Strings and Branes

Alexis Larrañaga

May 28, 2015

2
Contents

1 Non Relativistic Strings 5

1.1 Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 General Solution of the Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Stationary Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Lagrangian Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Relativistic Particles 13
2.1 Lagrangian Description of the Free Non Relativistic Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Lagrangian Description of the Free Relativistic Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 Non-Relativistic Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.3 Reparameterization Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.4 Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Relativistic Charged Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Free Particle in General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Relativistic Strings 21
3.1 Worldsheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.1 A 3-dimensional Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.2 The Element of Area in the Spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 The Nambu-Goto Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.1 Induced Metric in the Worldsheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2.2 Parameterization Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3.1 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4 D-Branes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5 Static Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3
4 CONTENTS

3.5.1 Stretched String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.6 Transverse Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.6.1 Motion of the End Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.7 Parameterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.7.1 Equations of Motion in the -Parameterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4 Conservation Laws 45
4.1 A Review of the Conservation of Electric Charge in Electromagnetism . . . . . . 45
4.2 Symmetries and Conservation Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2.1 Lagrangian Densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3 Symmetries of the Worldsheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3.1 Translational Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3.2 Lorentz Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5 P-Branes 55
5.1 Action of the Model (Polyakov Action) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Chapter 1

Non Relativistic Strings

1.1 Wave Equation

Figure 1.1: A non relativistic string.

Consider a non relativistic string with length l, total mass m, uniform mass density µ0 , and
constant tension T0 located along the x direction as seen in Figure 1.1. Note that the tension
has the units

[Energy]
[T ] = [Force] = . (1.1)
[Length]
This relation tell us that stretching the string in a length l, needs to do a work given by
T0 l.
In order to obtain the wave equation for transverse oscillations we will displace the string as
shown in Figure 1.2. The form of the string at any time is given by the function y = y (t, x).
Consider two points located at x and x + dx at some fixed time t. Assuming small oscillations,
@y
i.e. @x ⌧ 1, and contant tension, the vertical force at point (x, y) poins downwards and has
magnitude

5
6 CHAPTER 1. NON RELATIVISTIC STRINGS

Figure 1.2: A non relativistic string stretched.

@y
T , (1.2)
@x x
while the vertical force at point (x + dx, y + dy) points upwards and has magnitude

@y
T . (1.3)
@x x+dx
Therfore, the total force on the little string is

@y @y
dF = T T (1.4)
@x x+dx @x x

@y @y
dF = T , (1.5)
@x x+dx @x x

which can be written as

@2y
dF = T dx. (1.6)
@x2
Newton’s second law gives

@2y @2y
dF = T
dx = dm (1.7)
@x2 @t2
and from the defintion of mass density, dm = µ0 dx, one has

@2y µ0 @ 2 y
= (1.8)
@x2 T @t2
knwon as the wave equation. Note that the constant that appears here has units
hµ i [Mass] [Length]
0 2
= = [Speed] , (1.9)
T [Length] [Energy]
1.1. WAVE EQUATION 7

therefore, the wave equations can be written

@2y 1 @2y
= (1.10)
@x2 v02 @t2
where

T
v02 = (1.11)
µ0
is the propagation speed of the waves in the string.

1.1.1 Boundary Conditions

In a non-relativistic string, one can impose two kind of boundary conditions.

Figure 1.3: Boundary conditions for a non relativistic string: Fixed end points (Dirichlet) and
free end points (Neumann).

Dirichlet’s boundary conditions

These correspond to fixed end points and are given as

y (t, 0) = y (t, l) = 0. (1.12)

Neumann’s boundary conditions

These correspond to free end points and are given by

@y @y
= = 0. (1.13)
@x t,x=0 @x t,x=l

This time the conditions are given by these expressions in order to prevent an infinite accel-
eration at the end points.
8 CHAPTER 1. NON RELATIVISTIC STRINGS

1.2 General Solution of the Wave Equation

The general solution of the wave equation (1.10) can be written as the superposition of a right
moving function h+ (x v0 t) and a left moving function h (x + v0 t),

y (t, x) = h+ (x v0 t) + h (x + v0 t) . (1.14)

1.2.1 Stationary Solutions

A particular solution of the wave equations correspond to stationary waves in which all the
points in the string move up and down with the same frequency. Then, the wave function can
be written as

y (t, x) = f (x) sin (!t + ) . (1.15)

Replacing in the wave function gives the di↵erential equation for f (x),

d2 f ! 2 µ0
+ f = 0. (1.16)
dx2 T
The solution of this equation depends on the boundary conditions.

Dirichlet’s boundary conditions

For Dirichlet’s conditions the solution is

⇣ n⇡ ⌘
fn (x) = An sin x (1.17)
l
with n = 1, 2, 3, .... The wave equation gives ! as
s
T ⇣ n⇡ ⌘
!n = . (1.18)
µ0 l

Neumann’s boundary conditions

For Neumann’s conditions the solution is

⇣ n⇡ ⌘
fn (x) = An cos x (1.19)
l
with n = 1, 2, 3, .... The wave equation gives ! again as
s
T ⇣ n⇡ ⌘
!n = . (1.20)
µ0 l
1.3. LAGRANGIAN FORMULATION 9

1.3 Lagrangian Formulation

Considering a small piece of the string as shown in Figure 1.2, its kinetic energy is given by
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
1 dy 1 dy
dK = dm = µ0 dx. (1.21)
2 dt 2 dt
The total kinetic energy of the string is obtained by integration,
Z l ✓ ◆2
1 dy
K= µ0 dx. (1.22)
2 0 dt
The potential energy of the piece of string is given by

dV = T l (1.23)

where the stretch l is given by (see Figure 1.2)

p
l= dx2 + dy 2 dx (1.24)

0s 1
✓ ◆2
@y
l = dx @ 1+ 1A . (1.25)
@x

@y
For small oscillations @x ⌧ 1, the square root term can be expanded to obtain
✓ ◆2 !
1 @y
l ' dx 1 + 1 (1.26)
2 @x
✓ ◆2
1 @y
l' dx. (1.27)
2 @x
Therefore, the potential for the piece of string is
✓ ◆2
1 @y
dV = T dx. (1.28)
2 @x
The total potential of the string is obtained by integration
Z l ✓ ◆2
1 @y
V = T dx. (1.29)
2 0 @x
The Lagrangian of the string is given by

Z l" ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 #
1 @y @y
L=K V = µ0 T dx (1.30)
2 0 @t @x
and the action can be written as
10 CHAPTER 1. NON RELATIVISTIC STRINGS

Z t2 Z t2 Z l" ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 #
1 @y @y
S= Ldt = µ0 T dxdt. (1.31)
t1 2 t1 0 @t @x
We define the lagrangian density L as
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
µ0 @y T @y
L= (1.32)
2 @t 2 @x
and introducing the notation

@y
ẏ = (1.33)
@t
@y
y0 = (1.34)
@x
it can be written as

⇥ ⇤ µ0 2 T 02
L ẏ, y 0 = ẏ y . (1.35)
2 2
The conjugate momenta are defined as

@L
Pt = = µ0 ẏ (1.36)
@ ẏ
@L
Px = = T y0. (1.37)
@y 0

1.3.1 Equation of Motion

We will obtain the equation of motion by variating the action (1.31),
Z t2 Z l Z t2 Z l
S= Ldxdt = Ldxdt (1.38)
t1 0 t1 0

Z t2 Z l
@L @L
S= ẏ + 0 y 0 dxdt (1.39)
t1 0 @ ẏ @y
Z t2 Z l
@L @ @L @
S= ( y) + 0 ( y) dxdt (1.40)
t1 0 @ ẏ @t @y @x
Z t2 Z l
@ @
S= Pt ( y) + P x ( y) dxdt. (1.41)
t1 0 @t @x
Integrating by parts we obtain
Z l Z t2 Z t2 Z l
⇥ ⇤t2 @P t @P x
S= t
P y t1
dx + [P x
y]l0 dt + ydxdt. (1.42)
0 t1 t1 0 @t @x
1.3. LAGRANGIAN FORMULATION 11

The first term in the right hand side is zero because the extremes are fixed in the variaional
principle, y|tt21 . The second term in the right hand side must be evaluated considering the
boundary conditions. For Dirichlet’s conditions we have

y|l0 = 0 (fixed extremes) (1.43)

while Neumann’s conditions give

l
@y
P x |l0 = T0 = 0 (free extremes). (1.44)
@x 0
Either way the second term is also zero, giving the condition for a stationary value of the
action as
Z t2 Z l
@P t @P x
S= + ydxdt = 0. (1.45)
t1 0 @t @x
This gives the equation of motion

@P t @P x
+ =0 (1.46)
@t @x
which corresponds to the wave equation (1.10).
12 CHAPTER 1. NON RELATIVISTIC STRINGS
Chapter 2

Relativistic Particles

2.1 Lagrangian Description of the Free Non Relativistic Particle

The action that describes a free non-relativistic particle with mass m0 is
Z t2 Z t2 
1
SN R = LN R dt = m0 v 2 dt (2.1)
t1 t1 2
where

d~r d~r
v 2 = ~v · ~v = · . (2.2)
dt dt
The variational principle

SN R = 0 (2.3)

gives the equation of motion

d (m0~v )
=0 (2.4)
dt
which can be integrated to give the trajectory

~r (t) = ~r0 + ~v0 t (2.5)

with ~r0 and ~v0 the initial position and velocity, respectively.
The Hamiltonian of this particle is defined by

H = p~ · ~v L (2.6)

where the conjugate momentum is

@L
p~ = = m0~v . (2.7)
@~v

13
14 CHAPTER 2. RELATIVISTIC PARTICLES

This gives the Hamiltonian

1 1
H = m0 v 2 m0 v 2 = m0 v 2 . (2.8)
2 2

2.2 Lagrangian Description of the Free Relativistic Particle

Figure 2.1: Spacetime diagram showing the worldline of a particle.

In special relativity the trajectory of a particle in spacetime is known as the worldline, that
can be parameterized by the particle’s proper time ⌧ ( see Figure 2.1). The world line is specified
by the Minkowskian line element,

ds2 = c2 dt2 dx2 dy 2 dz 2 = c2 d⌧ 2 . (2.9)

The action of the particle must be a scalar and since ⌧ is relativistic invariant we will propose

S/⌧ (2.10)

Z
S/ d⌧. (2.11)

The action has units

[S] = [Energy] [Time] (2.12)

while

[⌧ ] = [Time] . (2.13)
Therefore, the proportionality constant between action an proper time must have energy
units. For a particle with proper mass m0 we proose that this constant is the rest energy m0 c2 ,
giving the action
2.2. LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION OF THE FREE RELATIVISTIC PARTICLE 15

Z
2
S= m0 c d⌧ (2.14)

where we introduce a minus sign to obtain the correct non-relativistic limit as will be seen below.
From the line element we have

ds
d⌧ = (2.15)
c
and then the action can be written
Z
S= m0 c ds. (2.16)

We can use the coordinate time t as the variable of integration noting that the line element
can be written as
r
v2
ds = cdt 1 (2.17)
c2
where we have defined

✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
2 dx dy dz
v = + + . (2.18)
dt dt dt
Thus, the action is

Z r
t2
2 v2
S= m0 c 1 dt (2.19)
t1 c2
from which we have the lagrangian
r
2 v2
L= m0 c 1 . (2.20)
c2

2.2.1 Non-Relativistic Limit

v
In the limit of small speeds, c ⌧ 1, the lagrangian can be expanded as
✓ ◆
2 1 v2 1
L' m0 c 1 = m0 c2 + m0 v 2 . (2.21)
2 c2 2
The first term in the right hand side is a constant, so it does not a↵ect the equation of
motion while the second term is just the non-relativistic lagrangian for a free particle (Note
that the minus sign introduced in the action is neccesary to obtain the correct non-relativistic
lagrangian).
16 CHAPTER 2. RELATIVISTIC PARTICLES

2.2.2 Hamiltonian

The conjugate momentum for the relativistic particle is

@L m0~v
p~ = =q . (2.22)
@~v 1 vc2
2

which gives
r
m0 v 2 v2
H = p~ · ~v L= q + m0 c2 1 (2.23)
1 c2 v2 c2

 ✓ ◆
m0 2 2 v2
H=q v +c 1 (2.24)
1 v2 c2
c2

m0 ⇥ ⇤
H=q v 2 + c2 v2 (2.25)
v2
1 c2

m0 c 2
H=q . (2.26)
2
1 vc2

Defining the relativistic mass

m0
m= q (2.27)
v2
1 c2

we obtain the relativistic hamiltonian

H = mc2 . (2.28)

2.2.3 Reparameterization Invariance

We have choosen the proper time ⌧ as a parameter for the worldline. However, we are free to
choose whatever parameter we want and the action is invariant under this selection. To show
this, consider the ⌧ parameterized worldline in Figure 2.2 and let it be described by the functions
xµ = xµ (⌧ ). The parameter takes values in the interval ⌧ 2 [⌧1 , ⌧2 ] and therefore, the end points
of the wordline are xµ1 = xµ (⌧1 ) and xµ2 = xµ (⌧2 ). The Minkowskian line element is

ds2 = ⌘µ⌫ dxµ dx⌫ (2.29)

where
2.2. LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION OF THE FREE RELATIVISTIC PARTICLE 17

Figure 2.2: Wordline and its parameterization.

0 1
1 0 0 0
B C
B 0 1 0 0 C
⌘µ⌫ =B
B
C.
C (2.30)
@ 0 0 1 0 A
0 0 0 1

Using the parameter ⌧ , the line element can be written

dxµ dx⌫ 2
ds2 = ⌘µ⌫ d⌧ (2.31)
d⌧ d⌧
and the action becomes

Z Z r
⌧2
dxµ dx⌫
S= m0 c ds = m0 c ⌘µ⌫ d⌧. (2.32)
⌧1 d⌧ d⌧

Now we will change the parameter to 2 [ 1, 2] so the wordline is given now by the
functions xµ = xµ ( ). Thus, we have

dxµ dxµ d
= (2.33)
d⌧ d d⌧
which let us transform the action into

Z r
⌧2
dxµ dx⌫ d
S= m0 c ⌘µ⌫ d⌧ (2.34)
⌧1 d d⌧ d⌧

Z r
2
dxµ dx⌫
S= m0 c ⌘µ⌫ d , (2.35)
1
d d⌧

showing that the action is, indeed, invariant under reparameterization.

18 CHAPTER 2. RELATIVISTIC PARTICLES

2.2.4 Equation of Motion

To obtain the equation of motion of the relativistic free particle we use the variation of the
action,
Z
S= m0 c (ds) . (2.36)

From the line element (2.29) we have

2ds (ds) = ⌘µ⌫ (dxµ dx⌫ ) = 2⌘µ⌫ dxµ (dx⌫ ) (2.37)

dxµ
(ds) = ⌘µ⌫ (dx⌫ ) . (2.38)
ds

Figure 2.3: Change of position and variation of the wordline.

Consider the changes of the coordinate xµ shown in Figure 2.3. The change dxµ is defined
as

dxµ = xµ (⌧ + d⌧ ) xµ (⌧ ) (2.39)

and hence the -variation of this quantity is

(dxµ ) = [xµ (⌧ + d⌧ ) xµ (⌧ )] = xµ (⌧ + d⌧ ) xµ (⌧ ) (2.40)

which, following again Figure 2.3 corresponds to changing of wordline,

(dxµ ) = d ( xµ ) . (2.41)

This result let us write the variation of the line element as

dxµ
(ds) = ⌘µ⌫ d ( x⌫ ) (2.42)
ds
2.3. RELATIVISTIC CHARGED PARTICLE 19

or in terms of the parameter ⌧ ,

dxµ d ( x⌫ )
(ds) = ⌘µ⌫ d⌧, (2.43)
ds d⌧
so the variation of the action becomes
Z ⌧2
dxµ d ( x⌫ )
S= m0 c ⌘µ⌫ d⌧. (2.44)
⌧1 ds d⌧
Integrating by parts we have
⌧2 Z ⌧2 
dxµ ⌫ d dxµ
S= m0 c⌘µ⌫ x + m0 c⌘µ⌫ x⌫ d⌧. (2.45)
ds ⌧1 ⌧1 d⌧ ds
Since the extremes of the path are fixed, xµ |⌧⌧21 = 0, the first term in the right hand side
disapears and therefore the stationary value of the action is obtained by the condition
Z ⌧2 
d dxµ
S= m0 c⌘µ⌫ x⌫ d⌧ = 0. (2.46)
⌧1 d⌧ ds
Since ds = cd⌧ , we may identify the term inside the derivative as the 4-momentum,

dxµ dxµ
m0 c⌘µ⌫ = ⌘µ⌫ m0 = ⌘µ⌫ P µ , (2.47)
ds d⌧
giving
Z ⌧2
dP µ ⌫
S= ⌘µ⌫ x d⌧ = 0 (2.48)
⌧1 d⌧
which yields the equation of motion of the relativistic free particle

dP µ
= 0. (2.49)
d⌧

2.3 Relativistic Charged Particle

The generalization of the above description to the case of a charged particle in the presence of
an electromagnetic field is straightforward. We just need to add the corresponding term to the
action in terms of the 4-potential Aµ ,
ZZ
q
S = m0 c ds + Aµ (x) dxµ (2.50)
c
where q is the electric charge of the particle. The equation of motion gives

dP µ q
= ⌘ µ F ⌫ dx⌫ (2.51)
d⌧ c
where Fµ⌫ = @µ A⌫ @⌫ Aµ is the electromagnetic tensor. Note that the right hand side of this
equation corresponds to the Lorentz force.
20 CHAPTER 2. RELATIVISTIC PARTICLES

2.4 Free Particle in General Relativity

All the described results can be generaliad to curved spacetimes by simply considering the action
Z
S= m0 c ds (2.52)

where now

ds2 = gµ⌫ dxµ dx⌫ (2.53)

and gµ⌫ = gµ⌫ (x) is a general metric tensor.

Chapter 3

Relativistic Strings

3.1 Worldsheets

Figure 3.1: Wordline of a relativistic particle.

A relativistic particle follows a trajectory in spacetime known as wordline which is param-

eterized as a function xµ = xµ (⌧ ) of one parameter ⌧ as shown in Figure 3.1. I we consider
now a one dimensional extended object, such as a string, it will follow a trayectory in spacetime
that can be parameterized as a function xµ = xµ ⇠ 1 , ⇠ 2 of two independent parameters ⇠ 1 and
⇠ 2 . In a spacetime diagram, the string leaves a 2-dimensional surface known as worldsheet (see
Figure 3.2).

3.1.1 A 3-dimensional Example

Now we will consider a 3-dimensional space to analyze the area of a surface i terms of a pair of
parameters. From Figure 3.3, it is clear that the surface can be expressed as a three dimensional
function ~x = ~x ⇠ 1 , ⇠ 2 and the element of surface in the 2-dimensional parameter space gives

21
22 CHAPTER 3. RELATIVISTIC STRINGS

Figure 3.2: Worldsheet for an open string and a closed string.

Figure 3.3: Element of area in Parameter and Target spaces.

an element of area in the target space which can be obtained by using two vectors d~a and d~b.
Thus, the area element is

dA = d~a ⇥ d~b = |d~a| d~b sin ✓ (3.1)

where ✓ is angle between d~a and d~b. This relation can be written as
p
dA = |d~a| d~b 1 cos2 ✓ (3.2)

r
2 2
dA = |d~a|2 d~b |d~a|2 d~b cos2 ✓ (3.3)

or in terms of the inner product,

r ⇣ ⌘ ⇣ ⌘2
dA = (d~a · d~a) d~b · d~b d~a · d~b . (3.4)

Using the parameterization ~x = ~x ⇠ 1 , ⇠ 2 , the vectors can be written as

@~x 1
d~a = d⇠ (3.5)
@⇠ 1
3.1. WORLDSHEETS 23

@~x 2
d~b = d⇠ (3.6)
@⇠ 2

and the element of area becomes

s✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆2
1 2 @~x @~x @~x @~x @~x @~x
dA = d⇠ d⇠ · · · . (3.7)
@⇠ 1 @⇠ 1 @⇠ 2 @⇠ 2 @⇠ 2 @⇠ 2

3.1.2 The Element of Area in the Spacetime

Considering again the spacetime, we have two parameters that can be choosen in such a way
that one of them is timelike ⇠ 1 = ⌧ and the other spacelike ⇠ 2 = . The worldsheet is
parameterized by the functions X µ = X µ (⌧, ) with µ = 0, 1, 2, ..., d. Defining the 4-vectors

@X µ
daµ = d⌧
@⌧
@X µ
dbµ = d ,
@

the surface element in the worldsheet is given, by analogy with Eq. (3.7), as

s✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆✓ ◆
@X @X @X @X @X @X
dA = d⌧ d · · · (3.8)
@⌧ @ @⌧ @⌧ @ @

s✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
@X @X @X @X
dA = d⌧ d · (3.9)
@⌧ @ @⌧ @

@X @X @X µ @Xµ
where we denoted @⌧ · @ = @⌧ @ and similarly for the rest of products.
24 CHAPTER 3. RELATIVISTIC STRINGS

The extra minus sign when compared with (3.7) is introduced to assure that the
element inside the square root is positive. To show this consider a set of tangent
vectors V µ ( ) in a point p of the worldsheet. These vectors can be written in
general as a superposition

@X µ @X µ
Vµ( ) = + (3.10)
@⌧ @
@X µ
with 2 ( 1, 1). For = 0 we have V µ ( ) = @⌧ while = ±1 gives
µ
V ( ) ⇠ ± @X
µ
@ .

The norm V µ is
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
2 µ 2 @X @X @X @X 2
[V ( )] = V Vµ = +2 · + . (3.11)
@ @ @⌧ @⌧

Since we are working in the spacetime, there must be some timelike vectors
V 2 > 0 and some spacelike vectors V 2 < 0 . From the figure, it is clear that
considering V 2 as a function of there must be two zeros or in mathematical
terms, the equation
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
2 @X @X @X @X 2
+2 · + =0 (3.12)
@ @ @⌧ @⌧
must have two real roots. The values of corresponding to the zeros are
q
@X @X @X @X @X 2 @X 2
2 · ± 4 · 4
3.2. THE NAMBU-GOTO ACTION 25

The total area of the worldsheet is obtained by integration in the two parameters,
s✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
Z
@X @X @X @X
A= d⌧ d · , (3.15)
@⌧ @ @⌧ @
or using the notation

@X µ
Ẋ µ = (3.16)
@⌧
@X µ
X 0µ = , (3.17)
@
the area becomes

Z r⇣ ⌘2
A= d⌧ d Ẋ · X 0 Ẋ 2 X 02 . (3.18)

3.2 The Nambu-Goto Action

Since the action describing a relativistic particle is proportional to the length of the worldline,
we propose that the action of the relativistic string is proportional to the area of the worldsheet,

S / A. (3.19)

Since the action has units

[S] = [Energy] [Time] (3.20)

while

[A] = [Length]2 , (3.21)

[Energy][Time]
we conclude that the constat of proportionality between S and A mus have units of 2 .
[Lenght]
Therefore we propose that the action must be written as

Z Z r⇣ ⌘2
⌧2
T 1
S= d d⌧ Ẋ · X 0 Ẋ 2 X 02 (3.22)
c ⌧1 0

where T0 is the tension of the string, c is the speed of light, the points ⌧ = ⌧1 and ⌧ = ⌧2 will give
the initial and final points of the worldsheet and the points = 0 and = 1 will correspond
to the end points of the string. Eq. (3.22) is known as the Nambu-Goto Action.
26 CHAPTER 3. RELATIVISTIC STRINGS

3.2.1 Induced Metric in the Worldsheet

The line element on the worldsheet is given by

ds2 = ⌘µ⌫ dX µ dX ⌫ (3.23)

or using the parameters ⇠ 1 = ⌧ and ⇠ 2 = we write

@X µ @X ⌫ ↵
ds2 = ⌘µ⌫ d⇠ d⇠ (3.24)
@⇠ ↵ @⇠
where ↵, = 1, 2. This expression can be written as

ds2 = ↵ d⇠ ↵ d⇠ (3.25)

where we have defined the 2-dimensional induced metric in the worldsheet

@X µ @X ⌫ @X @X
↵ = ⌘µ⌫ ↵
= ↵· (3.26)
@⇠ @⇠ @⇠ @⇠
that can be written in matricial representation as
!
Ẋ 2 Ẋ · X 0
↵ = . (3.27)
Ẋ · X 0 X 02
Note that the determinant of the induced metric is
⇣ ⌘2
= det ↵ = Ẋ 2 X 02 Ẋ · X 0 . (3.28)

This result let us write the Nambu-Goto action as

Z ⌧2 Z
T 1 p
S= d d⌧. (3.29)
c ⌧1 0

3.2.2 Parameterization Invariance

The action describing the string is invariant under reparameterization. In order to probe it, let
us consider a new set of parameters 1 , 2 depending on the original set ⇠ 1 , ⇠ 2 , i.e.

1 1
= ⇠1, ⇠2 (3.30)
2 2 1 2
= ⇠ ,⇠ . (3.31)

The line element on the worldsheet (3.25) must be invariant under this change of parameters,

0
ds2 = ↵ (⇠) d⇠ ↵ d⇠ = ✏( )d d ✏
. (3.32)
3.3. EQUATION OF MOTION 27

Therefore, this relation let us write

0 @ @ ✏ ↵
↵ (⇠) d⇠ ↵ d⇠ = ✏( ) d⇠ d⇠ (3.33)
@⇠ ↵ @⇠

@ @ ✏ 0
✏ . ↵ = (3.34)
@⇠ ↵ @⇠
Taking the determinant of the matricial relation gives
  ✏
0 @ @ 0
= det ↵
det = J2 (3.35)
@⇠ @⇠
h i
@
where J = det @⇠ ↵ is the Jacobian of the transformation. Thus, the action in Eq. (3.29)
transforms to
Z Z Z Z p
T p T
S= d⇠ 1 d⇠ 2 = J d⇠ 1 d⇠ 2 0. (3.36)
c c
Finally, remember that the Jacobian gives the transformation of the measure element,

1 2
d d = J d⇠ 2 d⇠ 2 , (3.37)
from which the action shows its invariance,
Z Z Z Z p
T 1 2p T 1 2 0.
S= d⇠ d⇠ = d d (3.38)
c c

3.3 Equation of Motion

The Nambu-Goto action can be written as
Z ⌧2 Z 1
S= Ld d⌧ (3.39)
⌧1 0
in terms of the Lagrangian density
r
T ⇣ ⌘2
L= Ẋ · X 0 Ẋ 2 X 02 . (3.40)
c
We define the conjugate momenta as usual,

⇣ ⌘
@L T Ẋ · Xµ0 X 02 Ẋµ X0
Pµ⌧ = = r⇣ ⌘2 (3.41)
@ Ẋ µ c
Ẋ · X 0 Ẋ 2 X 02
⇣ ⌘
Ẋ · X 0 Ẋ Ẋ 2 Xµ0
@L T µ
Pµ = = r . (3.42)
@X 0µ c ⇣ ⌘2
Ẋ · X 0 2
Ẋ X 02
28 CHAPTER 3. RELATIVISTIC STRINGS

The variation of the action yields

Z ⌧2 Z 1
S= Ld d⌧ (3.43)
⌧1 0
Z ⌧2 Z 
1
@L @L
S= Ẋ µ + X 0µ d d⌧ (3.44)
⌧1 0 @ Ẋ µ @X 0µ
Z ⌧2 Z 
1
@ @
S= Pµ⌧ ( X µ ) + Pµ ( X µ ) d d⌧. (3.45)
⌧1 0 @⌧ @
Integrating by parts both terms give

Z Z Z Z 
1 ⇥ ⇤⌧ ⌧2 ⇥ ⇤ ⌧2 1 @Pµ⌧ @Pµ
S= Pµ⌧ X µ ⌧2 d + Pµ X µ
0
1
d⌧ + X µ d d⌧. (3.46)
0
1
⌧1 ⌧1 0 @⌧ @
The first term is zero because the extreme points in the action are fixed while the second
term is zero by using the boundary conditions that will be discussed below. Therefore, the
condition of an stationary value of the action is
Z Z 
⌧2 1 @Pµ⌧ @Pµ
S= + X µ d d⌧ = 0, (3.47)
⌧1 0 @⌧ @
which yields finally to the equation of motion

@Pµ⌧ @Pµ
+ = 0. (3.48)
@⌧ @

3.3.1 Boundary Conditions

Now we will discuss in some detail the boundary condition that we can impose on the relativistic
strings. It is important to note that in a d+1-dimensional spacetime we need to impose 2 (d + 1)
boundary conditions (corresponding to the µ = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., d components of the two end points).

Dirichlet’s Boundary Conditions

Dirichlet’s fixed end points conditions are written in terms of the speeds of the extremes,

@X µ @X µ
= =0 (3.49)
@⌧ =0 @⌧ = 1

for µ = 1, 2, 3, ..., d, i.e. that we impose this kind of conditions just to spatial coordinates
(the time coordinate X 0 = ct changes when ⌧ change ). However, another way to write these
conditions is

X µ (⌧, 0) = X µ (⌧, 1) = constant, (3.50)

for µ = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., d.
3.4. D-BRANES 29

Neumann’s Boundary Conditions

Dirichlet’s free end points conditions are written in terms of the momenta,

Pµ =0
= Pµ =
=0 (3.51)
1

or equivalently

@X µ @X µ
= = 0. (3.52)
@ =0 @ = 1

for µ = 1, 2, 3, ..., d, i.e. that we impose this kind of conditions just to spatial coordinates
(the time coordinate X 0 = ct changes when ⌧ change ). However, another way to write these
conditions is

X µ (⌧, 0) = X µ (⌧, 1) = constant, (3.53)

for µ = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., d.

Closed String Conditions

A closed string is characterized by the boundary conditions

X µ (⌧, ) = X µ (⌧, + c) , (3.54)

i.e. we identify the parameter periodically, ⇠ + c.

3.4 D-Branes

To each extreme and each direction in spacetime, we can choose di↵erent boundary conditions
of those described above. However, it is important to note that Dirichlet’s conditions need the
existence of some kind of structure to attach the end points. These structures are called D-branes
( the D comes from Dirichlet ) and they may be classified depending on their dimension:
- A point is a D0-Brane
- A line is a D1-Brane
- A surface is a D2-Brane
- In general a hypersurface with p spatial dimensions is a Dp-Brane.

A free end point can be considered as attached to a D-brane that fills the whole space.
30 CHAPTER 3. RELATIVISTIC STRINGS

3.5 Static Gauge

Now, we will choose a specific parameter ⌧ with a condition known as the static gauge. To
understand the election consider the worldsheet presented in Figure 3.4 and the hyperplane at
the fixed time t = t0 . The intersection between the hyperplane and the worldsheet gives the
string AB at time t = t0 . The parameter ⌧ is choosen in such a way that each of its constant
values corresponds to a a static string, i.e.

⌧ (p) = t (p) (3.55)

for each point p in the worldsheet. Thus, the 0-component of the worldsheet’s coordinates is
X 0 (⌧, ) = ct (⌧, ) = c⌧ .

Figure 3.4: Worldsheet for an open string and static gauge.

On the other hand, the parameter is choosen simply by imposing that for open strings it
will take values in the range 2 [0, 1 ] and for closed strings takes values 2 [0, c ] with the
identification (⌧, ) ⇠ (⌧, + c ) , i.e. c is identified with the parametric length of the closed
string.
Using this gauge, the coordinates in the worldsheet can be written

h i
~ (t, )
X µ (⌧, ) = X µ (t, ) = ct, X (3.56)

~ (t, ) is a d-dimensional vector. Therefore, the derivatives of X µ with respect to ⌧ and

where X
are
3.5. STATIC GAUGE 31

" # # "
@X µ ~
@X 0 @ X
@X~
= ,
= c, (3.57)
@⌧ @⌧ @⌧@t
" # " #
@X µ @X 0 @ X~ @X~
= , = 0, . (3.58)
@ @ @ @
The action of Nambu-Goto (3.22) under this gauge becomes
v
Z Z u
u !2 2 !2 3 !2
T ⌧2 1 ~
u @X @X~ ~
@X @X~
S= d d⌧ t · + 4c2 5 . (3.59)
c ⌧1 0 @t @ @t @

~
@X
In the particular case of a string at rest, @t = 0, the action is simply
v !2
Z Z u
T ⌧2 1 u @X~
S= d d⌧ tc2 (3.60)
c ⌧1 0 @
v !2
Z Z u
⌧2 1 u @X~
S= T d d⌧ t . (3.61)
⌧1 0 @

3.5.1 Stretched String

Figure 3.5: Stretched string along the x1 axis.

Now we will analyze a stretched string with length l1 along the x1 axis, as seen in Figure
3.5. We will use the static gauge
X 0 = c⌧ (3.62)
32 CHAPTER 3. RELATIVISTIC STRINGS

and since the string is along the x1 axis, we have the spatial coordinates in the worldsheet

X1 = f ( ) (3.63)

X 2 = X 3 = ... = X d = 0 (3.64)

where f ( ) is a continuous strictly growing function,

df
f0 = >0 (3.65)
d
for 2 [0, 1 ] and such that f (0) = 0 and f ( 1 ) = l1 . The strictly growing condition implies
that each point in the string has one and just one corresponding value of .

Figure 3.6: A strictly growing function f ( ).

Under this assumptions, the coordinates in the worldsheet are

h i
X µ = c⌧, f ( ) , ~0d 1 (3.66)

where ~0d 1 is a d 1 dimensional null vector. the derivatives of this coordinates are

h i
Ẋ µ = c, 0, ~0d 1 (3.67)
h i
X 0µ = 0, f 0 , ~0d 1 . (3.68)

Note that Ẋ · X’ = 0 and consequently, the Nambu-Goto action is this time

3.6. TRANSVERSE SPEED 33

Z t2 Z q
T 1
S= d dt c2 (f 0 )2 (3.69)
c t1 0

Z t2 Z 1
df
S= T d dt (3.70)
t1 0 d
Z t2
S= T [f ( 1) f (0)] dt (3.71)
t1

Z t2
S= T l1 dt. (3.72)
t1
R R
Remember that the action is given in terms of the lagrangian as S = Ldt = [K V ] dt,
so we can identify the potential energy of the stretched string as

V = T l1 (3.73)

because there is no kinetic energy, K = 0. Since the string is at rest, the hamiltonian gives the
rest energy and hence

H = µ 0 l 1 c 2 = V = T l1 (3.74)

or
T
µ0 = .
c2
This relation confirms that the speed propagation of waves in relativistic strings is c and shows
that the existence of rest mass is conditioned by the existence of tension, i.e. relativistic strings
are massless but aquires proper mass when it is tensioned.

3.6 Transverse Speed

Now we will consider a string oscillating in order to describe its transverse speed. Using the
static gauge, we have

X 0 = ct = c⌧ (3.75)
~ = X
X ~ (t, ) . (3.76)
~
The transverse speed is defined as @@tX and it must be, in general, a function of . From
the definition of the parameters (⌧, ), the speed goes along lines of = constant and owing
to reparameterization invariance, we conclude that the longitudinal movement is not physically
34 CHAPTER 3. RELATIVISTIC STRINGS

Figure 3.7: A string oscillating and the perpendicular plane to the string at a point p.

important. Therefore we will only consider transverse waves and the transverse speed v? is
independent of the parameterization.
In Figure 3.7 we see the string and a perpendicular plane to the string. At some instant, the
string cuts the plane at point p and some time later the same point in the string is located at p0
in the plane. The transverse speed is orthogonal to the string and tangent to the perpendicular
plane.
Let s = s ( ) be the length of the string with s (0) = 0 and s ( 1) = l. An infinitesimal
~ along the string has a length ds given by
vector dX

@X~
~ =
ds = dX |d | . (3.77)
@

~
@X
Hence, note that the vector @s is unitary because

2 2 2
~ @X
@X ~ @X~ @X ~ d @X~ d
· = · = = 1. (3.78)
@s @s @ @ ds @ ds

~
On the other hand, the vector @@X is calculated with t = constant, and since the surfaces
~ ~ ~
t = constant give the string, the vector @@X is tangent to the string. Finally, since @@s
X
= @@X dds ,
~
we conclude that @@s
X
is also tangent to the string.
~
The transverse velocity ~v? is the component of @@tX that is perpendicular to the string, see
~
Figure 3.8. Therefore we will use the unitary vector @@sX
to obtain this speed. To do it, note
that for any vector ~u, its orthogonal component to some unitary vector n̂ is given by
3.6. TRANSVERSE SPEED 35

Figure 3.8: A string oscillating and its perpendicular speed.

~u? = ~u (~u · n̂) n̂. (3.79)

This expression gives ~v? as

!
~
@X ~ @X
@X ~ ~
@X
~v? = · (3.80)
@t @t @s @s

and its magnitude as

!2 !2
~
@X ~ @X
@X ~
2
v? = ~v? · ~v? = · . (3.81)
@t @t @s
h i
~ (t, ) and hence
In the static gauge X µ = ct, X

!
~
@X
Ẋ µ = c, (3.82)
@t
!
@X~
X 0µ = 0, . (3.83)
@

Thus,

!2 2 !2 3 !2
⇣ ⌘2 ~ @X
@X ~ ~
@X @X~
Ẋ · X 0 Ẋ 2 X 02 = · + 4c2 5 (3.84)
@t @ @t @
36 CHAPTER 3. RELATIVISTIC STRINGS

8 !2 2 !2 3 !2 9
⇣ ⌘2 ✓ ◆2 < ~ @X~ ~ ~ =
ds @X @X @X
Ẋ · X 0 Ẋ 2 X 02 = · + 4c2 5 (3.85)
d : @t @s @t @s ;

⇣ ⌘2
~
@X
but @s = 1 and then
2 !2 !2 3
⇣ ⌘2 ✓ ◆2 ~ ~ ~
ds 4 @X · @X @X
Ẋ · X 0 Ẋ 2 X 02 = + c2 5 (3.86)
d @t @s @t

⇣ ⌘2 ✓ ◆2
0 2 02 ds ⇥ ⇤
Ẋ · X Ẋ X = c2 2
v? (3.87)
d

⇣ ⌘2 ✓ ◆2  2
0 2 02 2 ds v?
Ẋ · X Ẋ X =c 1 . (3.88)
d c2
This result gives a Nambu-Goto action
s
Z t2 Z 2
1
ds v?
S= T d dt 1 . (3.89)
t1 0 d c2
Note that the integral can be changed into a s integral but it usually is not performed
because the parametric length of the string always goes from 0 to 1 while the lenght in terms
of s going from 0 to l, changes when the string is stretched.

3.6.1 Motion of the End Points

Lets draw our attention to the free ends of a string that are described by the Neumann conditions,

Pµ =0
= Pµ =
= 0. (3.90)
1

Ffrom Eq. (3.42) we have

⇣ ⌘
Ẋ · X 0 Ẋ Ẋ 2 Xµ0
T µ
Pµ = r⇣ ⌘ (3.91)
c 2
Ẋ · X 0 Ẋ 2 X 02

that in the static gauge, Eqs. (3.82-3.83), becomes

⇣ ⌘ ✓ ⇣ ⌘2 ◆
~
@X @X~ ~
@X
@t · @ Ẋµ c2 @t Xµ0
T
Pµ = r⇣ ⌘2 (3.92)
c
Ẋ · X 0 Ẋ 2 X 02

and using Eq. (3.88)

3.6. TRANSVERSE SPEED 37

⇣ ⌘ ✓ ⇣ ⌘2 ◆
~
@X @X~ ~
@X
@t · @ Ẋµ c2 @t Xµ0
T
Pµ = q (3.93)
c2 ds
2
v?
d 1 c2
⇣ ⌘ ✓ ⇣ ⌘2 ◆
d ~
@X @X~ ~
@X d 0
ds @t · @ Ẋµ c2 @t ds Xµ
T
Pµ = q (3.94)
c2 2
v?
1 c2
The component µ = 0 has

@X 0
Ẋ 0 = =c (3.95)
@t
@X 0 @t
= c = 0. (3.96)
@s @s
Thus, we obtain the component
⇣ ⌘
~
@X ~
@X
T @t · @s c
P0 = q (3.97)
c2 2
v?
1 c2
which, evaluated at the end points, must be zero by Neumann conditions,
⇣ ⌘
~
@X ~
@X
T @t · @s c
P0 | =0, = q = 0. (3.98)
1
c2 2
v?
1 c2 =0, 1

From this relation we conclude that

!
@X~ @X
~
· = 0, (3.99)
@t @s
=0, 1
⇣ ⌘
~
i.e. the velocity of the end points, @@tX is perpendicular to the string. This result permit
=0, 1
us to write the whole components of Neumann conditions as
✓ ⇣ ⌘2 ◆
~
@X @Xµ
c2 @t @s
T
Pµ =0,
= 2 q = 0. (3.100)
1 c 2
v?
1 c2
=0, 1

~
@X
Since the end points move perpendicularly, we write @t = ~v? , and therefore

@X
T c2 v?
2
@s
µ

q =0 (3.101)
c2 v2
1 c?2 =0, 1
38 CHAPTER 3. RELATIVISTIC STRINGS

s
2
v? @Xµ
T 1 = 0. (3.102)
c2 @s =0, 1

In particular, the spatial components of this equation are

s
2
v? ~
@X
T 1 =0 (3.103)
c2 @s
=0, 1

~
@X
and since @s is unitary, we conclude that the end points move with the speed of light,

2
v? = c2 . (3.104)

3.7 Parameterisation

Figure 3.9: Definition of the parameter .

From now on we will use the static gauge X 0 = ct = c⌧ , but we still need to specify the
parameter . Consider an open string with free end points at di↵erent times as seen in Figure 3.9.
Remember that the end points move perpendicular to the string. We will define the parameter
2 [0, 1 ] at time t = 0 and extend this definition to later times projecting each point in the
string perpendicularly to the string (see Figure 3.9). Mathematically, this fact is expressed by
imposing at any point in the string the condition

~ @X
@X ~
· = 0. (3.105)
@t @
3.7. PARAMETERISATION 39

~
@X
This relation imposes that @t is always perpendicular to the string, and therefore

~
@X
~v? = (3.106)
@t
at any point.
Under the static gauge and the described parameterization, we have the relations
" # " #
@ ~
X @ ~
X ~ @X
@X ~
Ẋ · X 0 = c, · 0, = · =0 (3.107)
@t @ @t @
!2
~
@X
Ẋ 2 = c2 = c2 2
v? (3.108)
@t
!2 ✓ ◆2
@X~ ds
02
X = = . (3.109)
@ d
Using this relations, the conjugate momenta are

ds 2
T dq Ẋµ T dds Ẋµ
Pµ⌧ = = q (3.110)
c ds
2
v? c2 v2
c 1d c2
1 c?2
⇣ 2
⌘ s
2 v? @Xµ
T c 1 c2 @ v?2
@Xµ
Pµ = q = T 1 2
. (3.111)
c v2 c @s
c dds 1 c?2

3.7.1 Equations of Motion in the -Parameterisation

The equation of motion (3.48),

@P ⌧ µ @P µ
+ =0 (3.112)
@⌧ @
can be written explı́citly using the static gauge and the parameterisation. Consider the
component µ = 0 of Eqs. (3.110) and (3.111),
0
T ds @X
⌧0 T ds
P = 2 qd @⌧
= q d
(3.113)
c v2 c v2
1 c?2 1 c?2
s
2
v? @X 0
P 0= T 1 = 0. (3.114)
c2 @s
Hence, the component µ = 0 of the equation of motion gives
2 3 2 3
ds ds
@ 4T 5= @ 4T q d 5=0
q d (3.115)
@⌧ c 2
v? @t c 2
v?
1 c2
1 c2
40 CHAPTER 3. RELATIVISTIC STRINGS

which tell us that the quantity

ds
T
q d (3.116)
c 2
v?
1 c2

is a constant. Note that T ds is the proper energy of a piece of string with lenght ds. Therefore,
the quantity rT ds 2 is the relativistic energy of the same piece of string. In fact, it is possible
v
1 ?
c2
to probe that the Hamiltonian of the string is given by
Z
T ds
H= q 2
. (3.117)
v?
1 c2
On the other hand, the spatial components of Eqs. (3.110) and (3.111) are

ds ~
@X ds
~ ⌧ = T qd
P @⌧
=
T
q d
~v? (3.118)
c2 2
v? c2 2
v?
1 c2
1 c2
s
2
v? ~
@X
~ =
P T 1 . (3.119)
2
c @s
Thus, the spatial components of the equation of motion gives
2 3 2 s 3
ds 2 ~
@ 4T @ v? @X
q d
~v? 5 = 4T 1 5. (3.120)
@t c2 2
v? @ c2 @s
1 c2

Since the quantity in Eq (3.116) is a constant, we have

2 s 3
ds 2 ~
T @~v? @ 4 v? @X
q d
= T 1 5. (3.121)
c2 2
v? @t @ c2 @s
1 c2

Defining the quantities

s
2
v?
T̃ = T 1 (3.122)
c2
and
T
µ= q 2
(3.123)
v?
c2 1 c2

we obtain
✓ ◆ " #
ds @~v? @ ~
@X
µ = T̃ (3.124)
d @t @ @s
3.7. PARAMETERISATION 41

" #
@2X~ @ ~
@X
µ 2 = T̃ , (3.125)
@t @s @s
which looks similar to the non relativistic equation of motion. However we can make it even
more similar by redefining the parameter . Consider Eq. (3.121) to write
2s 3
ds ~ 2 ~
T d @2X @ 4 v? @X 5
q =T 1 (3.126)
c2 2
v? @t2 @ c2 @s
1 c2
s 2s 3
~ 2 ✓ ◆ 2 ~
1 @2X v? d @ 4 v? d @X 5
= 1 1 (3.127)
c2 @t2 c2 ds @ c2 ds @

and define the quantity

ds
A( ) = q d 2
. (3.128)
v?
1 c2
Then, the equation of motion is
" #
1 @2X~ 1 @ 1 @X ~
2 2
= . (3.129)
c @t A( ) @ A( ) @

Now we will define a new parameter 0 through the relation

d˜ = A ( ) d , (3.130)

from which the equation of motion gives the wave equation

1 @2X~ @2X~
2 2
= . (3.131)
c @t @ ˜2
It is important to note that, from the definition of ˜ , we have

ds
ds
d˜ = A ( ) d = q d 2
d =q 2
(3.132)
v? v?
1 c2
1 c2

and from (3.117)

dH
d˜ = (3.133)
T

dH
= T = constant, (3.134)
d˜
i.e. in the ˜ parameterisation, the energy density is constant. If ˜ = 0 corresponds to one of
the extremes of the string, the quantity
42 CHAPTER 3. RELATIVISTIC STRINGS

˜ (Q) T = H (Q) (3.135)

H
is the energy up to the point ˜ = Q. If ˜ 2 [0, 1 ], then 1 = T.
The parameters t and ˜ are orthogonal, since

~ @X
@X ~ ~ @X
@X ~ ✓ d˜ ◆
· = · = 0, (3.136)
@t @ @t @ ˜ d
we have
~ @X
@X ~
· = 0. (3.137)
@t @ ˜
~
@X
Since @s is unitary, note that

2 2 2
~ @X
@X ~ @X~ @X ~ d @X~ d
· = · = =1 (3.138)
@s @s @ @ ds @ ds
from which

2 2
@X~ ds
= (3.139)
@ d
and equivalently

2 2
~
@X ds
= . (3.140)
@˜ d˜
Note that using the definition of the new parameter we have

ds
d˜ = q 2
(3.141)
v?
1 c2

2 ✓ ◆2
v? ds
1 = (3.142)
c2 d˜

2
2
v? ~
@X
1 = (3.143)
c2 @˜

2 2
~
1 @X ~
@X
1 2
= (3.144)
c @t @˜

2 2
~
@X ~
1 @X
+ 2 = 1. (3.145)
@˜ c @t
~ given in Eq. (3.119),
Finally, consider the spatial components of the momentum P
3.7. PARAMETERISATION 43

s
2
v? ~
@X
~ =
P T 1 (3.146)
2
c @s
which can be written in the ˜ parameterisation as
s
2
v? ~
d˜ @ X ~
@X
~ =
P T 1 = T . (3.147)
c2 ds @ ˜ @˜
Note that the boundary conditions for free ends under this parameterisation give

~
@X
~
P = T =0 (3.148)
free ends @˜
free ends
~
@X
corresponding to the Neumann boundary conditions @˜ = 0.
free ends
Useful Formulae
Droping the˜symbol, i.e. using instead of ˜ , a little summary of formulae is
- Equation of motion

1 @2X~ ~
@2X
= (3.149)
c2 @t2 @ 2
- Parameterisation conditions

~ @X
@X ~
· =0 (3.150)
@t @
2 2
@X~ ~
1 @X
+ 2 =1 (3.151)
@ c @t
- Boundary conditions for free ends

@X~ @X~
= =0 (3.152)
@ @
=0 = 1

- Conjugate momenta

T @X µ
P⌧µ = (3.153)
c2 @t
µ @X µ
P = T . (3.154)
@
44 CHAPTER 3. RELATIVISTIC STRINGS
Chapter 4

Conservation Laws

4.1 A Review of the Conservation of Electric Charge in Elec-

tromagnetism
In electromagnetism, one defines the current density 4-vector as
h i
j µ = c⇢, ~j (4.1)

where ⇢ = ⇢ (t, ~r) is the electric charge density and ~j = ~j (t, ~r) is the current density. The
continuity equation for j states

@µ j µ = 0 (4.2)
which is written in components as

@0 j 0 + @i j i = 0 (4.3)

@⇢ ~ ~
+ r · j = 0. (4.4)
@t
The electric charge in a certain volume V is defined as the integral
Z Z
j0 3
3
Q (t) = ⇢ (t, ~r) d x =
d x. (4.5)
V V c
Thus the rate of change of the electric charge in that volume is given by
Z
dQ
= @ 0 j 0 d3 x (4.6)
dt V
which can be written, using the continuity equation, as
Z ⇣ ⌘
dQ ~ · ~j d3 x.
= r (4.7)
dt V

45
46 CHAPTER 4. CONSERVATION LAWS

Using the theorem of the divergence we can change the volume integral by an integral on
the surface of V ,
Z
dQ ~j · d~a.
= (4.8)
dt S
Note that the integral in the right hand side is just the flux through S. Therefore, if there
is no flux of current, we conclude that Q is conserved,

dQ
= 0. (4.9)
dt

4.2 Symmetries and Conservation Laws

Now, we will review the relationship between symmetries of the lagrangian and the existence of
conservation laws. Consider fthe lagrangian function

L = L [q (t) , q̇ (t) , t] (4.10)

and an infinitesimal transformation

q (t) ! q (t) + q. (4.11)

Suppose that the variation can be written in terms of an infinitesimal parameter ✏ indepen-
dent of time and an arbitrary function h [q (t)] by

q = ✏h [q (t)] . (4.12)

This implies a change in the generalized velocity in the form

d
q̇ (t) ! q̇ (t) + [ q] . (4.13)
dt
If the lagrangian is invariant under this transformation (up to first order in q), we say that
this is a symmetry transformation. The we define the conserved charge Q by

@L
✏Q = q. (4.14)
@ q̇
To show the conservation law, consider the variation of the lagrangian under the symmetry
transformation,

@L @L @L @L d
L= q+ q̇ = q+ [ q] = 0, (4.15)
@q @ q̇ @q @ q̇ dt
where the las equality means that the lagrangian is invariant under the transformation. Then,
the time derivative of Q is
4.2. SYMMETRIES AND CONSERVATION LAWS 47


dQ d @L
✏ = q (4.16)
dt dt @ q̇
✓ ◆
dQ d @L @L d
✏ = q+ [ q] . (4.17)
dt dt @ q̇ @ q̇ dt
Using the invariance of the lagrangian under the transformation, Eq. (4.15), gives
✓ ◆
dQ d @L @L
✏ = q q (4.18)
dt dt @ q̇ @q
and from Euler-Lagrange equations,
 ✓ ◆
dQ d @L @L
✏ = q = 0. (4.19)
dt dt @ q̇ @q
Example
Consider the lagrangian of a free particle

1
L (q̇) = mq̇ 2 (4.20)
2
and the infinitesimal spatial traslation

q (t) ! q (t) + q = q (t) + ✏. (4.21)

Note that in this case q = ✏ is independent of time. Thus, the velocity changes
as

d✏
q̇ (t) ! q̇ (t) + = q̇ (t) . (4.22)
dt
It is clear that the lagrangian is invariant under this transformation because the
velocity do not change. Therefore, the conserved quantity is given by

@L @L
✏Q = q= ✏ (4.23)
@ q̇ @ q̇

@L
Q= = mq̇ = p. (4.24)
@ q̇

4.2.1 Lagrangian Densities

Now we will analyze the case when the formalism is written in terms of a lagrangian density.
Consider the action
48 CHAPTER 4. CONSERVATION LAWS

Z
S= d⇠ 0 d⇠ 1 ...d⇠ d L ( a
, @µ a
) (4.25)

where the lagrangian density depends on the fields a = a (⇠) labeled by the index a = 1, 2, ...
a
and @µ a = @@⇠µ . Consider the transformation

a a a
(⇠) ! (⇠) + (4.26)

where the variation can be written in terms of a set of infinitesimal parameters ✏i and an arbitrary
set of functions hai , labeled by the index i = 1, 2, ..., in the form

a
= ✏i hai (⇠) . (4.27)

We will show that the quantities ji defined through

@L
✏i jiµ = a
(4.28)
@ (@µ a )
are conserved currents. Consider the derivative of this expression,

@L
✏ i
@µ jiµ = @µ a
(4.29)
@ (@µ a )

@L @L
✏ i
@µ jiµ = @µ a
+ @µ [ a
]. (4.30)
@ (@µ a ) @ (@µ a )
Using the Euler-Lagrange equations we replace the first term in the right hand side,

@L @L
✏i @µ jiµ = a
+ @µ [ a
]. (4.31)
@ a @ (@µ a )
If the lagrangian density is invariant under the transformation of the fields we have

@L a @L a @L a @L a
L= + [@µ ]= + @µ [ ]=0 (4.32)
@ a @ (@µ a ) @ a @ (@µ a )
and therefore

@L @L
✏i @µ jiµ = a a
=0 (4.33)
@ a @ a
which gives the continuity equations

@µ jiµ = 0. (4.34)

The conserved charges on a certain hipervolume ⌦ related to this currents are defined as
Z
Qi = ji0 d⇠ 1 d⇠ 2 ...d⇠ d (4.35)
⌦
4.3. SYMMETRIES OF THE WORLDSHEET 49

and they satisfy the relations

dQi
= 0. (4.36)
d⇠ 0

4.3 Symmetries of the Worldsheet

The Nambu-Goto describing a worldsheet can be written as
Z
S= d⇠ 0 d⇠ 1 L [@0 X µ , @1 X µ ] (4.37)

where the parameters can be choosen as ⇠ 0 , ⇠ 1 = (⌧, ) and

s✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
µ µ @X @X @X @X
L [@0 X , @1 X ] = · . (4.38)
@⇠ 0 @⇠ 1 @⇠ 0 @⇠ 1

4.3.1 Translational Invariance

Consider the translation

X µ ! X µ + X µ = X µ + ✏µ (4.39)

where X µ = ✏µ for a set of d + 1 constant infinitesimal parameters (µ = 0, 1, 2, ..., d). This

relation induces the transformation

@↵ X µ ! @↵ X µ + @↵ ✏µ = @↵ X µ (4.40)

where ↵ = 1, 2 labels the parameters. It is straightforward to note that the lagrangian is

invariant under this transformation and hence, the conserved currents are

@L @L
✏µ jµ↵ = Xµ = ✏µ (4.41)
@ (@↵ X µ ) @ (@↵ X µ )

@L
jµ↵ = . (4.42)
@ (@↵ X µ )
The components of these currents can be interpreted in the ⌧, parameterisation as

@L @L
jµ0 = µ
= = Pµ⌧ (4.43)
@ (@0 X ) @ (@⌧ X µ )

@L @L
jµ1 = µ
= = Pµ . (4.44)
@ (@1 X ) @ (@ X µ )
Therefore we can write the currents as
50 CHAPTER 4. CONSERVATION LAWS

⇥ ⇤ ⇥ ⇤
jµ↵ = jµ0 , jµ1 = Pµ⌧ , Pµ . (4.45)

The continuity equation for these currents is

@↵ jµ↵ = 0 (4.46)

@0 jµ0 + @1 jµ1 = 0 (4.47)

@⌧ Pµ⌧ + @ Pµ = 0 (4.48)

which corresponds to the equation of motion (wave equation!).

The associated charges are

Z 1
Pµ = jµ0 d (4.49)
0

Z 1
Pµ = Pµ⌧ d (4.50)
0

which can be interpreted as the components of the 4-momentum and thus Pµ⌧ are interpreted
as the density of 4-momentum carried by the string. The conservation of this quantity must be
analyzed by considering

Z
dPµ 1 dPµ⌧
= d (4.51)
d⌧ 0 d⌧

or considering the equation of motion,

Z
dPµ 1 dPµ 1
= d = Pµ 0
. (4.52)
d⌧ 0 d
dPµ
Note that the conservation equation d⌧ = 0 is obtained when considering the Neumann
boundary conditions

Pµ 0
= Pµ =0 (4.53)
1

as well as the closed string conditions 1 ⇠ 0, but the 4-momentum is NOT conserved for
Dirichlet’s boundary conditions (fixed end points).
4.3. SYMMETRIES OF THE WORLDSHEET 51

4.3.2 Lorentz Invariance

The Nambu-Goto action is also invariant under Lorentz transformations by construction. A

Lorentz transformation is written in general as

X µ ! X µ + X µ = X µ + ✏µ⌫ X⌫ (4.54)

such that ✏µ⌫ is an infinitesimal constant matrix and the quantity ⌘µ⌫ X µ X ⌫ is invariant, i.e.

(⌘µ⌫ X µ X ⌫ ) = 0. (4.55)

The invariance condition gives

(⌘µ⌫ X µ X ⌫ ) = 2⌘µ⌫ X µ X ⌫ = 2⌘µ⌫ ✏µ X X ⌫ = 2✏µ X Xµ = 0. (4.56)

Since the product X Xµ is symmetric in the indices and µ, we conclude that the infinites-
imal matrix ✏ is antisymmetric,

✏µ = ✏ µ. (4.57)
µ ⌫
Since the Namb-Goto action only includes terms with the form ⌘µ⌫ @x @x
@⇠ ↵ @⇠ which are clearly
invariant under Lorentz transformations.

Example
Note that under a Lorentz transformation we have
 
@xµ @x⌫ @ ( xµ ) @x⌫ @xµ @ ( x⌫ )
⌘µ⌫ ↵ = ⌘µ⌫ + (4.58)
@⇠ @⇠ @⇠ ↵ @⇠ @⇠ ↵ @⇠
 
@xµ @x⌫ @x⇢ @x⌫ @xµ @x⇢
⌘µ⌫ ↵ = ⌘µ⌫ ✏µ⇢ ↵ + ✏⌫⇢ ↵ (4.59)
@⇠ @⇠ @⇠ @⇠ @⇠ @⇠

@xµ @x⌫ @x⇢ @x⌫ @xµ @x⇢
⌘µ⌫ ↵ = ✏⌫⇢ ↵ + ✏µ⇢ ↵ (4.60)
@⇠ @⇠ @⇠ @⇠ @⇠ @⇠

@xµ @x⌫ @xµ @x⇢
⌘µ⌫ ↵ = [✏⇢µ + ✏µ⇢ ] ↵ (4.61)
@⇠ @⇠ @⇠ @⇠
and due to the antisymmetry ✏⇢µ = ✏µ⇢ , we have the invariance

@xµ @x⌫
⌘µ⌫ = 0. (4.62)
@⇠ ↵ @⇠
52 CHAPTER 4. CONSERVATION LAWS

Conserved Current

From Eq. (4.28) the conserved current associated with the Lorentz invariance is

@L
✏µ⌫ jµ⌫
↵
= Xµ (4.63)
@ (@↵ X µ )

✏µ⌫ jµ⌫
↵
= Pµ↵ ✏µ⇢ X⇢ , (4.64)

which can be written as

1 1
✏µ⌫ jµ⌫
↵
= Pµ↵ ✏µ⇢ X⇢ + Pµ↵ ✏µ⇢ X⇢ (4.65)
2 2

1 1 ↵ ⇢µ
✏µ⌫ jµ⌫
↵
= Pµ↵ ✏µ⇢ X⇢ P ✏ X⇢ (4.66)
2 2 µ

1 ⇥ ⇤
✏µ⌫ jµ⌫
↵
= ✏µ⌫ Pµ↵ X⌫ P⌫↵ Xµ (4.67)
2

↵ 1⇥ ↵ ⇤
jµ⌫ = P X⌫ P⌫↵ Xµ . (4.68)
2 µ
Defining the quantity

M↵µ⌫ = P⌫↵ Xµ Pµ↵ X⌫ , (4.69)

which is clearly antisymmetric, i.e. M↵µ⌫ = M↵⌫µ , the continuity equation for jµ⌫
↵ becomes

@↵ M↵µ⌫ = 0 (4.70)

@⌧ M⌧µ⌫ + @ Mµ⌫ = 0. (4.71)

Conserved Charge

Due to the antisymmetry properties of the current, the conserved charge is defined this time as
the integral
Z
⇥ ⇤
Mµ⌫ = M⌧µ⌫ d Mµ⌫ d⌧ . (4.72)

To interpret this quantity, note that the components of the angular momentum of the string
are expressed in terms of this quantity by

1
Li = ✏ijk Mjk (4.73)
2
where ✏ijk is the total antisymmetric symbol with ✏123 = 1. This gives the components
4.3. SYMMETRIES OF THE WORLDSHEET 53

L1 = M23 (4.74)
L2 = M31 (4.75)
L3 = M12 . (4.76)
54 CHAPTER 4. CONSERVATION LAWS
Chapter 5

P-Branes

A p-Brane is a p-dimensional extended object that moves in spacetime. Some particular exam-
ples are
0-brane: relativistic particle
1-brane: relativistic string
2-brane: membrane
3-brane: volume.
In natural units (i.e. units with c = ~ = 1 ), the action for a p-brane is given by
Z
Sp = Tp dµp (5.1)

where Tp is the tension of the p-brane anddµp is the p + 1 dimensional volume. For example, in
the case of a 0-brane (relativistic particle) we have the action
Z Z
S0 = T0 dµ0 = m0 ds (5.2)

i.e. that the tension of the 0-brane is identified with the proper mass and the p + 1 volume is
just the line element along the world line, dµ0 = ds.
For a 1-brane (relativistic string) we have
Z Z
S1 = T1 dµ1 = T dA (5.3)

which gives the identification of T1 with the tension of the string and dµ1 = dA with the surface
element of the world-sheet. In general, the units of the quantity Tp can be obtained from the
units of the action and of the p + 1 volume element,

[Sp ] EnergyTime Energy

[Tp ] = = = (5.4)
[µp ] Lenght p+1 Lenghtp
i.e units of Energy per p volume.

55
56 CHAPTER 5. P-BRANES

Alternative Actions

The action of a p-brane can be written alternatively using an adequate parameterisation in the
world-p + 1 volume. This is
Z
p
Sp = Tp dp+1 ⇠ (5.5)

where ↵ is the determinant of the induced metric

↵ = gµ⌫ @↵ X µ @ X ⌫ (5.6)

and ↵, = 0, 1, 2, ..., p take values denoting the p + 1 parameters ⇠ ↵ .

5.1 Action of the Model (Polyakov Action)

In the Polyakov model, we will consider an auxiliar metric in the world-volume, h↵ (⇠) which
depends on the coordinates ⇠ ↵ (with ↵, = 0, 1, 2, ..., p). This metric is symmetric, h↵ = h ↵ ,
its inverse is denoted by h↵ and its determinant by h = det h↵ . Thus, the action of the
model or Polyakov action is defined as
Z
Tp p
S = dp+1 hh↵ @↵ X · @ X. (5.7)
2
This action depends on two independent fields, h↵ and X µ . Therefore we have two field
equations, given by the variations

S
= 0 (5.8)
h↵
S
= 0. (5.9)
Xµ
The variation with respect to the metric defines the energy-momentum tensor T↵ by

2 1 S
T↵ = p = 0, (5.10)
Tp h h↵
while the variation with respect to X µ gives the motion equation for the p-brane. In order to
probe that the model action is equivalent to the Nambu-Goto action we will find explicitly
the energy-momentum tensor. It gives

✓ ◆ p
2 1 Tp h p h ✏
T↵ = p h ✏ @ X · @✏ X + h @ X · @✏ X = 0 (5.11)
Tp h 2 h↵ h↵
 p
1 h p
T↵ = p h ✏ @ X · @✏ X + h@↵ X · @ X = 0. (5.12)
h h↵
5.1. ACTION OF THE MODEL (POLYAKOV ACTION) 57

Note that

p 1
h= p h (5.13)
2 h
and
h= hh↵ h↵ . (5.14)

Hence,

p hh↵
h= p h↵ (5.15)
2 h
p
p hh↵
h= h↵ (5.16)
2
and the energy-momentum tensor becomes
"p #
1 hh↵ p
T↵ = p h ✏ @ X · @✏ X + h@↵ X · @ X = 0 (5.17)
h 2

1
T↵ = h↵ h ✏ @ X · @✏ X + @↵ X · @ X = 0. (5.18)
2
From this relation we have

1
@ ↵ X · @ X = h↵ h ✏ @ X · @ ✏ X (5.19)
2
and taking its determinant
✓ ◆p+1
1
det [@↵ X · @ X] = h (h ✏ @ X · @✏ X)p+1 (5.20)
2
q 1 p p+1
det [@↵ X · @ X] = p+1 h (h ✏ @ X · @✏ X) 2 (5.21)
2 2
58 CHAPTER 5. P-BRANES
Bibliography

[1] J. M. Bardeen, B. Carter, and S. W. Hawking, The four laws of black hole

[2] mechanics, Commun. Math. Phys., 31, 161–170, (1973).

[3] B. Carter, Black Hole Equilibrium States, in DeWitt, C., and DeWitt, B.S., eds.,
Black Holes, Based on lectures given at the 23rd session of the Summer School of
Les Houches, 1972, pp. 57–214, (Gordon and Breach, New York, 1973).

[4] S.W. Hawking, and G. F. R. Ellis, The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time,
Cambridge Monographs on Mathematical Physics, (Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1973).

[5] V. Iyer and R. M. Wald, Some properties of Noether charge and a proposal for
dynamical black hole entropy, Phys. Rev. D, 50, 846–864, (1994).

[6] C. Misner, K. Thorne and J. Wheeler. Gravitation. W.H. Freeman and Co. San
Francisco.1973

[7] D. Sudarsky and R. M. Wald, Extrema of mass, stationarity, and staticity, and so-
lutions to the Einstein–Yang–Mills equations, Phys. Rev. D, 46, 1453–1474, (1992).

[8] P.K. Townsend. Black Holes. Lecture Notes. Cambridge University. U.K. 1997.

[9] R. M. Wald, General Relativity, (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1984).

[10] R. M. Wald, Quantum Field Theory in Curved Spacetime and Black Hole Ther-
modynamics, Chicago Lectures in Physics, (University of Chicago Press, Chicago,
1994).

[11] R. M. Wald, The Thermodynamics of Black Holes, Living Rev. Relativity 4,

(2001), 6. Disponible en http://www.livingreviews.org/lrr-2001-6

[12] S. Winitzki. Advanced General Relativity. Disponible en

http://www.theorie.physik.uni-muenchen.de/˜serge/T7/

59
60 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[13] R. P. Geroch. Asymptotic structure of spacetime. En: Proc. Symp. Cincinnati,

Ohio, June 14-18, 1976, Ed. por F.P. Esposito and L. Witten (Plenum Press, NY,
1977)

[14] Ø. Grøn and S. Hervik. Einstein’s theory of relativity (book draft, disponible en
www.fys.uio.no/˜sigbjorh/GRbook.html, Deciembre 2004).

[15] S. Gudmundsson. An introduction to Riemannian geometry (book draft,

disponible en www.matematik.lu.se/matematiklu/personal/sigma/, 2006).

[16] A. Hebecker. Allgemeine Relativität (notas de clase para la University of Heidel-

berg, disponibles en res.kaelteschaden.de/ART.pdf, Julio 2007).

[17] M. Ludvigsen. General relativity: a geometric approach (Cambridge, 1999).

[18] P. W. Michor. Topics in di↵erential geometry (notas de clase para un curso en

Vienna, disponibles en www.mat.univie.ac.at/˜michor/dgbook.pdf, Abril 2007)

[19] R. Penrose. Gravitational collapse and space-time singularties. Phys. Rev. Lett.
14, 57 (1965)

[20] E. Poisson. A relativist’s toolkit (Cambridge, 2004).

[21] B. F. Schutz. A first course in general relativity (Cambridge,1985)

[22] J. Stewart. Advanced general relativity (Cambridge, 1991).

[23] J. M. Bardeen, B. Carter, and S. W. Hawking, 1973. The four laws of black hole
mechanics. Commun. Math. Phys., 31, 161-70.

[24] L. M. and Ori, A. 1997. Internal Structure of Black Holes and Spacetime Singular-
ities. An International Research Workshop, Haifa, June 29-July 3, 1997. Bristol:
Institute of Physics.

[25] B. Carter, 1968. Global structure of the Kerr family of gravitational fields. Phys.
Rev., 174, 1559-71.

[26] S. Chandrasekhar, 1983. The Mathematical Theory of Black Holes. New York:
Oxford University Press.

[27] V.P. Frolov, and I.D. Novikov, 1998. Black Hole Physics: Basic Concepts and New
Developments. Dordrecht: Kluwer

[28] S.A. Hayward, 1994. General laws of black-hole dynamics. Phys. Rex:, D 49, 6467-
74.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 61

[29] M. Heusler, 2003. Black Hole Uniqueness Theorems. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.

[30] K. Martel, and E.Poisson, 2001. Regular coordinate systems for Schwarzschild and
other spherical spacetimes. Am. J. Phys., 69, 476-80.

[31] P. O. Mazur, 1982. Proof of uniqueness of the Kerr-Newman black hole solution.
J. Phys., A 15, 3173-80.

[32] M. S. Morris and K. S.Thorne, 1988. Wormholes in spacetime and their use for
interstellar travel: A tool for teaching general relativity. Am. J. Phys., 56, 395ˆ12.

[33] J. R. Oppenheimer and H. Snyder, 1939. On continued gravitational contraction.

Phys. Rev., 56, 455-9

[34] L. Smarr, 1973. Mass formula for Kerr black holes. Phys. Rev. Lett., 30, 71