,
where_Bis the width of the littoral zone, Qy the longshore transport ij °

.?
~t:i
rate,}' the mean water depth. in the littoral. zone, hi the water depth t (5~
...

.. ,,
...

~ ,.
-,

which. determines the. offshorelintitof the littoral zone, X the bottom .

,.,
','
,- d-
1-",-,
.

sediment porosity, and the y axis is taken in the alongshore direction. . '

Equation (5.1) indicates that coastal change has two contributions, the Figure 4 Mechanism of long-term beach change (adapted from Iwagaki 1966).
-i
local variation of longshore transport, aQy/ay, and the time variation
z
of hi, which is determined by the time histoty of the incoming-wave y
characteristics. It is a consequence that
(f) Even on acoast where CJQy/ay=o, beach erosion can;occnrwith x
increasing wave height, because ah;/CJt>O in this situation and it
foUowsthat aii/at>o. . .
/"~ Whe~ oh;/ot;=O, erosion. or depos~tion will complete~yde~nd on fo)
L the SIgnof_oQy/oy. That ISto say, If aQylay>o, eroslOn.W1Uoccnr
because_o~/aJ>O, while ifoQy/oy<O, deposition will occur be- z Onshore Profile
cause ah/at <: O. (~~Och)
.--1 /QJ2
It can be said in general that the long-term variation in coastal ' /0".
hit x
topography is caused by local variation in the lOngshore transport rate,
h
. Through use.of the above rules, if the tate of sediment transport along a ""'-"'-".'.'.'''"
beach. can .be evaluated, .thenequilibri\1II1, erosional,ordepositional h;':.. .
regions along the coast can be detertnined as demonstrated in Figure 4.
f- OffshoreprOf;:e'.'
.
...'

The prediction of shoteline changesoccumng due to thepresenee of (b). (Inshore)

.

coastal structures'can be predicted by this procednreas well. This Figure 5 Schematicdiagramfot (a) th,e one-line theory and (b) the two-line theory
approach has been developed and applied to practical problems. [adapted from Pe!nard4tisidere (1956) for (a) and Bakker,. Klein Breteler & Roos (1970)
. fot(b »).
The. mathematical treatment of shoreline change was initiated by
Pelnard-Considere (1956), who nsed a sim.ple model as shown in Figure
5a. This concept was applied to the practical problems of predicting compared computed results obtained under.ccrtain reasQnable assump-
shoreline change due to the construction of groin. Price, ToII1linson & tions. with field-observation data. They confirmed that the agreement
Willis (1972).developed a numerical model and chec~ed' the validity of seem.edto be fairly good for practical purposes. ~

its prediction by. comparison ,with lab()ratory. results. HaShimoto (1974)
treated shoreline changes caused by the constroctionof a detached
breakwater. Sasaki & Sakuramoto(1978) extended the one-line theory
to a situation where the incident-wave direction varied with time, and
It
.!
In order to improve the modeling of.beach-pz;ofile change, Bakker,
Klein Breteler & Roos (1970). proposed the two-line theory as shown in
Figure 5b,. in which t~e onshore-offshore sediment .transport is partially
treated. ¥ore generally, the two-line theory could be ex.tended to a
 ~
k"

30 l:IOlUKA WA COAstAL SEOlMENT PROCESSES 31

multi-line theory. However,it should not. be forgotten that further London, Ser..A 187:1-12. LeichtweisS-1i1.ft.f. Wasserbau, Tech.
i
!\ 1!agnold,R. A. 1963.Mechan.ics of marine Univ. Braumchweig56:77-197 .
studies are needed to clearly define tQe physical meaning and limita- ~. sedimentation. In71u! Sea, vol. 3, ed. M. Horikawa, K., Htuikai, S., Kraus, N. C.
tions of various quantities that are used iri such COItlputations. ~ N. Hill, PI'. 500-2 8. New' York: Wiley. 1~79 A PhYSical a nd numerical ,mod-
963pp. rf _
.
The. two-dimensional apprpach seems to be rather powerful in Jp Bakker, W. T.) Klein Brcteler, E. Ii. J., 0
-
,
,
,
,

,. ,.
..
,

-
, cling of waves, currents and sediment
. .
-
.
,
,

transport near a breakwater. .Ann. Rep.

,

eValuatin~shore processes for engineering purPoses. However, the mod- ~ Roos, A. 1970.The dynamics of a coast Engrg. Res. 1mt;, Fqc. ,Engrg., Urnv.
r.
els used in the above treatments are too crude to predict the detailed rA with a groyne system. Proc. 12th Coastal Tdc)'o38:41-48 "

Ertgrg. Conf., Washington, DC, pp. 1001 Horikawa, K., Sasaki, T.1970. Tables for.'

structure of the sea-bottom configuration change. Therefore, as a goal i -20 ~,the criticalwaterdepth fot the inception
We should atm to clarify three-dimensional coastal procesSes, even f .
Bowenj A. J. 1969a. The generation of it'v~f sand grains due to wave action. Proc.
iong&horecw:rentilon a plane b~ch. J.' lpn. SQC.CitJilEngrs. 55 (5):58-63 (in
though the goal seems to be far away from our present position.
I Mar. Res. 27:206-15 Japanese)
Bowen, A.l.1969b. Rip curtents. I.Theo- Itorikawa, K., Sunatnura, T., Shibayama,
. retieal invest(galions.J. Geophys.Res. T. 1977.Laboratorystudy on the two-
6 CONCLUDING REMARKS 74:5467-78 dimensional beach profile change-
.
Bowen, A. J., Inman, D.L., Simmons; V. .
devices for measuring sand transport rate'
.
The study of coastal sediment processes is one of the most difficult in P. 1968.Wave "set4own" and "set-up," in the offshore zone.' Proc. 24th. Coastal
coastal engineering. This field has been treated by scientists and en- J. Geophys. Res.73:2569-77 ..
Engrg. Conf. in Jopan,pp. 170-74 (in
_
Caldwell.J., M.1956.
, Wave action and Japanese)
gineers during the last few. decades without any. remarkable advance- I sand movement neat Anaheim Bay. US Horikawa, K., Watanabe, A.1967: A study .

ment. However, in recent years several large coopera.tive research groups .AmtY CorpsEngrs.BeachErosionBoard. on sand movementdue to waveaction.
Tech.Memo68.21pp. CoostalEngrg.Jpn. 10:39-57
have been organized in various countries such as Japan and the US with
.

Carstens; M. R.,Neilson, F. M., Altinbilek, Hotta, S., Mizuguch~ M. 1978. Field oir
.'

the strong intention of brtaking through the difficult barriers obstruct- I H. 0, 1969. Bed ronns generated in the servation of waves inside the surf zone.
ing the development of our understanding of coastal sediment processes. laboratory under. an oscillatory now: Proc.25th CoastalEngrg. Conf. in Japan
~ analytical and experimental study. US pp. 151-54 (in Japanese) '.
Therefore, the time when the state of the art can be completely reviewed !~ .Army Corps Engrs., Coastal Eng. Res. Inman,D. L. 1957.Wave generated ripples
will hopefully come in the not too distant future. "
Cent. Tech. Memo. 2~. !OSPI'. . . in nearshore sands. US .Amv' Corps
Dean, R. C. 1973. Heunstic models of sand Engrs., Beach Erosion Board. Tech:
In preparing this review article, the writer collected and consulted a transport in the surf zone. Proc. Conf. Memo. 100.42 pp. .
I Engr;g.Dynamics in the Surf Zone, Syd;, Inman, D.L.; Bagnold,R. A. 1963.Littoral
large amount of It!aterial. However, only a portion of the relevant ~
.1IeY,pp. 208-14 . processes.In.TheSeaIll, ed. M. N. Hill,
literature could be cited owing to the lack of space. In addition to this, .
Dingler, J. R., Inman, D. L.1976.Wave-pp.529-53.
".
New York: Wiley. 963pp.
the subject matter had to be restricted, so that numerous related topics, IoJ
formed ripples in nearshore sands. Proc. Inman, D. L.. Bowen, A.J. 1963. Flume
such as the mass-transport velocity distribution, suspended-sediment
'
15th <::oartal Engrg. Con].,Honolulu,pp. experiments Onsand tranSport by waves
concentration distribution, and wind-blown sand transport, were not
i 2109-26.. and currents. PrQC.8th Coastal Engrg.
Galvin, C., Vitale.P. 1976. Longsbore . Conf.,Mexico City, pp. 137-50
r covered. For these subjects, the reader should consult appropriate I transport prediction~SPM1974equation. Iwagaki. Y. 1966.A treatise on beach ero-
.

reference materials' such as. the Proceedings of the International Con- - I fraC; 15th Coal tal Engrg. Conf.,
Honolillu, pp. 1133-48
sion. Summer Sem;,wr Hydraul. Engrg.
Jpn. &c. Civil Engrs. 17:1-'-17 (in
ferences on Coastal. Engineering, Coastal Engineering in J apan, Shore
Protection Manual oj the US Army Corps of Engi11eers, or appropriate'
I Hashimoto, H.1974.Sitnulation model for
estimating the effect of anoff$hore'
breakwater on the adjacent coast. Proc.
Japallese)
Jonsson. 1. O. 1966~Wave boundary layers
and friction factors. Proc; 10th Coastal
textbooks (Silvester.1974, Komar 1976, Horikawa 1978a). ~ 21st Engf'$. Conf. in Japan. pp. 181-85 Engrg.Conf., Tokyo, pp. 121-48
i
~
(IIi Japanese)
Hom-ma, M., Horikawa, K. 1962. Sus.
.'
JOnSson,I. G. 1976.Discussion of '<Fric-
tion factor under oscillatory waves" by
'.

ACKNOWLtmGMENTS i j pended.sediment due to wave liction. Kamphuis, J. W.. J. Waterways,Harbors

The writer would like to thaiik Dr. N. C. Kraus and Mr.T. Shibayama i PrQC. 8th COiUtal Engrg. Conf.. Mexit;o
City, pp. 168-93
Coastal Engrg. Dio. 102:108-9
Kajiura,K, 1%4. On the bottom friction in
for their helpful COD11I1ents
during the preparation of the manuscript. i
\f
Horikawa, K. 1970. Advanced treatise on
coastal. sedimentation. Summer Seminar
Hydraul. Engrg., Jpn. Soc. Civil Engrs.
an oscillatory current. Bull. Earthquake
Res. 1mt. Unio. Tokyo 42: 147-74
Kajiura, K. 1968. A model of the bottom
~
Literature Cited pp. 501-34 (in Japanese) boundary layer in water waves. Bull.
, Horikawa, K. 1978a. Coastal Engineering- &irJ}tquake Res. 1mt. Unio. Tokyo 46:75
Abou-Seida, M. M. 1965. Bed load fune- of rip currents. J. Geophys.Res. 67~277- i .An Imroduction To Otean Engineering. -123
tion due to wave action. Unio. Calif. 79. UDiv.Tokyo Piess and A. Haltsted Press. "
Kalkan.is, .G. 1964. Transportation of bed
Hydraul. Engrg. LAb., Wave Res. Proj>- Bagnold, R. A. 1946.Motion of waves in ~
402 pp.
.
material due to wave action. US Army
HE1.2-11.78pp. . ~shallow waters, interaction between ~
\J' HOrikawa, K. 1978b.Present state of CorpsEngrs., CoastalEngrg. Res. Center.
Arthur, R. S. 1962.A note on".the dynamics waves and sand bottom. Proc. R. Soc. coastal sediment studies. Mitteilungen, Tech. MetnlJ.3.68 pp.
~
 /-""'-,
~

32, HOlUKAW A Anti. Rev. Fluid MI!ch. 1981. H:33.;.55

Copyright ~ 1981 by Allnual Reol~s Inc.. A // righlJ: reJ:,erved 111"!

k, Kamphuis,Jo W. 1975. Friction factor un- Pelnard-Considtre, R.. 1956. Essai d~ !i;
der oscillatory waves. J. WatelWays, theope de l'evoliltion dcsformes de J
Harbors Coastal Engrg. Dio; 101: 135-44 rivages en pJages de sable et de galeti.
Kana, T.'W. 1978. Surf zone measUrements IVmts J. de I'Hydraulii[Ue, Paris, '101. 1, I
or suspended sediment. .Proc.. J6th pp.289-298 .."

Coastal Engrg. Conf.; Hll1t1barg, pp. 1'125. Phillips, O. M. 1971. The Dynamia 01 lite I
-43 "
Upper Ocean.. CallibridgeUi1iV Press. 336
Komar, P. D.1976.. Beach Processes and pp. (2nd ed.)
Sedimentation. &glewoodCliffs,
PIentice-Hall; 429 pp.
.
'NJ: Price, W.A.. Tomlinson, D. w..Willis, D.
H. 1972. Predicting the changes in plan
SOME FLUID-DYNAMICAL, ~8168
II
Komar,P. D., Inman; D. L., 1970.
Longshore sand transport onbeaches.l.
s!1ape of beaches. Proc.. 13th C<x:i$tal
Engrg. Conf.. Vancmmer, pp. 1321-29 PROBLEMS IN GALAXIES
Geopnys. Res. 75:5914-27 Sasaki; T. 1975. Simulation On shoreline
~aus;N. C., Sasaki, T..1979. Influence of and nearshore current. Proc. Specialty
:wave angle and lateral mixing on the
,

longshorecurrent..Mar;Sci. Commun.
CoilJ. on Cii)/I Engrg. in' the Ocean;
ASCE; pp; 176-96 . .
C.C. Lin
5(2):91-126 SasI!1Q, T., Sakuram()to, H. 1978. Field Department of. MaUi~fitatics, Massachusetts Institute ()fTechnology, Cain-
Liu, P.h, Dairymple,R.A. 1978.Bottom
'

verification of a sborelihe simulation bridge, Massachusetts 02I~9

r; .friction strcissand longshore currents due model. litt. Seminar on WatetResources;
~owaves'with largean&es of incidence. AlT, Bdngkok, pp.501~ 18
.
l. Mar. Res. 36:351~75 Sawamoto, M., Yamagu\?hi; S. 1979. Th~
I...Qnguet-Higgins, M. S. 1970. Longshore retica1 modeliiigon wave entrainment of
William W. Roberts, ir.1
. ,.j currents generated bY O bliqu eIY incident sand particles from rippled bed. TraM. . Institute for Compute~ Applications in Science' and Engineering, NASA Lang-'
IT' SCIIwaves.
. Ii U:l. Geophys.
. . Res.
. . 75:6778 lpn.Soc. CioU Engrs. 288:101-13 ley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 23665
~89, 6790~801 '
Sawarllgi, T., Dcguchi, I. 1978.. Distribu-
Longuet-Higgins, M. So; 'Stewart, R. W. tion of sand transport ratc across a ,sur(
1960.Changes in the form of shortgrav-
ity waveson long waves and tidal cur.
zone.Proc. 16th. Coastal Engrg. ConJ.,
Hamburg, pp. 1596~613 . .
I. INTRODUCTION
.
rents. J.Fluld Mech. 8:565-83 Seymour, R. J., Duane, D.. B. 1978. The
f) Loi1guet~HiggiI1s, M. S., Stewart, R. W.
.
nCIIIShore sedimenntansport study, Proc. There~eI11an!, interesting flt1i<kly~amical problems in astrophysi~s.
1962. Radiation stress' and mass trans- 16th Coastal Engrg. Con]., HafiJburg, pp.
.
The umverse, vIewed as a whole.in studies of its origin and expansion, is
port in gravity waves, with application to 1555~62
"surf beats." l. Fluid Mech. 13:481-504 S4ibayama,T., Horikawa, .K. 1980. usually ,modeled~ a fluid. ~n this article, we deal with cert~in aspects of '

Lundgren, H. 1963. Wave thrustand wave .Laboratory study on sediment transport astrophysical problems, specifically the fluid dynamics assQciated with
energy level.' Proc. 10th Concr. Int. As- mechanism due to wave action. Proc.
lpn. Soc. CitJil Engts. 296: 131-41
individual galaxies. .
soc. HydralJl. Res., UmJon, vol. 1, pp.
141~51 '. Silvester;. R.1974.CoiIstal, Engineering, ~laxies ,were first dassifjed into three types-elliptica1s, normal
Madsen,
.
O. S., Grant, W. D. '
1916. \'ols. 1, 2. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 457 pp., splfals,an4 barred spirals-by fIubbleas early as 1926.Figure 1 shows'.

,Quantitative description ot sediment 338pp. .

transport by waves.. Peoc. 15th Coastal
Engrg. Con!., Honolulu, pp.l093-112
Manohar, M. 1955. Mechanics of bQttom
sediment movement due to wave action.
US ANnY Corps Eflgr~., Beach Erosion
Board. Tech. Melno 75" 121 pp.
Mizug\1chi; M., Tsujioka; K., Horikawa, K.
Sleath, J. F. A. 1978. Measureim:nts of bed
, load inoscillatotynow~ J. Waterways,
Harbors, Coastal Engtg.Dio. 104:291..-
301 . '
Sunamura, T.. Bando,. K., Horikawa, K.
1918; Laboratory study on theseditnent
transport mechanism and rate by waves
H~bble's ..'tunirtgfork" classification scheme, for galaxies. For the
sp~rals, one of the central problems istounderstand and explain the
splfalstructure (and the bar Structure in the barred spirals). In Figure.2
we show a photograph of an Sc galaxy, NGC 5364. This normal spiral is
one striking example where1he spiral arms; ate not dilly long and
,
.

1978. A consideration on wave height over 1ISyDlmetrica1 ripples.P,:oc.<25th regular but abo,very narrow. Figure 3 shows the barred spiralNGC
change inside ibe surf zone. Proc. 25th CO(JStalEng,.g. Conf.ln Japan, pp. 250- ,1300. This galaxy is citedhy Sanda&e (1961) as the protot:ypeof the
Coastal Engrg. Conf.'in Japan, pp.155-, S4 (in Japan~)
59 (in Japanese) Tunstall, £. B., Inman, D. L. 1975. Vortex
pure SBb(s) system. The bar is distinct and smooth in texture. Two
. - .. Mbgridge, v. R.. Karilphuis, J. W. 1973. generation by oscillatory now over rip- straight and narrow dust lanes emerging on opposite sides of the
pled surfaces. l. GetJphys.Res. 80:3475-
" .~ 0.ExperimentsOti bed form genera~on by ~:. nucleus can be: tr~ced to the ~ndsof the bar, where. they turn sharply
wave action. Proc. 13th Coastdl-Engrg. 84
"

~Conf., VancOlltJCr I 123 42 Watana~ A., Rihq, Y.. Horikawa, K. 1979. CUld~ollowthemside of the sPtral arms. T11esetwo galaxies,despite their
'Pl" Two-dimensional. /)each profile change
Nielsen, P., SVen~n, 1. A., Staub, C. 1978. appa~ent iritricacies and complexities. on the smaUsca1e (as in all
x .
Onshor~ff$hore sediment movement on
a.beach. Proc.16lh Coastal Engrg. Conf.,
!iamburg, pp. 1475-92
andonShore-offs.hore sed,intent transport
rate distribution. PrtiC. 261h Coastal
Engrg. Conf. in Japan, PI". 172~16 (in
I.
galaXies),serve as good examples of the degree of order on the large
NQda,
.
E. K. 1974. Wave-induced
,
nearshore
. ft_-.
Japanese) , tOn sabbatica11eave from, the Department of Applied Mathematics and Computer
.
" '70..400'7- 1M
I Science, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22901.

11