English For Academic Study - Grammar For Writing Answers PDF

EAS Grammar for Writing:
Answers
English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 1

Getting started with academic
X1
writing: some key features
Stage
1
Task 1 Formality and objectivity in academic writing
1.1 1b  2a  3a 
1.2 1 2
1a 2a 3b People / their
there are
1.3
Beijing, the capital city of China, is / is located in the north-east of the country.
There are many new offices, factories and shops. The cities are polluted because
people use their cars to go to work every day. There are not many trees, and some
rivers do not have clear water. Air and water pollution is becoming more serious,
so people must act to stop pollution and make China more beautiful.
Diet is also changing. People are wealthier than a generation ago, and they always
have enough to eat. They also understand more about which food is healthy, so
they eat more fish and chicken and less red meat than before. There are more
supermarkets now, so shopping is easier.
1.4 S V
The supermarket is / are closed.
Dogs is / are beautiful animals.
They walks / walk slowly.
She studies / study every day.

Getting started with academic writing: some key features 1
Task 2 Describing permanent events using the present simple tense
2.1 S V S V
a The cause of earthquakes is the sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust. This creates
seismic waves.
S V
b Heavily loaded aeroplanes use more fuel than empty ones.
S V
c People use their cars to go to work every day.
S V
d Management style sometimes affects the employees.
2.2 a are
b does not reach
c have
d are
e have
f understand
g eat
Task 3 Present simple tense – form
S AV Main verb (MV)
Students learn
+ English.
He / She learns
S AV BI
Students do not learn

- science.
He / She does not learn
AV S BI
Do the students learn

? English?
Does he / she learn

3.2 b The university library is open on Sundays.

c Do many students go home in the vacations?
d The government does not usually pay for childcare.
e The committee discusses new projects every month.
f Do shoppers spend more money in summer?
g International students do not like English food.
3.3 S MV Adjective (Adj)
The students are

+ young.
He / She is
S MV
The students are not

- young.
He / She is not
MV S
Are the students

? young?
Is he / she
3.4 b Developing countries are depend on aid from charities. depend
c Dubai have has many cinemas. has
d The population of Tokyo are large. is
e Many people in Oman speaks English. speak
f Do students cook for themselves every day?* do

g People does not seem to be interested. do
h IT skills are do not only benefit children but adults too. do not
i Nowadays, developing countries are need help from developed countries.
j Accidents are happen frequently on this road. happen
k Many animals are die if there is insufficient water. die
l Depression occur for several reasons. occurs
Task 4 Using plural nouns to describe situations in general

a Women and men still have a wide gap between them. For example, job
opportunities are not fair for women. Employers claim that if women have
enough ability, they will get jobs. However, this is not true. The government
should prosecute employers who do not follow the equal opportunities law.
b There are many benefits to travel. When travellers visit new countries,
there are many interesting differences such as houses, shops and religious
buildings. Holidays are also good for learning new languages and
understanding more about new cultures. They are useful for extending
knowledge and broadening people’s minds.
Task 5 Presenting new information – using there is / there are
5.1 a In Reading, there are many jobs available. Some are for skilled and some are for
unskilled workers.
b In China, there are many different types of food. Most …
c In Qatar, there are many new buildings. Some …
d At university, there are three problems. The first is …
e In London, there is a lot of pollution, so …
f In the UK, there are many people who live alone. This means …
g There is a famous underground system called ‘the Metro’ in Paris. It is …
h In Reading town centre there is an area …
i There are many universities in China. The biggest …
j There are many reasons why …
5.2 a There is a new airport in Jeddah.

b There are some beautiful mosques in Istanbul.
c There is an old castle in Kerak.
d There are many modern buildings in Amman.
e There is a large harbour in Mumbai.

Stage
2
Task 1 Quantity expressions – describing people and ‘things’
1.1 a Nearly everyone in the UK own owns a car.

b Most people in the UK has have a television.
c Most people in Italy eats eat pasta.
d Nearly everyone at university are is worried about money.
1.2 a Most couples in China only have / has one child.

b Nearly everyone / everybody feel / feels nervous when he or she starts a new job.
c A lot of elderly people does not like / do not like going out in the evenings.
d The majority of Chinese people do not eat / does not eat with a knife and fork; they
use chopsticks.
e Many people in Saudi Arabia thinks / think that petrol is cheap.
f Almost all international students are / is a little homesick at first.
g People is / are always in a hurry in Japan.
1.3 a Some students arrive / arrives late every day.

b Few students have / has discovered the beauty of Morocco.
c A few students always arrive / arrives late.
d Not many English people is /are able to use chopsticks.
1.4 a A small part of few students cook together.

b The way of life for great part most people in Oman is farming, the oil industry and
coconut planting.
c Oman has large many people.
d Most of people in Oman speak Arabic.
e China has lot of a lot of / many farmers.
f People is are friendly in Taiwan.
g Everyone / everybody Most people own a bicycle in China.
h Almost no-one Few people in China has have naturally curly hair.*
i Many of people in Qatar likes like shopping.
*Note: the original form of h), Almost no one in China has naturally curly hair, is actually
grammatical, but it has a specific meaning – i.e., the writer wants to show she is
disappointed that not many people in China have curly hair!
1.5 a Milk (no plural) is an uncountable noun.

b Mosque (plural mosques) is a countable noun.

1.6 Noun C U Noun C U Noun C U

homework  solution * air *
luggage  research  oil *
language   permission * problem 
book  minute  food *
help  question  accommodation 
advice  traffic  equipment 
essay  time * evidence 
behaviour * pollution  damage *
paper * student  progress 
news  meat * milk *
information  computer 
*Note: these nouns are normally uncountable, but can sometimes be countable (or
the other way round). Here, there is a special meaning; e.g., you may read about the
range of behaviours of disturbed children; the number of scientific papers someone has
written; meats, foods and milks meaning ‘different types of meat, food and milk’ in food
science; or people paying damages in legal cases.
1.7 a essays
b behaviour
c Paper was
d accommodation is
e information
f Much research is
g was
h is
i some advice
j much homework
1.8 a information
b time
c research
d books
e pollution / traffic
f money
g evidence

1.9 a much
b some
c a lot of
d any
e a / some
f some
g any
1.10
Jeddah is located in the Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia have has a population of 2
million. Nearly everyone there speak speaks Arabic, and few people speaks speak
English. In summer the weather is very hot and dry, and it is difficult to live in the
city because there is a lot of pollutions pollution. The people in Saudi Arabia is
are very friendly, and the majority of them lives live with their families.
1.11 a Nuclear power causes a pollution for people and the environment.
b Solar power does not cause damages to the environment.
c The students are doing a large number of a lot of /a large amount of research.
d Scientific researches seems to prove that poverty is an important factor.
e The Careers Service at the university gives helps to both British and international
students.
f The government should give useful advices to young unemployed people.
g This essay will discuss the importance of preventing the damages.
h The children’s behaviours are is unacceptable.
i Other types of energy, such as wind power or wave power, should replace oils in the
future.
j Some very expensive equipments were was used in the experiment.
Task 2 Using the present continuous
2.1 1 Paragraph a).

2 Paragraph b).
3 Give your own answer here.
2.2 At the moment, Deansfield’s …
2.3 a The Hyundai company is currently manufacturing more cars (than before).
b These days, people are becoming more interested in healthy eating (than before).
c More young children are learning English early in China.
d Mobile phones sales are growing every day.

2.4 BI + -ing
S AV
(present participle, PrP)
The students are studying

+ English.
He / She is studying
S AV BI + -ing (PrP)
The students are not studying

- science.
He / She is studying
AV S BI + -ing (PrP)
Are the students studying

? science?
Is he / she studying
2.5 Many changes are taking place in Bindeen at the moment. The local IT industry is
growing rapidly, which is encouraging foreign investment. Tourism is also increasing,
which is helping the economy. Bindeen earned £2.3 billion from tourism in 2011, and
8.2% of the adults now work in the tourist industry. This provides seasonal work for
local teenagers.
However, there are some negative changes. The cost of housing is increasing rapidly. Also
many people are working longer hours and spending more time travelling to work.
Four example sentences to describe the changes in Bindeen:
The IT industry has grown.
Tourism has increased.
The cost of housing has increased.
Many people work longer hours.
2.6 a People are eating more junk food nowadays.

b Mobile phones are becoming more expensive.
c Nowadays, more and more people are learning English.
d Student numbers are increasing every year.
e Most primary schools are teaching French nowadays.
f More people are visiting China these days.
g More students are going to the UK to study than before.

2.7 a This essay discusses the reasons why pollution is becoming worse.
b In Iraq, employers choose people according to their qualifications.
c Oil companies usually pay good salaries.
d Most people agree that global warming is happening because the amount of CO2 is
increasing.
e In rural areas, governments usually do not build enough roads.
f The current pay freeze is discouraging doctors from entering the profession.
g Saudi Arabia has the biggest population in the Gulf.
h England does not grow bananas.
i Global warming is making temperatures rise.
j The buildings in Qatar are very beautiful.
k Many people drive too fast.
Stage
3
Task 1 Understanding simple clauses
1.2, 1.3 a The report does not include a description of the changes.
b The economy is slowing down, so people are worried about their jobs. 
c Scientists do not completely understand why people sleep. 
d The students on the Real Estate course are studying hard.
e Soil, air and water are all essential for plant life.
f Running sometimes damages people’s knees.
g Children sometimes play too many computer games, but their parents
do not stop them. 
Task 2 The subject
2.1 a Which teachers have six weeks’ holiday in the summer?

b Which people usually feel relaxed?

2.2 b The library resources are excellent.

Which resources are excellent? The library resources.
c Students in the UK usually want to find a good job at the end of their course.
Which students usually want to find a good job at the end of their course? Students in
the UK.
d The Sierra Leone government does not pay for children’s education.
Which government does not pay for children’s education? The Sierra Leone
government.
e Sometimes, local people are not very friendly to immigrants.
Which people are not very friendly to immigrants? Local people.
f Heavy smoking is bad for people’s health.
Which (type of) smoking is bad for people’s health? Heavy smoking.
g The people in Kang do not have hot water.
Which people do not have hot water? The people in Kang.
Task 3 The object
3.1 S V O
b Some criminals sell drugs.
What do some criminals sell? Drugs.
S V O
c Many young people like computer games.
What do many young people like? Computer games.
S V O
d The hospital does not need more administrators.
What does the hospital not need? More administrators.
S V O
e Playing football improves fitness levels.
What does playing football improve? Fitness levels.
S V O
f Nowadays people are eating less red meat.
What are people eating nowadays? Less red meat.

3.2 S V O
b Playing football improves fitness levels.
Which levels does football improve? Fitness levels.
S V O
c Many young people like computer games.
Which games do many young people like? Computer games.
S V O
d The report gives helpful solutions.
Which solutions does the report give? Helpful solutions.
S V O
e Some criminals sell hard drugs.
Which drugs do some criminals sell? Hard drugs.
S V O
f Students always have written homework.
Which homework do students always have? Written homework.
S V O
g Nowadays, more people are driving electric cars.
Which cars are more people driving nowadays? Electric cars.
Task 4 The complement

S V O
b The company is developing new products.
S V C
c Mr Smith is fast becoming a good leader.
S V C
d One of the reasons for climate change is human activity.
S V O
e The charity is using the money wisely.
S V O
f The government is changing the tax laws.
S V C
g Internet crime is a serious problem in many countries.
S V C
h A ‘hotspot’ is a small area of intense activity within a bigger area of calm.

Task 5 Review
Nowadays, many people moves are moving from the countryside to Riyadh, the
capital city of Saudi Arabia. People who move there never returning return to the
countryside because he find they find everything easier than in his their hometown.
Of course, they move to get better school schools for their child children or job jobs
for himself themselves because they want to improve their life lives. The government
help helps them with what they need when they arrive, so this encourage encourages
more people to move. There is are many facility facilities in Riyadh: university
universities, modern markets, ministries, and embassies. However, Riyadh become is
becoming overcrowded and the city suffer is suffering from traffics traffic congestion
and environmental pollutions pollution. The government try is trying to solve the
problem by providing more service services in other towns in Saudi Arabia.
5.2
In the world there is are many developing nation nations which are depending depend
on developed countries. This essay will show how to help developing country countries
in a better way than simply giving them foods food, medicine and machinery.
Firstly, it have scholarship there are scholarships for people in developing countries,
given by industrialized countries. Such scholarship is scholarships are important as
they offer subject subjects such as engineering, maths, medicine and computer science.
Student Students need to compete for these, to improve themselves and them their
country. Hospital Hospitals, for example, need professional people. If developing
country countries can have help to send a few student students abroad every year to
medical college, they will improve them their healthcare service.
There is are also some organization organizations nowadays which try are trying to
help developing countries; for example, the Fairtrade Foundation is one of them. It
is work working to help developing countries’ farmers and workers. It asking asks
companies to pay sustainable prices which must never fall lower than the market
price. Divine Chocolate Ltd are is one company which promote promotes fair trade. It
produce produces chocolate, and cocoa farmers in Africa both sells sell their cocoa to
Divine and owns own 45% of the Divine company.
It is not a good idea to give developing countries advanced equipments equipment if
the local people does do not know what to do if their machine breaks down machines
break down. Perhaps nobody in the whole town can fix it them, which means that local
people losing lose a lot of money while they wait for engineer engineers from abroad
to come and repair them. It is better to train local people to make their own machines
using local sustainable resources.
In conclusion, developing countries cannot improve by itself themselves. Other
countries should try to help in many ways, such as granting scholarship scholarships,
training people and promoting fair trade organization organizations. These initiatives
can help society in the long run.

5.3 a At the moment, society change is changing fast.

b Factories releasing release poisonous gases every day.
c In Saudi Arabia, it has there are oil companies which offer well-paid jobs.
d Students often spend too much time surf surfing the Internet.
e China have has the biggest population in the world.
f Currently, the quality of education is not get improve is not improving.
g Everyone in Qatar speak speaks Arabic.
h The majority of shops are dependent on advertisements to sell their products.
i In Japan, teenagers do not like study studying so hard.
5.4 a At the moment, the government encourage encourages businesses to give money to
build new universities. This is a good idea, but there are not enough jobs for all the
graduates even now. (2 errors)
b Global warming happens because the sun is shining shines on the Earth, and CO2
particles are trapping trap the sun’s rays. (2 errors)
c The government limiting limits the salary according to the level of applicants’
qualification qualifications. Nowadays, more young people try are trying to study at
university so that they can get a good job. (3 errors)
d There is a lot of pollution in China. Most air pollution come comes from car fumes
and contaminated air comes from factories. Most of countries and cities has have this
problem. (4 errors)
e Firstly, the majority of main official language in many country countries is English.
International markets all use English, including business, politics, science, arts and
even education. It is important for us to learn English because if we people do well at
English, you they can get good jobs. (6 errors)
f Firstly, football give gives us people healthy body bodies because this game moving
moves all parts of our people’s / players’ bodies, and it help helps our their blood to
circulate oxygen. As a result, the footballer footballers remain active even when they
are old. (8 errors)

2 Text flow
Stage
1
Task 1 Text flow: linking old and new information
a It refers back to mathematics.
b These refers back to industries in the UK.
c Consumers refers back to people in the UK.
d It refers back to one of the biggest banks in the UK.
e It refers back to a recent report.
f Tests refers back to an exam.
Task 2 Using noun phrases to link old and new information
2.1 a These pages refers back to documents.

b The situation refers back to winters have been getting cold recently.
c Litter and traffic congestion refers back to disadvantages … associated with tourism.
d Two or three reasons refers back to many people choose to move to the city.
e Their views refers back to people.
2.2 Sentence a b c d e
Type of noun phrase: 1–6 4 1 6 2 5

Text flow 2
2.3 Key:
(A) These commuters refers back to many residents.
(B) These facilities refers back to three separate noun phrases:
a library, a theatre, a concert hall, an art gallery, a museum, two multi-screen cinemas
and a football stadium
many pubs, restaurants, and nightclubs
many parks and gyms
(C) This new shopping centre refers back to the Oracle.
(D) The countryside refers back to beautiful countryside.
(E) Some of these and (F) they both refer back to many students.
(G) Reading here refers back to the initial mention of Reading.
(H) Many students refers back to earlier mention of many students at (E).
Reading has become a popular place to live because it is only 25 minutes away
from central London by train. Many residents choose to live in the town and
travel to and from work in the capital during the week. (A) These commuters
choose Reading for a number of reasons. For example, house prices are lower
than in London, Reading is surrounded by beautiful countryside, and there are
many leisure opportunities for families. The town has a library, a theatre, a
concert hall, an art gallery, a museum, two multi-screen cinemas and a football
stadium. There are also many pubs, restaurants, and nightclubs as well as parks
and gyms open to the general public. (B) These facilities mean that local people
of all ages have places to go. Shopping has become more popular since the
opening of the Oracle in 1999. (C) This new shopping complex has increased
the number of retail outlets by one-third. (D) The countryside is only a short
car drive away, and there are many beautiful places to visit. Many students also
come to Reading to live, even if their stay is only temporary. (E) Some of these
study at language schools or at the University of Reading because the course
has a good reputation, or (F) they want to live in a town and have easy access
to London and Heathrow airport. (G) Reading is also attractive because it is not
too difficult to find a job there. (H) Many students take up part-time work, even
if English is not their first language.

Text flow 2
Task 3 The function of linking words and phrases in text flow
3.1 Look back at Ex 2.3. Study each noun phrase A–H in red, and decide whether it
is used for reason 1, 2, 3 or 4 as shown above.
Noun phrase A B C D E F G H
Reason
2 3 2 4 1 1 4 4
1, 2, 3 or 4
3.2 The original (given) information becomes old information, which introduces
new information, as follows: Reading is a large town in south-east England with a
population of 147,300. It is about halfway between London and Oxford.
Some people were born in Reading, and they stay because of their family and friends.
Other people, however, have relocated for personal reasons …
Many residents choose to live in the town and travel to and from work in the capital
during the week. These commuters choose Reading for a number of reasons.
The town has a library, a theatre, a concert hall, an art gallery, a museum, two multi-
screen cinemas and a football stadium. There are also many pubs, restaurants, and
nightclubs as well as parks and gyms open to the general public. These facilities mean
that local people of all ages have places to go.
Shopping has become more popular since the opening of the Oracle in 1999. This new
shopping complex has increased the number of retail outlets by one-third.
The countryside is only a short car drive away, and there are many beautiful places to
visit.
Many students also come to Reading to live, even if their stay is only temporary. Some of
these study at language schools or at the University of Reading because the course has
a good reputation, or they want to live in a town and have easy access to London and
Heathrow airport.
Heathrow airport.
Many students also come to Reading to live, even if their stay is only temporary … Many
students take up part-time work, even if English is not their first language.
Reading is a large town in south-east England with a population of 147,300. … Reading
is also attractive because it is not too difficult to find a job there.

Text flow 2
Stage
2
Task 2 Complex noun phrases: adding an adjective or a noun
Reading has become a popular place to live because it is only 25 minutes away from
central London by train. Many residents choose to live in the town and travel to and
from work in the capital during the week. These regular (1) commuters choose Reading
for a number of reasons. For example, house prices are lower than in London, Reading
is surrounded by beautiful countryside, and there are many leisure opportunities for
families. The town has a library, a theatre, a concert hall, an art gallery, a museum, two
multi-screen cinemas and a football stadium. There are also many pubs, restaurants,
and nightclubs as well as parks and gyms open to the general public. These convenient
(2) facilities mean that local people of all ages have places to go. Shopping has become
more popular since the opening of the Oracle in 1999. This modern (3) shopping
complex has increased the number of retail outlets by one-third. The open (4)
countryside is only a short car drive away, and there are many beautiful places to visit.
Heathrow airport. Reading is also attractive because it is not too difficult to find a job
there. Many international (5) students take up part-time work, even if English is not their
first language.
Task 3 Complex NPs: adding a prepositional phrase or a relative clause
3.1 a who
b on
c at, in
d who
e in
3.2 Reading is a large town in south-east England with a population of 147,300. It is about
halfway between London and Oxford. Some people (a) who live there were born in
Reading, and they stay because of their family and friends. Other people (b) in the town,
however, have relocated for personal reasons; perhaps they want to take up a new job or
be near their social circle. This essay will discuss two common reasons why some people
choose to live in Reading: to improve the quality of their family life and to study.

Text flow 2
Reading has become a popular place to live because it is only 25 minutes away from
central London by train. Many residents (c) who have well-paid jobs in London choose
to live in the town and travel to and from work in the capital during the week. These
commuters choose Reading for a number of reasons. For example, home prices are lower
than in London, Reading is surrounded by beautiful countryside, and there are many
leisure opportunities for families. The town has a library, a theatre, a concert hall, an
art gallery, a museum, two multi-screen cinemas and a football stadium. There are also
many pubs, restaurants, and nightclubs as well as parks and gyms open to the general
public. These facilities mean that local people of all ages have places to go. Shopping has
become more popular since the opening of the Oracle in 1999. This shopping complex
has increased the number of retail outlets by one-third. The countryside (d) near Reading
is only a short car drive away, and there are many beautiful places to visit.
Many students also come to Reading to live, even if their stay is only temporary. Some
of these study at language schools or at the University of Reading because the course
(e) which interests them has a good reputation, or they want to live in a town and have
easy access to London and Heathrow airport. Reading is also attractive because it is not
too difficult to find a job there. Many students (f) who need the money take up part-time
work, even if English is not their first language.
Task 4 Review and extension
4.1 a This useful research show shows that there are several important reasons for her
success.
b One of the most harmful habits of modern life are is smoking.
c This debt forces the country to borrow more money from the World Bank.
d The origins of public health education lies lie in the 19th century.
e One of the solutions are is to raise the price.
f The number of tourists are is increasing every year.
g Unemployment is one of the most serious issues that face faces young people.
4.2 Det N H
a The research team wants to develop new drugs.
Det H PP
b The equipment in the building is inadequate.
Det Adj H PP
c The high price of bread has provoked protest in many towns.
Adj N H
d Small bank loans seem to be effective in some parts of India.
Det N H
e The group participants agree with the result.

Text flow 2
Det H AdjC
f The farmer who owns the fields does not allow people to walk through them.
Det Adj H
g Their technical knowledge is often better than that of the lecturer.
4.3 a government
b family
c community
d class
e school
f research
g labour
h information
4.4 a developing
b intensive
c fast-growing
d hard-working
e low-cost
f cultural
Stage
3
Task 1 The present simple (passive voice) – use
1.1 a 1b, 2b
b 1a, 1a
c 1b, 2b
The underlined words in the second sentences in 1a and 2a are labelled ‘empty’ because
they are redundant – their meaning is already given in the verb phrases in 1a (teach
them) and 2a (conduct tests).

Text flow 2
Task 2 Present simple (passive voice) – form
2.1 Study the verb table and fill in the missing information.
S AV Past participle
Students are
in the computer
+ taught
room.
He / She is
S AV not Past participle
Students are not taught in the computer

- room.
He / She is taught
AV S Past participle
Are students
in the computer
? taught
room?
Is he / she
2.2 a Apples are / is grown in England. P
b Car production do not / does not take place in this town. A
c Omani people speak / speaks Arabic. A
d Rain help / helps plants to grow. A
e The computers in the classroom often stop / stops working. A
f London is / are not located in the north of England. P
g People’s lives are / is often hard. A
h The teacher never arrive / arrives late. A
i Cultures is / are preserved by ceremony and ritual. P
j Most students at the university live / lives locally. A
2.3 a Statement: Chinese food is sold here.

b Negative sentence: The river is not polluted.
c Question: Are the flowers imported?

Text flow 2
2.4 S V O
b The cost of living is going up, so shoppers buy many goods from cut-price stores.
The cost of living is going up, many goods are bought from
cut-price stores.
S V O
c It often snows in winter, but the government does not clear the snow from the
pavements.
It often snows in winter, but the snow is not cleared from

the pavements.
S V O
d The lift works well because someone checks it every year.
The lift works well because it is checked every year.

S
e People should put their paper cups in the green litterbin because the waste-disposal
operators
V O
recycle them.
People should put their paper cups in the green litterbin

because they are recycled.
S V O
f The climate in England is good for fruit, so farmers grow apples in the south-east.
The climate in England is good for fruit, so apples are grown

in the south-east.
S V O
g Many people in Europe want to eat green beans in winter, so people export them every
day from Africa.
Many people in Europe want to eat green beans in winter, so

they are exported every day from Africa.
S V O
h If people make mistakes, other people correct them quickly.
If people make mistakes, they are corrected quickly.

Text flow 2
2.5 S V O
(a) Governments force some countries to accept imported goods, (b) while
S V O
governments protect other domestic markets by tariffs and subsidies. (c) In some
S V O
countries, the government imposes tariffs on foreign goods which therefore become
more
S V O
expensive to buy. (d) In this way, the government protects local industries because they
S
do not have to compete against lower-priced foreign imports. (e) The government also
V O S V
protects local industry by the use of subsidies (f) that the government gives to
O S V
the producers. (g) Because of these subsidies, production costs are lower and people sell
O
products more cheaply.
2.6 (a) Governments are forced to accept imported goods, while (b) other
domestic markets are protected by tariffs and subsidies. In some countries,
(c) tariff are imposed on foreign goods which therefore become more expensive
to buy. In this way, (d) local industries are protected because they do not
have to compete against lower-priced foreign imports. (e) Local industry is also
protected by the use of subsidies (f) which are given to the producers. Because of
these subsidies, production costs are lower and (g) products are sold more cheaply.

Text flow 2
2.7 a There are different ways to help poor countries. People sometimes establish factories.
There are different ways to help poor countries. Factories

are sometimes established.
b Local people can set up new businesses if other people give them a loan.
Local people can set up new businesses if they are given a

loan.
c Many people die from diseases because the government does not give them good
hospitals with electricity.
Many people die from diseases because they are not given
good hospitals with electricity.
d Although developing countries have resources, people do not exploit them locally.
Although developing countries have resources, these are not

exploited locally.
e Developing countries cannot improve by themselves, and in fact other countries do
not help them sufficiently.
Developing countries cannot improve by themselves, and in

fact they are not helped sufficiently.
f When the machinery breaks down, people do not fix it for a long time.
When the machinery breaks down, it is not fixed for a long

time.
g It is a good idea to go into the town on market day because people sell cheap fruit
and vegetables.
It is a good idea to go into the town on market day

because cheap fruit and vegetables are sold.

Text flow 2
Task 3 Review
3.1 Noun phrase Simple Complex
almost one-third of people in Africa 

a client 
global telecommunications companies 
a further use of the mobile phone 
fishermen who formerly had to guess which fish were most
profitable to catch on any one day 
this situation 
the government 
new developments in mobile phone technology 
many of them 
high government taxes on mobile phone use 
the recipient 
many people in Africa 
these innovations in mobile phone use 
stallholders too with produce to sell 
another interesting initiative 
they 
How many simple and how many complex noun phrases are there?
Five simple, 11 complex.
Which type of noun phrase do you think is more common in academic writing, simple or
complex? Complex.

Text flow 2
3.2 (a) Many people in Africa suffer / suffers because of poor infrastructure; for
example, (b) many of them do / does not have access to good roads, hospitals or
education facilities. (c) They struggle / struggles to find a job and feed their families.
However, (d) new developments in mobile phone technology is / are
making it easier for some of them to earn money. Over the last five years, (e) mobile
phone use has increased fivefold in Africa. (f) Almost one-third of people
in Africa can now make or receive mobile phone calls (Perkins, 2010). (g) This
situation has benefited the lives of African people in several different ways.
(h) Fishermen who formerly had to guess which fish were most
profitable to catch on any one day can now find out through a simple
call on a mobile phone. (i) Stallholders too with produce to sell can find
out instantly which market is selling at the best prices. (j) Another interesting
initiative has been the development of a quick and reliable money transfer system.
(k) A client can deposit money into a bank for another person, such as a business
associate. (l) The recipient can then go to a bank with a code transferred by mobile
phone and collect the money instantly. (m) A further use of the mobile
phone is / are a texting service which allows people in remote villages to get help and
advice with, for example, healthcare procedures in hospitals.
Although (n) these innovations in mobile phone use is / are successful

at local level, there are certain issues to consider for the future. (o) Global
telecommunications companies now need to set up more extensive schemes
to help local people earn money across national borders. The (p) high government
taxes on mobile phone use make / makes the costs of even part-owning and
using a handset too high for the poorest people in Africa. If (q) the government
pass / passes new tax laws, the standard of living of more people will improve.
3.3 The final sentence can be further improved by using the passive voice. Earlier version:
If the government pass / passes new tax laws, the standard of living of more people
will improve.
Further improved version:
If new tax laws are passed, the standard of living of more people will improve.

Using the past simple and
3
present perfect (active voice)
Stage
1
Task 1 Introduction to past simple and present perfect
1.1 1 Sentences b) and c).
2 At the beginning of the 19th century and In 1901.

3 Sentences a) and d).
4 a) Computers are more common; d) students’ research is complete.
5 d) over the year

6 Sentence a), because the writer is referring to a current situation.
1.2 Main verbs: regular

MV (regular)
S
protest
+ Students protested
at the economic
cuts.
MV (regular)
- S AV not
protest
Students did not protest at the economic cuts.
MV (regular)
? AV S
protest
Did students protest at the economic cuts?

Using the past simple and present perfect (active voice) 3
Main verb: to be
S MV to be
unhappy about the
+ Students were economic cuts.
Pollution is severe in the city centre.
S MV to be
happy about the
- Students are not
economic cuts.
a problem in the city
Pollution is not centre.
MV to be S
happy about the
? Are students
economic cuts?
a problem in the city
Is pollution centre?
1.3 a Traffic did not move fast this morning.

b Mobile phones were more expensive in the past.
c Did the university library open on time last week?
d Was the office open-plan?
e Many students delayed their departure at the end of term.
f The government did not promote business competition last year.
g Did the workers discuss their strike plans yesterday?
h Did the luggage arrive on time?
i The railway tracks were not in use 20 years ago.
1.4 Regular main verb
Past participle
S AV
to provide
+ The government has provided bus lanes.
Past participle
S AV
to report
their profit
- The companies have not reported figures.
Past participle
AV S
to finish
? Has the investigation finished?

Main verb: to be
Past participle
S AV Adj
to be
+ Facebook has been successful.
Past participle
S AV Adj
to be
- The police have not been visible.
Past participle
AV S Adj
to be
? Has the research been useful?
Task 2 The UK education system in the past
2.1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
F D I J H B A C G E
2.2 a b c d e f g h i j k l
PP PP PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS
m n o p q r s t u v w
PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PP

2.3 Infinitive Past Past Infinitive Past Past

simple participle simple participle
a be was / were been l sit sat sat
b take m be was / were been

took place taken place
place
n be was / were been
c go went gone
o leave left left
d focus focused focused
p become became become
e involve involved involved
q become became become
f aim aimed aimed
r begin began begun
g begin began begun
s ban banned banned
h end ended ended
t change changed changed
i have had had
u have had had
j be was / were been
v begin began begun
k learn learned learnt
w improve improved improved
Task 3 Time words used with the past simple
3.1 1 2 3 4
c a b d
3.2 a At the beginning of the 19th century, people did not have mobile phones.
b In the first half of the 20th century, many countries fought in the two world wars.
c Throughout, in the 20th century, cars became more popular.
d In November 1983, Bill Gates launched Microsoft Windows.
e In July 2010, Russia took part in the World Cup.
f Many years ago, women traditionally did not work outside the home.
g The university term began in October last year.
h There was an economic crisis a few years ago.

3.3 The verbs in the past simple (active voice) are in bold.
e For example, 15 years ago it introduced very small packets of Flexo cooking oil
and Close-up toothpaste in some of the poorest countries simply because most
consumers did not have much money.
g In 2002, it made a profit of more than 3 billion euros.
i Two years ago, the company spent 17 million euros on schools in Guatemala.
3.4 Some examples:

When was Unilever established?
What did Unilever introduce in some of the poorest countries?
When did Unilever introduce very small packets of …?
How much profit did the company make?
How much did the company spend two years ago?
When did the company spend 17 million euros?
Stage
2
Task 1 Using the present perfect together with the present tense
1.1 The sentences containing the present perfect (with verbs in the present perfect in bold)
are:
d Unlike some other corporations such as Coca-Cola and McDonald’s, Unilever is very
successful because it has adapted its products to local market conditions.
g Over the last ten years Unilever has built many schools, hospitals and community
centres for the poor in small villages in Central America.
Answers to questions:
a Sentence h).
b Sentence g).
1.3 a Banga is a poor country because companies have not invested in it.
b The workers are on strike because the situation has not improved.

Diagram a:
Past NOW Future

companies have not
invested in Banga
Current result:

Banga is a poor country
Diagram b:
Past NOW Future

the situation has
not improved
Current result:

The workers are on strike
1.4 a You use the present perfect when there is a permanent result and you want to give a
reason for it.
b The action happened during a period of time in the past looking back from now.
c In order to form it, you use the present tense of the verb to have plus the past
participle.
1.5 b Unemployment is high because the economy has slowed down recently.
c Many people now live in the cities because they have found better jobs there.
d There is more food available because farming methods have improved dramatically
over the last 20 years.
e Imported food is more expensive because taxes have increased since the last election.
f There are few computers in schools because the government has not invested in
them.
g Living conditions are much better because awareness of human rights has improved
in the last 50 years.
h There are many one-parent families because divorce rates have increased in recent
years.
i Most people now have mobile phones because they have become much cheaper this
century.

j People are more connected because they have joined social network sites.
k More data is stored nowadays because the cost of storage has decreased massively in
the last few years.
l People in the UK drink more coffee these days because so many coffee shops have
opened on the high street.
m Airport security is high because the threat from terrorists has gone up in some
countries.
n Student numbers are low this year because many have cancelled at the last minute.
1.6 1 recently
2 since the last election
3 over the last 20 years
4 in the last 50 years
5 in recent years
6 this century
7 in the last few years
Note: There is one extra time phrase.
Task 2 Using the present perfect instead of the present simple
2.1 1a Most importantly, children’s right to education no longer depends on parental

income, and greater educational opportunities are offered more widely to all.
1b The school system has clearly improved in many ways since the 19th century.
Verb form used to describe the period of time that led to a current situation: the present
perfect.
2.2 S V (simple past)

since
King Oswald invaded.
S V (present perfect)
The school has been in the town centre … for 500 years.
since 1500CE.
2.3 1
a The computers in the classrooms have not worked for many weeks.
b The computers in the classrooms have not worked since the technician left.
c The computers in the classrooms have not worked since January.
2
a Reading has been a busy town for 900 years.
b Reading has been a busy town since King Henry built Reading Abbey.
c Reading has been a busy town since 1121.

2.4 a Barchester has been an important place since 1700CE.

b The panda has been an endangered species for about 30 years.
c Bananas have grown here since invaders took the land.
d Students have not used mobile phones in the classroom for ten years.
e This plant has been used to make dye in India since the fourth century BC.
f Richard has taught English since the 1980s.
g Angela has taught on the Management course since she finished her PhD.
h The education system has been like this since 1952.
i People have used computers differently since the introduction of tablet computers.
j Speaking foreign languages has always interested people.
2.5 a The new organization of studies is has been the same since for three years.
b The Korean education system exists during has existed for 600 years.
c The UK school system is has been multicultural for 60 years.
d There is has been free healthcare since the 1940s.
e 1981 it existed The new political system has existed since 1981.
f Farmers grown have grown bananas fairly successfully since for 600 years until now.
g The country is has been under attack for five years ago.
2.6 a A leading speech therapist has discovered that nurture can speed language
development.
b Skinner questioned this theory in the early 19th century.
c Behaviourists in Denmark have discovered new evidence, which might dramatically
change our thinking.
d John has finally published the results of his research, but they are very surprising.

Stage
3
Task 1 Understanding more about introductions to essays
1.1 a To make a general statement about the topic of the essay. 

b To show possible future developments. 
c To give some more detailed information about the topic. 
d To give advice about using mobile phones. 
e To show the structure of the essay. 
1.2 1 2
a 4 a 2
b 2 b 4
c 3 c 3
d 1 d 1
1.3 The most suitable introduction is c), because it begins with a general statement about
the topic, then gives background information and describes the essay structure, moving
from general to more specific. Introduction b) contains a specific example, which is
inappropriate.
1.4 a The use of mobile phones rapidly increased in 15 years has rapidly increased over the
last 15 years. This is due to the increasing popularity of the phone and the reduction
in the cost. Currently, millions of people use mobile phones are because they are
convenient and cheap. This essay will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
mobile phones.
b Over the last 20 years, many students travelling have travelled abroad to study in
a foreign country. Students can learn another language and experience a different
culture if they study overseas. This essay will discuss both the advantages and
disadvantages of studying in another country.
c Obesity is has become a very serious problem in recent years. There are many causes
of obesity. Research suggests that the main reason for being obese is junk food.
Therefore, advertisements which are associated with junk food should be reviewed.
This essay will discuss the causes of obesity. It will then outline the current solutions
to the problem and give reasons why certain advertisements should be banned.
d Poverty exists everywhere in the world, and many aid organisations have been trying
to help over the years by donating money. Famous musicians, such as Sting, have
even recorded and sold songs to raise funds for poor nations. However, simply giving
financial assistance may not be the answer. The government and families play a
crucial role in relieving this problem. This essay will discuss the causes of poverty and
suggest some solutions.

Task 2 Writing an introduction

Hidden essay question: Do you agree that nature strongly influences early human
development?
2.2 It is a controversial issue whether nurture strongly influences early human development
or nature decides the way a newborn baby will develop. This has been a subject of
academic discussion since the 17th century, and as a result many philosophers and
psychologists have carried out experiments and research, particularly during the 20th
century. This essay will explain the main ideas and continue the debate as to whether it is
upbringing or inherited genes which determine human behaviour.
2.3 Firstly, many scientists over the years support have supported the idea that the environment
which infants have been exposed to strongly influences their development. In the 17th
century, the ideas of John Locke have been were highly influential. He is was the first
philosopher to support the idea that a newborn baby receives information from the
environment with the five senses in order to build his knowledge. Later, in the first half of the
20 century, the behaviourists Watson and Skinner have supported more strongly this idea by
suggesting that they could manipulate a baby to become whatever type of adult they want
wanted. For example, they could ‘mould’ a doctor, a lawyer or a thief just by changing the
upbringing of an infant.
On the other hand, the fact that children’s development is determined by nature was an
established position before the philosopher John Locke has rejected it. In this period it was
generally believed that newborn babies would independently grow up in the way nature had
decided. Moreover, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution in 1859 adds further weight to the
previous opinion by indicating the importance of the human genetic base, in comparison to
the influence from the environment.
Later, it was proved that this polemic was unnecessary. Psychologists now believe that a
newborn baby is strongly influenced both by nature and nurture. For example, the motor
abilities of all babies following the same process. First they rolled over, then they stood
stand with their parents’ support or with furniture support and then they walking without
any help. However, the speed with which they developed depends on how much impulse
they receive from the environment. Kegan, for example, who has researched babies’ speech
development in the 1970s, finds found that if a baby grows up close to many people who
talk to him, he will speak much faster than a baby who is alone most of the day.
Certainly, the environment that humans grew grow up in strongly influences not only early
human development but also later development. Certainly, children’s genetic structure plays a
very significant role and deciding decides the sex, the eye- and hair-colour, the body size, the
brain size and many other things. However, nurture influenced influences their development
strongly even during pregnancy. For example, if a mother is infected by disease during this
period the baby may be born disabled.
Therefore, as researchers have proven, it is evident that nurture strongly influences early
human development. However, it is the balance with nature which is also important.

Showing logical links in
4
your writing (1)
Stage
1
Task 1 Introduction to logical linking words
1.1 1 Paragraph a) has more sentences than b), and the sentences are short. Paragraph b)
includes the same information, but the sentences are longer.
2 Paragraph b) is easier to understand than paragraph a).
1.2 3 and
4 however
5 That many healthcare workers were willing to pay the high conference fees themselves.
Task 2 Short linking words
2.1 a A lot of salt is lost through respiration, during fast activity or exercise in very hot
weather.
b The government had declared a ceasefire, but many soldiers did not know about it.
c The institute needs to increase student fees, or there will be insufficient funds for
research projects.
d The organization currently helps to inform, motivate, train and support people in rural
areas.
e The work was hard yet rewarding.
f This is the beginning of a worldwide epidemic, and the situation is still very unstable.
g The project has received more funding, so the research can continue until the end of
the year.
a b c d e f g
3 2 3 1 2 1 4

Showing logical links in your writing (1) 4
2.3 N N
a A lot of salt is lost through respiration, during fast activity or exercise in very hot
weather.
clause clause

S V O S V O
b The government had declared a ceasefire, but many soldiers did not know about it.
clause clause

S V O S V
c The institute needs to increase student fees, or there will be insufficient funds for
O
research projects.
V V V V
d The organization currently helps to inform, motivate, train and support people in rural
areas.
Adj Adj
e The work was hard yet rewarding.
clause clause

S V O S V O
f This is the beginning of a worldwide epidemic, and the situation is still very unstable.
clause clause

S V O S V O
g The project has received more funding, so the research can continue until the end of
the year.
2.4 a b c d e f g
simple/ simple/ simple/ simple/ simple/ simple/ simple/

compound compound compound compound compound compound compound
2.5 a A comma. b No. c Commas.
2.7 b They like other cultures, tourist attractions and foreign languages.
c The diamonds are pure but inexpensive.
d There is a redwood tree in the botanic garden and in the university gardens.
e Ontario is warm in summer but cold in winter. / Ontario is warm in summer and cold in
winter.
f The solar cells are non-toxic, non-corrosive and low-cost.
g The water is dirty but germ-free.

2.8 b Arab people like travelling to European countries, but they do not always enjoy the food.
c Goods can be bought online or ordered by telephone.
d Nowadays, young people listen to pop music and often play games on the computer.
e It is true that many people do not care about their elderly relatives, but they should
always look after them.
f In the past, there were not many good secondary schools, so they were always
overcrowded.
g Families in the UK can ask for financial help if they earn below a certain amount, or /
and they can rent out a room in their house if they have the space.
Task 3 Using sentence-linking words
3.1 To give To To To add Position of Punctuation

another show contrast an idea linking word(s)
possibility result in sentence
Followed by
a However  At start
a comma
Followed by
b In addition  At start
a comma
Followed by
c alternatively  At start
a comma
Within No
d also 
sentence punctuation
Followed by
e As a result  At start
a comma
Followed by
f Therefore  At start
a comma
3.2 b In 1960, the unemployment rate for the under-25s was only 2.4%. Therefore / As a
result, it was easy for young people to find a job.
c Male-dominated societies are most common in countries with traditional cultures.
However, even in modern developed societies, some men still behave as if they have
more authority than women.
d An LCD screen consists of a thin layer of liquid crystals between two glass plates,
which are illuminated. Behind the plates there is a small backlight. Alternatively, a
mirror may be used to provide light for the screen.
e Previous research indicated that the nitrogen levels of the soil were low; local fields
only produced 2.5 to 3.0 tonnes of grain per hectare. In addition, new studies have
revealed that the soil lacks many other soil nutrients.

f There is a need for reliability and validity when producing realistic statistics. However,
there are many problems with this; they cannot always be considered to be reliable.
g Society sometimes thinks that overweight people are lazy; it blames them for not
having enough determination to follow a healthy diet. However, it can be extremely
difficult to lose weight, because of a variety of other factors.
h These studies show that children from wealthier backgrounds do better at school. In
addition, researchers have shown that these youngsters stay physically fitter in later
life.
i There are two different definitions of cognitive development. It usually refers to the
development of different cognitive skills (such as language) during childhood and
adolescence. It may also refer in a more general sense to the overall evolution of
intellectual capacity throughout the whole of a person’s life.
j There are several problems with establishing new trade tariffs. They are often
restricted by international agreements. Therefore, they cause existing trading partners
to become hostile.
Stage
2
Task 1 Paired linking words: both … and
1.1 Sentence b).
1.2 a Simple.
b Compound.
There is no comma in sentence b) because the two clauses catch fish in the sea and
search in rubbish left by tourists are coordinate (of equal status); if one were subordinate
to the other, a comma would be used.
1.3 a Exercise both increases serotonin levels and helps considerably with weight loss.
b In the early modern period, European companies gained both territorial and
economic power.
c Unemployment both results in loss of output for the country and causes social
hardship.
d This essay discusses both the films and the newspaper reviews of the period.
1.4 1 After the verb to be.

2 Between the auxiliary verb and the main verb.

1.5 a Foreign companies have both bought land cheaply and exploited its natural
resources.
b Most coffee bars both offer a cosy atmosphere and attract customers with loyalty
cards.
c These nationalized industries are both badly managed and poorly funded.
d The colleges are both raising money and attracting new students.
e The classrooms are both dirty and noisy.
Task 2 Paired linking words: not only … but also
2.1 1 To emphasize the noun phrases, with greater emphasis placed on surprise at the use
of the website as a dictionary.
2 To emphasize how the students use the website, with greater emphasis placed on
surprise at the use of the website for creating puzzles.
3 There is a comma before but in b) but not in a) because b) is a complex sentence that
combines two clauses; the comma shows where the second clause begins.
2.2 1 Between the auxiliary verb and the main verb.

2 After the main verb to be.
3 Before the main verb.
2.3 Verb construction Where does not only ... but also
go?
main verb is to be in the middle
main verb is any other verb after
auxiliary + main verb before
2.4 b Early humans not only painted on cave walls, but they also made tools out of flint.
c The new building is not only used by researchers and administrative staff, but also
provides accommodation for 300 students.
d The campaign is not only helping to tackle poverty, but it is also providing funds for
the education of many children.
e Researchers have not only understood more about the genes, but they have also
successfully identified many thousands of genetic variants.
f Lab experiments are not only time-consuming, but they are also costly.
Task 3 Paired linking words: either … or

2 Because in c) the subject is repeated.

3.2 a The illness is caused either by drinking or by smoking.

b Students have either paid in cash, or they have completed a form.
c In the past, schoolchildren either went to a secondary modern school, or they
attended a grammar school.
d In this company, employees either start at 8.00 and finish at 4.00, or start at 9.00
and finish at 5.00.
Task 4 Paired linking words: neither … nor
4.1 1 neither ... nor

2 In the first clause (with neither) subject–verb order remains the same, but with nor
the order is reversed (subject–verb becomes verb–subject).
4.2 a Correct procedures are neither followed at regional level, nor are politicians happy
with them at national level.
b This product is neither expensive nor (is it) popular.
c The grassland is neither in good condition, nor (is it) well protected from
development.
d The visa application process was neither quick and nor (was it) easy.
4.3 1 neither ... nor

2 The second part (second clause) of the sentence.
4.4 a In some countries, children neither read, nor (do they) have access to books.
b In the worst affected areas, people neither care for their animals, nor (do they) water
their crops.
c The companies neither use harmful chemicals, nor (do they) allow animal testing.
d Changes in religious custom neither occur at the same time, nor (do they) follow the
same pattern.
4.5 1 Neither is placed between the auxiliary verb and the main verb.
2 Auxiliary + subject + main verb + object.
4.6 a Since the last meeting, the factory structure has neither improved, nor (has it)
worsened.
b Some children have neither watched television, nor (have they) played on the
computer.
c People are neither spending money on goods, nor (are they) taking holidays abroad.
d Outside investors are neither helping the situation, nor (are they) offering work to
local people.

Stage
3
Task 1 Supporting evidence: writing paragraphs
1.1
Modern education has brought some obvious benefits to developing countries.
No-one can deny the advantages of increasing literacy rates and knowledge
about the rest of the world. However, the globalized education system is based
on a Western urban environment. In addition, it teaches people to use the same
global resources, ignoring those that their natural surroundings provide. For
example, people learn about the use of chemicals and pesticides, forgetting
natural, ecological methods.
The unnecessary sentence-connector is in addition, because the idea in the sentence is

not another idea that is linked to the idea in the previous sentence.
1.3 supporting ideas

supporting evidence
c At that time, there were no telephones or TVs in people’s homes, so people had to
rely on the friendship and help of their neighbours more than they do now. They
always knocked on each other’s doors if they needed soya sauce or drinking water,
for example.
d Nowadays, life has changed. Almost every family has a TV, and many people in the
towns have computers. Some families even have two or more TVs, and 45 million
Chinese people surf the Internet regularly (Asia Times Online, 2002). People can buy
anything they want in the shops, so they have a better diet; they eat more protein
than before, such as red meat, chicken and eggs. As a result they live longer. It used
to be rare if people lived beyond the age of 70, but now this is common.
1.4 Immigration has economic benefits for the destination country. Immigrants often accept
low-paid, unpleasant jobs which are not wanted by local workers, and they pay taxes
from their wages, (egs) so they help everyone in society. Many of them are entrepreneurs
who establish companies with links abroad. In addition, Kanwal Rekhi, a businessman
from India, moved to the United States and established his own company, Excelan, in
1982. He is now a millionaire who supports poor university students both in India and
the United States, and he is putting his wealth back into India’s technology. (info)
1.5 The incorrect linking expression here is in addition, because this is used to add another
idea, but the writer is actually giving an example to support his argument. Therefore, a
better linking expression here is for example.

1.6 The incorrect sentence connector is however, because this is used to contrast ideas, but
the writer is actually adding another point. Therefore, a better linking expression here is
in addition.
Task 2 Using linking words in essays
2.1 Compare and contrast the way of life in modern China with the way of life 50 years ago.
China is developing very fast nowadays because of (1) both the government’s (2) and the
people’s hard work. Everything has changed; some of the changes may be for the better
whereas others perhaps are not so worthwhile. (3) On the whole there have been more
positive than negative developments, (4) so China is better than before. The changes are
considered below.
(5) Firstly, people’s standard of living is higher than before. People’s lives were very
difficult after the Second World War. There was no food, no electricity, and it was very
hard to buy goods in shops. Because of the lack of provisions, the government had to
make a rule that individuals could only buy small quantities. (6) For example, one person
could only buy five kilos of rice per month. At that time, there were no telephones or
TVs in people’s homes, (7) so people had to rely on the friendship and help of their
neighbours more than they do now. They always knocked on each other’s doors if they
needed soya sauce or drinking water, (8) for example. Nowadays, life has changed.
Almost every family has a TV, (9) and many people in the towns have computers. Some
families even have two or more TVs, (10) and 45 million Chinese people surf the Internet
regularly (Asia Times Online, 2002). People can buy anything they want in the shops, (11)
so they have a better diet; they eat more protein than before, such as red meat, chicken
and eggs. (12) As a result, they live longer. It used to be rare if people lived beyond the
age of 70, (13) but now this is common.

Other changes have happened within the fields of technology and education. Levels
of technology are increasing; the Chinese can produce a wide range of electronic
equipment and household appliances, such as computers, cameras and microwaves. This
was impossible 50 years ago. The school curriculum has (14) also changed because the
education system has changed. Schools now teach new knowledge which comes from
other countries. (15) For example, 50 years ago the students spent much time learning
how to write the old Chinese language. Teachers did not teach physics, biology (16) or
other science subjects.
(17) Finally, people’s ideas are different from before, (18) and some customs have
changed too. It was more common to find a partner within the local community and to
marry at a young age; on average young people married at 18, (19) but the average age
for rural communities was 17 (CBASSE, 1984, p. 41). In the past, when people married,
they were usually at home, (20) and they wore red clothes, (21) but now people marry in
a church and they wear Western clothes. Another example is that women did not usually
have jobs; they worked at home, (22) and they never said ‘no’ when the man said ‘yes’.
(23) However, nowadays, women have their jobs, (24) and they have their own ideas
too. Young people marry later, partly because access to education and transport has
improved, (25) so they are more likely to want to study for longer and travel to see the
world before they marry.
(26) To sum up, China is now very different compared to 50 years ago. There have (27)
also been many other changes, too many to mention. Some are negative: more people
smoke nowadays, (28) and children no longer work hard because they lead comfortable
lives. (29) However, it is certain that China is getting better and better, (30) and people
are feeling more comfortable day by day. It is (31) also certain that China will continue to
improve in the future.

Showing logical links in
X
5
your writing (2)
Stage
1
Task 1 Introduction to logical linking words
1.1 1 In b) the ideas are connected using linking words; in a) the ideas are presented in
separate simple sentences.
2 Sentence b).
1.2 Logical linking word Relationship between ideas
although gives a reason
when shows a contrast
because indicates a point in time
1.4 sub = subordinator

subordinate clause + main clause
sub S V S V
a Although plastic bags are useful, they damage the environment.
main clause + subordinate clause

sub S V S V S V
b When a country’s economy goes into a recession, exports decrease and jobs are lost.
main clause + subordinate clause.

S V sub S V
c The people moved from the countryside to the town because they needed to find work.
Task 2 Giving a reason

2.1 main clause + subordinate clause
S V sub S V
a The night-time temperature fell to ‑2°C because there were no clouds.

sub S V S V
b Since they wanted to improve the area, they applied to the development agency for a
grant.


sub S V S V
c As the students needed their visas urgently, they went straight to the embassy.
In these sentences, three subordinators are used to give a reason: because, since and as.
2.2 Cases b) and c) show tighter links than case a), and therefore more effective text-flow
patterns; case b) is probably the most effective because since is more emphatic than as.
2.3 1a  2b  3a 

2 The first words in each sentence are: a) they, b) since, c) as.
3 The word categories are: they is a pronoun; since and as are subordinators
(subordinating conjunctions).
2.5 b As / Since there is traffic congestion, people prefer to use public transport.
c Many countries suffer from lack of food because the crops fail when there is
insufficient rain.
d Crops cannot be eaten because farmers are using too much insecticide.
e Cereal shortages are common in some countries because over half the world’s cereal
harvest is fed to livestock instead of to people.
f As / Since global warming is becoming a serious problem, people should try not to use
their cars.
g There are only a few phone boxes left because most people today have mobile phones.
h Because Jack and Jill are getting married next year, they are saving as much as they can.
i Since / Because the north face of the Eiger is very hard to climb, mountaineers need to
be very experienced.
j Since / Because red roses are thought to be a symbol of love and affection, they are
given on St Valentine’s Day.
Task 3 Making comparisons

3.1 a ‘General unemployment’ is compared with ‘youth unemployment’.
b The fact that students who read a text while in a happy state of mind remember
positive material, while those who do so in an unhappy state of mind remember
negative material.
3.2 Whereas and while come at the beginning of the clause being compared; the two clauses
are normally separated by a comma.
a Whereas young children love doing activities with their parents, teenagers often prefer
to be with their peers.
b Pet dogs require daily exercise while cats can be left to exercise themselves.
c While the motorway is often the fastest route from A to B, it is usually not the most scenic.
d Tom had worked hard for his exam and had revised thoroughly, whereas his friend
James had not even opened a book.

3.3 1 Sentence a).

2 Sentence b).
3 Sentence b).
4 Sentence b).
3.4 Because sentence b) immediately provides more information about the conflict, following
on from the paragraph leader.
3.5 b Rio is famous for its beaches whereas / while São Paulo is well known for its
skyscrapers.
OR
Whereas / While Rio is famous for its beaches, São Paulo is well known for its
skyscrapers.
c Charlie Chaplin is known worldwide whereas / while Buster Keaton is not so widely
recognized.
OR
Whereas / While Charlie Chaplin is known worldwide, Buster Keaton is not so widely
recognized.
d House prices are falling now, whereas / while ten years ago they were rising.
OR
Whereas / While house prices are falling now, ten years ago they were rising.
e Most people think deserts are hot, whereas / while at night they can be very cold.
OR
Whereas / While most people think deserts are hot, at night they can be very cold.
f In the UK the red squirrel is very rare, whereas / while the grey squirrel is very
common and considered a pest.
OR
Whereas / while in the UK the red squirrel is very rare, the grey squirrel is very
common and considered a pest.

Stage
2
Task 1 Using although
1.1 1 Although goes at the beginning and but in the middle of a sentence.
2 But.
3 Sentence a).
4 Sentence a).
5 There is a comma at the end of each subordinating clause, and before but there is a
comma.
1.2 a Although skiing is a dangerous sport, many people still enjoy it.
b Although the fire brigade arrived swiftly, the building was completely ablaze.
c Although the spring was dry, there was an excellent wheat harvest.
d Although his name is famous, his face is relatively unknown.
1.3 Sentence a), with even though.
1.4 b Fuel is very expensive. Although the local bus service is both cheap and reliable, some
people never use it.
c Mr Ken Philips is 91 years old. Even though he had a hip replacement two years ago,
he jogs for a mile every morning.
d Many children do not enjoy playing sport. Although exercise is important for future
health, they watch TV or play computer games.
e The number of supermarkets is increasing. Even though they sell a wide range of
goods at reasonable prices, some people never use them.
f Scientists have found a 5,300-year-old skeleton of a man in the ice. Even though he
has an arrow wound in his left shoulder, this did not cause his death.
1.5 a Although they always had enough to eat, they were poor.
b Although the sea is cold in summer, people still enjoy swimming in it.
c Although there is an economic recession, many families still have money to spend.
d The North Sea is off the coast of Scotland. People enjoy swimming in it, even though
it is cold in the summer.
e The company suffered in the recession. Production levels continued to decline
although they took on more people.
f Students often return their books late even though the library fines are high.

Task 2 Showing result

2.1 b The students worked so hard that they passed the test with a high score.
c The sun is so strong that tourists need to wear sunglasses.
d Pollution is taken so seriously in some places that cars are banned on certain days.
e The situation on the streets is so dangerous that the people are advised to stay
indoors.
f Opposition to the nuclear power station was so strong that the government
abandoned its plans.
2.2 b There is such a high demand for oil that costs are cut every day.
c Chicago is such a perfect location that many companies want to move there.
d Football is such a popular sport that advertisers pay thousands of pounds to sponsor
big matches.
e The council demands such high rents that new businesses cannot afford to operate in
the area.
f There is such determination to make a profit that prices are rising fast.
Task 3 Showing purpose

3.2 Used when the subject of the Used when the subject of the
verb is the same before and verb is different before and
after the linking word after the linking word
so as to / in order to 
so that / in order that 
3.3 b The government is sponsoring advertisements so as to / in order to encourage

healthy eating and so that schoolchildren do not become obese.
c The scientists have teamed up with another university so as to / in order to continue
the research.
d The banks are developing new policies so as to / in order to encourage investment.
e The management team is monitoring the budget closely so that / in order that it is
not exceeded.
3.4 b Cameras and intercom systems are installed to observe all activities. 

Task 4 Purpose: using subordinators to start new sentences

1a Researchers believe that listening to the radio while driving causes accidents. In
order to test this theory, they checked databases containing accident details. 
2b Evaluation questionnaires are an important part of the course. Learners are asked to
fill in a form before they leave in order that feedback is gathered. 
Task 5 Practise linking sentences of result and purpose

b Those who are in authority are sometimes corrupt. In order to stay in power, they
bribe politicians around them.
c Nowadays, the population of elderly people is increasing dramatically around the
world. Therefore, it is becoming urgent to discuss issues relating to ageing.
d The company has announced that it will be recruiting 500 new staff in order to cope
with the large increase in orders.
e Many people living in the countryside are without convenient public transport. In
order to improve their lifestyle, buses should be subsidized by the government.
f The police closed the road because of a major accident. As a result we were caught
up in an enormous traffic jam and missed our flight.
g The dentist gave him an injection in order that he would not feel any pain during the
extraction.
h The winter was unusually cold, with temperatures falling to -15°C in many areas
for prolonged periods. As a result, a lot of damage was done to road surfaces and
potholes appeared everywhere.
i It is generally agreed that travelling broadens the mind. Therefore, young people
should be encouraged to go and visit other countries before they settle down to a
serious job.
j Using a mobile to phone home can be expensive. In order to cut down this cost,
students should install Skype on their computers and buy a set of headphones.
k Cheese should be kept in the fridge in order that bacteria does not grow.
l In order to predict future changes, it is critical to understand more about the effect
of water temperature on sea coral plants.

Stage
3
Task 1 To show contrast
1.1 1 A noun phrase (Det + N: the flood).
2 To preserve text flow: in both a) and b), the first part of each sentence refers back to
the last part of each previous sentence.
3 When the expressions in spite of or despite occur at the beginning of the sentence
the clause is followed by a comma; when they occur in the middle of a sentence,
there is no comma.
1.2 a Despite losing the election, the president is still controlling foreign policy.
b The students continued their research in spite of finding it difficult to collect their data.
1.3 b Despite having work experience, many graduates still find it difficult to gain employment.
c Despite not sleeping well, the children were very lively.
d Despite wanting to encourage tourism, the government has not allowed a fifth runway
at Heathrow Airport.
e Despite predicting rain for the morning, the weather forecast said the afternoon would
be hot and sunny.
f Despite losing a lot of blood, he is in a stable condition.
1.4 b Despite / In spite of the bad weather, the building work is continuing.
c Despite / In spite of the noise the villagers slept.
d Despite / In spite of only exporting a few products, the country is still prosperous.
e Despite / In spite of the students needing to study for exams, the library will close earlier.
f Despite / In spite of knowing the damaging effects of tobacco, many people continue
to smoke.
Task 2 To show result

b People can no longer smoke in enclosed public spaces. As a result of this ban there
has been an improvement in the health of bar workers.
c In 2008, 20 million people had to leave their homes as a result of climate-related
natural disasters.
d According to three independent studies, corporate fraud has risen as a result of the
worsening economic situation.
e Some multinational companies are making huge profits as a result of exploiting
cheap local labour and local resources.
f As a result, the government has announced a cut of 3% in the defence budget.

Task 3 To give a reason

3.1 NP
b The success of the business was largely due to the well-qualified members of staff.
NP
c Communication is changing, partly due to the growing role of Twitter™ in people’s lives.
NP
d Snow has fallen overnight. Because of severe weather conditions, many flights are
cancelled.
e Almost two-thirds of Jersey’s natural landscape has disappeared in the past two
NP
centuries, largely because of construction and development.
NP
f Attendance at the meeting was small, partly because of student illness.
1 The beginning or middle of the sentence.

2 A comma after the noun phrase.
3 ‘The reason qualified by largely is the main reason.’
4 ‘The reason qualified by partly is only part of full the reason, or is one of several
reasons.’
3.2 b The high price of vegetables is largely due to the dry weather.
c Many local shops have closed partly because of the new hypermarket.
d He was unable to attend the lecture due to oversleeping.
e Many exam candidates lose marks because they do not read questions properly.
f Many old people are afraid to leave their homes due to an increasing amount of
street crime.
g Many graduates are forced to work abroad due to unemployment in their country.
h More and more people are using air transport because the cost of flights has
decreased.
i The Prime Minister returned home due to / because of the growing unrest in the
country.
Task 4 Giving examples

4.1 For example is at the beginning of the sentence.
For example is followed by a comma.

4.2 a Switzerland sells its expertise to other countries. For example, they have helped
people in Bhutan to produce cheese, apple juice and honey.
b People need water for many reasons – for example, drinking, watering their gardens
and growing crops.
c There is misuse of water in Oman. For example, there are no controls on factories
which use it for industrial processes, and parks are watered every day.
d The Internet is used both for academic research and for practical tasks, such as
finding books in libraries and organizing patient lists in hospitals.
Task 5 Review of linking words (Units 4 and 5)

5.1 b Over-dependence on oil has several effects. Not only does it cause serious damage to
the environment, but it is also a source of conflict.
c International students often want to practise their spoken English. As a result, the
English-speaking club has many members.
International students often want to practise their spoken English, so the English-
speaking club has many members.
d Japanese people live longer than most other nationalities because they have healthy diets.
e Diet is one factor in how long people live. However, it is not the only issue to be taken
into consideration.
Diet is one factor in how long people live, but it is not the only issue to be taken into
consideration.
f Tuition fees at British universities are high, whereas American universities charge high
fees for their courses.
Tuition fees at British universities are high, but American universities charge high fees
for their courses.
Tuition fees at British universities are high. However, American universities charge high
fees for their courses.
g Most universities have a balanced assessment system. For example, there are
continuous assessments, mid-term exams, presentations and end-of-term tests.
h He worked hard at school but did not get a place at university, whereas his friend did
very little work but got into a really good university.
i The company has lost more than 3,000 customers over the past six months, so it has
been forced to cut back its advertising budget.
The company has lost more than 3,000 customers over the past six months. As a result
it has been forced to cut back its advertising budget.
j People do not want to give away their personal information online because they are
frightened of being victims of fraud.
k Doctors say that stress is a major cause of heart attacks, so they advise patients not to
take work home.
l Arabic is read from right to left, whereas English is read from left to right.
Arabic is read from right to left, but English is read from left to right.
Arabic is read from right to left. However, English is read from left to right.

5.2 a Although new technologies bring opportunities to young children, some parents’ lack
of awareness means their children might miss out.
b Despite reading fewer books at home, children’s literacy levels at school are better
than in the past.
c Plagiarism is becoming a serious problem at universities, so many heads of
department have introduced plagiarism detection software.
d Wi-fi freeloading is a crime the police take seriously. However, this crime is difficult to
track and very few arrests have been made.
e The event was a real success due to the organizing committee’s detailed planning
and preparation.
f Education is of great importance; it both allows the acquisition of knowledge and
ensures well-qualified future employees.
5.3 In the current computer-assisted digital world, IT skills have become indispensable
for undertaking many daily tasks. (1) Whereas the older generation sometimes has
difficulties with the new technology, children are introduced to it at a young age (2) both
at home (3) and at school (4) so naturally interact with it easily. Video and computer
games are becoming increasingly popular (Byron, 2008); (5) as these games represent
an expanding area it is important to be aware of the possible negative and positive
consequences of these activities on children. This essay focuses on the advantages and
disadvantages of video and computer playing for young people, suggesting the best way
in which the new generation can benefit from the virtual world.
There is much evidence to show that games have educational value, aimed at increasing
knowledge and skills in many different areas. Griffiths (2002) states that computer and
video games help in the development of social, language, reading and maths skills.
Researchers have (6) also found that games can be used to reinforce learning in children
with problems (7) such as autism or attention deficit disorder (Griffiths, 2002). (8) In
addition, game playing is helpful for brain development; it brings about changes in
mental skills and improves attention resources, cognitive skills, concentration, spatial
abilities and eye–hand coordination (Dye, Green, & Bavelier, 2009; Gagnon, 1985).
(9) Despite all these positive aspects, one of the main concerns about gaming is the
detrimental effect that they can have on children. Some children are thought to be
aggressive and violent (10) due to their exposure to violent games. (11) However, there
is only weak evidence from the literature of the direct causal relationship between
game-playing and aggressive behaviour. All studies which conclude that there is a direct
link focus largely on short-term effects, and do not take into consideration long-term
influences (Griffiths, 1999).
It is often said that playing videogames is dangerous for health (12) because of the
sedentary lifestyle that games encourage. (13) However, if children play with their friends,
they are usually doing something active. (14) In addition, children’s health is sometimes
improved by playing games; for example, there are games for diabetes and asthma self-
management which improve the level of self-care and medical compliance in children
(Griffiths, 2002). In the health domain, video and computer games are used as resources
for rehabilitation and prevention. (15) For example, some programs aim at providing
children with specific information about AIDS (Griffiths, 2002).

Therefore the effects of video games on children are not as harmful as first thought
because health problems and short-term aggressive behaviour only affect children who
are excessive users of videogames (Griffiths, 2002). The problems seem to stem from the
way in which children play, from the games they are allowed to play, (16) and on how
much time they spend playing, rather than on the fact of playing itself. (17) As a result,
parents have a fundamental role to play in taking care of their children, reducing the risks
that the digital world can bring. Children need to be controlled and monitored. As Byron
(2008) states in her review, parents, government, video games businesses and schools
should all collaborate (18) so as to reduce risks connected with computer and video
games, promoting games that have educational and non-violent features.
(19) To sum up, video and computer gaming has a great positive potential, ranging from
children’s skill reinforcement and development to educational input. (20) In addition to
these benefits, playing represents an innovative way of learning that is more effective
among children than traditional ways of teaching. The extraordinary opportunities
that technology offers have to be considered. It is parents’ responsibility to provide
their children with an adequate guidance. This can happen if game developers, the
government and society in general support and encourage the development of sociable
and interesting games, creating (21) such safe conditions (22) that young people always
benefit from the advantages that computer and video games undoubtedly offer.

X
6 Expressing shades of meaning
Stage
1
Task 1 Introduction to modal verbs
1.1 1b 2b 3b
1.2 1b The study was carried out in two classes only. The results indicate that learning might
be more effective in small groups.
2b Intensively farmed British chicken does not have as much flavour as free-range
organic chicken, but it can be cheaper to buy.
3b The government does not give enough help to retired people. Older people should
not have to worry about paying expensive heating bills in the cold weather.
a They make meaning more precise, being used to express concepts such as possibility,
permission and intention.
b They slightly change the meaning of the main verb.
1.3 2a Intensively farmed British chicken does not have as much flavour as free-range
organic chicken, but it is undoubtedly cheaper to buy.
Undoubtedly means ‘certainly, definitely; without doubt’.
Task 2 Modal verbs – form and sentence position

2.1
can may will shall must
could might would should
2.2 a Modal verbs.

b Using the word order: modal + subject + bare infinitive + complement.
c Using the word order: subject + modal verb + not + bare infinitive + complement.
d Because modal verbs, like do, are a type of auxiliary verb, and Standard English does
not allow more than one auxiliary verb to occur in the same sentence.

Expressing shades of meaning 6
2.3 a Should class sizes be smaller?*

b The plants might not grow if the rainy season fails.
c Will the predictions of the climate change experts come true?
d Women can have a better education nowadays.
e The domination of English may be a problem in the future.
f Most people in the UK cannot speak Chinese.
*Note: Class sizes should be smaller? would be grammatical when used as an ‘echo-
question’; see Unit 1, Stage 1, Ex 3.4
Task 3 Modal verbs – certainty / uncertainty and possibility

3.1 1 Will (in sentence c).
2 May / might / could (in sentences a, b and d).
3 Could (in sentence d).
3.2 Could not is not an option here because it means ‘was not or were not able’ – i.e., it
expresses lack of ability. For example, they could not have enough to eat means ‘they
were not able to have enough to eat’. Could, on the other hand, has more than one
meaning. It means both ‘was or were able to’ and also ‘was or were allowed to’ (similarly
to may and might).
3.3 Students’ own answers.
3.4 b It may / might / could be possible to understand how the brain works within the next
ten years.
c Local languages could become more important in the future.
d The rise in consumer spending will be good for the environment.
e Income levels in poorer countries could increase with the growth of democracy.
f The decrease in the bee population will be reversed once a cause has been found.
g The use of English in university study will continue to increase for at least the next
ten years.
h People could take care of the environment if they are not taught this at school.
3.5 b Better housing may / might not be the only solution to the problem of overcrowding.
c Advertising may / might / could persuade people to eat genetically modified food.
d Different sources of energy may / might / could replace oil in the future.
e People may / might / could stop buying books when electronic books become
cheaper.
f More and more workers may / might / could be moving to cities to find a better job.
g The economic downturn may / might not affect employment as much as people think.

3.6 a The government may / might / could have published the statistics on a different website.
b The figures may / might not have been accurate.
c The public may / might not have liked the high tax on fuel.
d They may / might / could have made an unpopular decision.
e The committee members may / might not have understood the issue well enough.
f The farmers may / might / could have had poor-quality seed.
Task 4 The use of can

4.1 a Most students can speak English. 2
b Students can use the drinks machine in the break. 3
c Students can make decisions that are not in their best interests. 1
4.2 b Tourists can destroy the natural environment.

c The weather can be cold in the UK in the winter.
d Many students can have financial difficulties at university.
e Exposure to direct sunshine can cause skin problems.
4.3 a Lack of understanding about cultural differences, different domestic regulations and
language barriers might / may / could all block trade.
b Lack of understanding about cultural differences, different domestic regulations and
language barriers will all block trade.
c Lack of understanding about cultural differences, different domestic regulations and
language barriers can all block trade.
Task 5 Using modal verbs in the present passive voice to create a tight link
5.1 1 Sentence a). 2 Sentence b). 3 Sentence a).
5.2 o
5 o
4 o
3 o
1 o
2
the results of
known be not may
the experiment
past participle of bare infinitive of (not) subject modal verb

the main verb the verb to be

5.3 S V O
b The government is concerned about on-screen violence, so it might ban this website.
The government is concerned about on-screen violence, so

this website might be banned.
S
c Alcohol prices are coming down. The negative effect of this is that people will
V O
consume more alcohol.
Alcohol prices are coming down. The negative effect of this
is that more alcohol will be consumed.
S V O
d Because of the results of the research, the bosses could develop a new system.
Because of the results of the research, a new system could

be developed.
S
e There are now government advertisements about healthy eating, so shoppers may
V O
buy less junk food.
There are now government advertisements about healthy
eating, so less junk food may be bought.
S V O
f This article is out of date. Publishers may publish new research on the subject before
the end of the year.
This article is out of date. New research on the subject may

be published before the end of the year.
S V O
g The instructions state that gardeners can plant these roses in the summer.
The instructions state that these roses can be planted in

the summer.
5.4 a More friends might be made.
b More information may be shared.
c Information will be received more quickly.
d Words might not be spelled correctly.
e The problems of the real world could be ignored.

Stage
2
Task 1 Semi-modal verbs – meaning, form and sentence position
1.1 a The students need to pass the exam in order to continue 1 it is important or
their studies. necessary to do this
b The farmers have to water the vegetables in the 3 it is important or
growing season, or they die. necessary to do this
c Local people ought to welcome immigrants. 2 it is advisable to do this
1.2 1 The second element of a semi-modal verb is usually to.

2 The bare infinitive.
3 No.
4 Yes.
5 No.
6 Ought to, because it does not need the auxiliary do.
7 Need to and have to behave most like ordinary main verbs, because they require the
auxiliary do to form questions and negatives, and require ‑s to form the third-person
singular.
1.3 Auxiliary verb do is used Verb ending changes to

in questions and negative match third-person singular
sentences subject
need to ü ü
ought to
have to ü ü
1.4 a Do the students have to write essays?

b The country ought not to take part in the war.
c Does the swallow have to migrate to Africa in the summer?
d Does she need to learn how to write a list of references?
e She does not have to write a whole essay if she finds it difficult; she can just write a
paragraph.
f She ought to be careful when she goes out.

1.5 Something Something important Something not

important or or necessary not important or
necessary to do to do necessary to do
a She has to finish her

ü
essay now.
b She does not have to

ü
finish her essay now.
c She must finish her

ü
essay now.
d She must not finish her

ü
essay now.
e She needs to finish her

ü
essay now.
f She does not need to

ü
finish her essay now.
1.6 b The team does not need to / have to count the birds on the river.
c The students have to / need to study the text carefully.
d Deep-sea divers have to / need to carry oxygen in a cylinder.
e The scientists need to / have to set up the experiment correctly.
f The government does not need to / have to intervene in this matter.
g Minority language speakers must not forget their mother tongue.
h People do not have to / need to be rich in order to be happy.
1.8 b The situation is urgent. All world leaders who have signed the agreement will have to
act in order to solve the problem of carbon dioxide emissions.
c They may / might have to reduce passengers’ luggage allowance on planes in order
to save fuel.
d If the drought continues, farmers may / might have to consider planting GM seeds
which are more resistant to lack of water.
e These animals will have to / need to survive long periods without food.
f Health experts will have to / need to check the water again next year.
g The company may / might have to employ more workers if sales continue to rise.
h The students on the course will have to / need to retake the exam if they fail the first
time.

Task 2 Giving advice and making recommendations: should; ought to;

have to; must
2.1 Sentences 1b and 2b.
2.2 Personal choice No choice
a Students on the pre-sessional English course

ü
must study in the evenings, or they fall behind.
b The referee has to give a yellow card if a

ü
footballer touches the ball with his hands.
2.3 b According to government regulations, tourists must apply for their visas within six
months of their trip abroad.
c Polluters must pay for the damage they are doing to the environment.
d Publicly funded works of art have to gain the approval of several committees.
e The rules state that the dissertation has to be submitted by 5pm on the day of the
deadline, or there will be a 5% deduction from the final grade.
f In conclusion, the shareholding company must improve the restaurant facilities for
the public in the shopping centre.
g Many people must continue to live in earthquake zones as they have no means of
escape.
h Weather forecasters have to collect data from different instruments all over the world
in order to create accurate weather maps.
Task 3 Giving advice and recommendations using the passive voice

3.1 1b Advice should be given on how to start a business. 
2b Advice ought to be given on how to start a business. 
3.2 o
5 o
4 o
3 o
1 o
2
on how to
given be start a advice ought to
business
past participle of bare infinitive of (not) subject semi-modal verb

the main verb the verb to be

3.3 S V
b Small film companies do not have much money, so film-makers have to make
O
new films as cheaply as possible.
Small film companies do not have much money, so new films

have to be made as cheaply as possible.
S
c Many people have donated money for development projects. Administrators
V O
must use it by the end of March.
Many people have donated money for development projects. It

must be used by the end of March.
S
d Students must hand their essays in on time because the teachers might have to
V O
show them to external moderators.
Students must hand their essays in on time because they

might have to be shown to external moderators.
S V
e It is difficult to understand the events in Bakoo. Local people should circulate regular
O
e-mails about the political situation.
It is difficult to understand the events in Bakoo. Regular

e-mails should be circulated about the political situation.
f Many Britons have chosen to retire in Spain because of the Mediterranean climate.
S V O
Spanish people need to encourage them to learn Spanish.
Many Britons have chosen to retire in Spain because of the

Mediterranean climate. They need to be encouraged to learn
Spanish.
S
g There is a serious problem with the nuclear fuel plant. Engineers might need to
V O
close it down.
There is a serious problem with the nuclear fuel plant. It

might need to be closed down.

h The UK is now in third place globally for scientific research publications.
S V O
British scientists should publish more scientific research studies.
The UK is now in third place globally for scientific research publications.
More British scientific research studies should be published.

i Fish stocks are declining in local lakes due to pollution.
S V O
Fishermen may have to stop fishing.
Fish stocks are declining in local lakes due to pollution.

Fishing may have to be stopped
Task 4 Writing conclusions
In order to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, the weight of aeroplanes

(a) needs to / must be made lighter. In Japan, some companies are inventing
lighter materials for aeroplane frameworks; they are using light tableware to
decrease overall weight, so less fuel is used in flight (Nikkei Net, 2009). In
addition, airline companies (b) should / ought to / need to fund research into
other sources of energy, such as hydrogen-powered fuel cells. As for the noise
problem, the airports (c) should / ought to be moved away from residential
areas to the seaside, or to areas where people do not live.
All governments world-wide (d) need to act to solve the emissions of

carbon dioxide emissions. They (e) should / ought to increase fuel tax in
order to make their flights more expensive, which will, in turn, decrease
the number of flights and encourage people either to not travel, or to use
other forms of transport instead of aeroplanes.
In conclusion, managing flights and producing new technical materials will

decrease environmental damage. Government and air travel companies
(f) should act responsibly to ensure that this happens.

Stage
3
Task 1 Planning your stance and preparing your argument
1.1 The hidden question is:
Should all children learn to play a musical instrument at state schools?
The title allows the writer to make up his or her own mind about this.
1.5 a Children should be encouraged to choose to learn to play an instrument rather than
be forced to learn, and the range of musical instruments taught should be widened
as much as possible to cater for different personalities and tastes. Ensuring equality
of opportunity is the responsibility of the government, so financial help should be
available for families who need it.
b There are many advantages of learning to play an instrument, but only if the children
are willing to try it. Children could learn new skills and have the opportunity to make
friends. They might also have a lot of fun being part of an orchestra and learn to be
part of a team.
c Children ought not to be forced to learn to play a musical instrument if they do
not want to. Only children who are interested ought to learn to play a musical
instrument, and there should be government assistance to help the poorer families
buy instruments.
d On the other hand, if children are forced to learn when they are not interested, they
may not enjoy the experience, and they may even avoid music later on in their lives.
Children need to have some time in the school day to be creative, and if they prefer
playing football or painting to playing music, this should be encouraged.
1 c–d–b–a
2 b
3 c
4 d
5 a
6 Because the writer has already used modal and semi-modal verbs to express his
opinion precisely.

Task 2 Intensifying words

2.1 b 3
c 5
d 1
e 2
f 6
g 5
2.2 a well
b certainly / undoubtedly / definitely
c well / easily
d certainly / undoubtedly / definitely
e certainly / undoubtedly / definitely
f certainly / undoubtedly / definitely
g well
h well
i certainly / undoubtedly / definitely
j certainly / undoubtedly / definitely
Task 3 Stance and argument: further practice

3.1 The hidden question is:
Is imprisonment a more appropriate punishment for offenders than community service?
3.2 ‘
Imprisonment is a more appropriate punishment for offenders
than community service.’ Discuss.
Advantages of community service for Disadvantages of community service for

offenders offenders
They may be able to continue with their job, They may not take the punishment seriously
if they have one. as they still have their freedom.
They do not have to spend time with other
offenders, so they are less likely to learn
about new ways of committing other crimes.
Doing work in a voluntary capacity may make
offenders feel good.
Offenders may learn new skills.

Advantages of community service for the Disadvantages of community service for the
government and society government and society
Society benefits from the job done. Offenders may commit other offences while
they are doing the community work.
Community service provides a solution to
prison overcrowding. Giving work to offenders may take work
away from people who have not committed
It is expensive to keep a prisoner in jail; with
any offence.
community service, taxpayers’ money can be
used for other, more important issues. People might think the government is not
punishing offenders properly.
There is less unemployment – when prisoners
are released from jail it is difficult for them
to find a job, but offenders on community
service might well be able keep their jobs.
3.3 Statement c).
3.4 The thesis statement from Ex 3.3 that best fits the essay is statement a), because it
clearly sets out the writer’s stance.
‘Imprisonment is a more appropriate punishment for offenders than

community service.’ Discuss.
‘Community service’ is a well-known term. Basically it consists of doing some kind

of work or task with a two-fold aim. It both benefits society and allows offenders
to avoid imprisonment. A jail sentence (a) could have some negative effects on the
offenders as is explained below. As an offender, having the possibility of avoiding
going to prison and doing community service could have enormous benefits
although there could be some risks.
First of all, some prisons are not the best place to be for a long time (STV, 2008).
They (b) can encourage boredom and friendships between criminals, and they
(c) may expose petty offenders to violent behaviour and drugs. Community
service offers a chance for the judge to give the offender a different sentence to
prison, depending on the type of crime. This is very beneficial because in this way
offenders (d) can do a job in a semi-free environment which (e) might help keep
them away from bad influences. They (f) can also (g) contribute to society through
their work and have the chance to learn new skills without being kept in prison,
so they (h) can remain as useful members of society while carrying out their
punishment (Directgov, 2011).

On the other hand, there are some negative aspects of doing community service.
First of all, there is a higher possibility of reoffending while doing the community
service due to the lack of security which comes with not being jailed and
controlled 24 hours a day. There is also the fact of the public exposure with the
orange jackets which (i) could be a little embarrassing for them. However, this
uncomfortable feeling (j) could have benefits for the offenders in that it (k) might
well make them feel guilty and ashamed for what they have done and think about
why are they are in that situation.
Imprisonment (l) will certainly keep offenders off the streets and makes sure that
they do not re-offend. Prisons offer a closed and tightly controlled environment
where the risk of escape is very low. However, as seen above, imprisonment
involves a huge expense to society. In addition, there is the problem of
overcrowding in prisons. As the population increases, the number of inmates in
prisons is growing too, so other ways of punishing offenders without shutting
them in jail (m) should be explored.
In conclusion, there are many different types of crimes and not all the crimes
deserve the same punishment. An offender (n) might have to be kept away from
society because of the violence of the crime. However, in some cases, if there
is no risk, and the offender agrees to do community service, this (o) may avoid
problems associated with living in prison and reduce costs to the taxpayer. In this
way, offenders (p) can also (q) learn to take responsibility for their crimes and help
other people.

X
7 Expressing condition
Stage
1
Task 1 Identifying likely events
1.1 1 Yes – she has failed it once before, and she knows there were many questions she
could not answer correctly.
2 Because she may find a new job in one of these cities.
3 Under the condition that she is asked to leave her current job.
1.2 Possible answers:

a If it’s a nice day tomorrow, I’ll go for a walk in the park.
b If I have time later, I might meet my friend for coffee.
Task 2 Making a personal prediction about a likely event
2.1 a Example 1.
b Example 2.
c Example 3.
2.2 b If he does not return his books to the library on time, he will / might / may have to pay
a fine.
Note: Remember, it is not common to use could with have to or need to – see Unit 6, Stage 2, Ex 1.7.
c If he does not try to make friends with other international students, he may / might not
practise his spoken English.
Note: Remember not to use could with not in sentences like c), as this means was / were not able to –
see Unit 6, Stage 1, Ex 3.2.
d If he does not play any sport, he may / might well lack energy.
Note: Use may / might + well to intensify the modal verb – see Unit 6, Stage 3, Ex 2.2.
e If he falls asleep in lessons, he could easily annoy the lecturer.

Note: Use could + easily to intensify the modal verb – see Unit 6, Stage 3, Ex 2.2.
f If he does not complete his assignment, he will / may / might / could fall behind with
the course.
g If he eats junk food, he may / might need to take vitamin tablets.
Note: Remember, it is not common to use could with have to or need to – see Unit 6, Stage 2, Ex 1.7.
h If he never phones home, he will / may / might / could upset his parents.

Expressing condition 7
2.3 1a 
2b 
If you are writing about an event that may or may not happen (for which you use an if-
clause), you can stress the importance of that event by putting the if-clause first. Hence:
• In 1) you want to stress the probable result of an attack on the safe road, so it is better
to put if this route is attacked first, as in 1a.
• In 2) you want to stress the probable result of new refugees arriving without tents, so
it is better to put if someone new arrives without a tent first, as in 2b.
2.4 In conditional sentences the subordinate clause can come at end or the beginning of
the sentence. When it comes at the end it is followed by a full stop (or question mark or
exclamation mark) and when it comes at the beginning it is followed by a comma.
Task 3 Using conditional sentences to refer to laws of nature

3.1 1 b
2 a
3 a
4 A fact.
3.2 b If young people listen to too much loud music, they may / might have hearing
difficulties later.
c Students’ speaking skills improve at a faster rate if they have a lot of contact with
native speakers.
d People may / might go to prison if they commit a crime.
e If plants do not have enough water, they die.
f If fair-skinned people sunbathe without protection, they burn.
g These people will become unhappy if they do not have control over their lives.
h If dogs are not kept on a leash, they could frighten children.
Task 4 Further practice

4.1 1 b
2 a
3 Examples.
4.2 b Sales statistics can be useful to companies. For example, if the database shows that
sales are falling, a new product could / may / might be developed.
c Computers can help students considerably with their studies. For example, time is
saved if students learn how to compile a bibliography electronically.
d People can easily improve their English in an enjoyable way. For example, if students
regularly watch films, this may / might / could improve their vocabulary.

e It may not be a good idea to have big class sizes. For example, if there are 50
students in a lesson, the teacher does not have time to give students individual
attention.
f All employers should offer flexible working patterns. For example, if a parent has
young children, he or she may / might prefer to leave work at 15.00.
g Recycling can help the environment considerably. For example, if carrier bags are
reused, this reduces landfill waste.
Task 5 Using unless to give warnings

5.1 a Unless pollution levels fall, more people will become ill. 
b If pollution levels do not fall, more people will become ill. 
c If pollution levels fall, more people will become ill. 
Unless is used to say that something can only happen or be true in a particular situation,
or is used to give the only situation in which something will not happen or be true.
5.2 b If no more money is given for scientific research, the scientists will fall behind in the
race to develop new technology.
What is the likely event? No more money is given for scientific

research.
What is the opposite? More money is given for scientific research.
Unless more money is given for scientific research, the
scientists will fall behind in the race to develop new
technology.
c If the corn crop is not sprayed with insecticide, insects may eat the crop.
What is the likely event? The corn crop is not sprayed with
insecticide.
What is the opposite? The corn crop is sprayed with insecticide.
Unless the corn crop is sprayed with insecticide, the insects
will eat it.

d If hens are not allowed to roam freely, they produce eggs of inferior quality.
What is the likely event? Hens are not allowed to roam freely.
What is the opposite? Hens are allowed to roam freely.
Unless hens are allowed to roam freely, they will produce
eggs of inferior quality.
e If salt is not spread on the roads in icy weather, there might be fatal accidents.
What is the likely event? Salt is not spread on the roads in icy
weather.
What is the opposite? Salt is spread on the roads in icy
weather.
Unless salt is spread on the roads in icy weather, there will
be fatal accidents.
f If it does not rain soon, there will be more starvation.
What is the likely event? It does not rain soon.

What is the opposite? It rains soon.
Unless it rains soon, there will be more starvation.
5.3 The three different sections of the essay conclusion are highlighted in turn as follows:
summarizing; giving advice; making a prediction.
In conclusion, the examination system in Japan is stressful, but it has the effect of
encouraging students to learn. Acquiring a basic knowledge in many areas of study is
useful for life. Students need to adopt good study skills and learn over an extended period
of time in order to gradually build on their new knowledge. If they manage to do this, they
will feel relaxed and confident in exams, and will undoubtedly improve their scores.
5.4 advice c
prediction b
warning a

5.5 b Unless class sizes remain small, children will almost certainly not make progress.
If class sizes do not remain small, children will almost certainly not make progress.
c Unless parents talk to their children, they will not learn to speak.
If parents do not talk to their children, they will / might / may not learn to speak.
d Unless factories stop burning fossil fuels, the atmosphere will definitely become hotter.
If factories continue to burn fossil fuels, the atmosphere will definitely become hotter.
e If spelling is a problem, spellcheck ought to / should be used.
f If students want to increase their depth of argument, they ought to / should read more
widely.
g If the price of oil increases, the price of petrol will undoubtedly go up.
h If people continue to eat junk food, they might / may well become obese.
Unless people stop eating junk food, they will become obese.
i If the computer suffers a power cut, work could easily be lost.
j If there is a problem, they should / ought to talk to a study skills adviser.
k If there is a fire, everyone has to / needs to / must leave the building by the nearest exit.
Stage
2
Task 1 Identifying unlikely events
1 No, it is unlikely.
2 Anna asks a question using an if-clause. The sentence is: Oh I see … but if you
decided to use chemicals, what would happen?
3 In order to evaluate the likely effect on Mr Giles’s business of using chemicals.
Task 2 Evaluating an unlikely event

2.1 Possible answers:
b If I spoke Martian, I would travel to Mars.
c If I studied harder, I would get top marks in the exams.
d If I won the lottery, I would buy a castle.
2.2 • The verb tense used in the if-clause is the past simple.
• The modal verb used in the main clause is would.
• The grammatical form that follows the modal verb is the bare infinitive.

2.3 1a is better, because the writer has followed the rule of good information flow in
moving from ‘old’ to ‘new’ information: in sentence 1a) the trees provides ‘old’
information (referring back to the trees mentioned in the previous sentence), and the
rest of sentence 1a) provides ‘new’ information.
2a is better, because again the writer has followed the rule of good information flow: in
sentence 2a), the first clause provides ‘old’ information (referring back to the crime
of match-fixing mentioned in the previous sentence), and the second clause provides
‘new’ information.
2.4 b Fact you are not pleased about:
There is too much housework.

Imagine the opposite:
If there were less housework …

Add a result:
I would go out more often.

If there were less housework, I would go out more often.
c Fact you are not pleased about:
I am tired.
If I were not tired.

Add a result:
I would go out with my friends.

If I were not tired, I would go out with my friends.
Note: For writing about imaginary situations, were is often preferred to was. If there was
… becomes if there were … and if I was … becomes If I were …
b Fact you are not pleased about: English grammar is complicated.
Imagine the opposite: If English grammar were not so

complicated …
Add a result: students
might have less homework.
If English grammar were not so complicated, students would
have less homework.

c Fact you are not pleased about: The education system sets examinations at
regular intervals.
Imagine the opposite: If

the education system did not set
examinations at regular intervals …
Add a result: students
would not learn anything.
If the education system did not set examinations at regular
intervals, students would not learn anything.
d Fact you are not pleased about: The lorry drivers who supply petrol stations are
on strike.

the lorry drivers who supply petrol
stations were not on strike …
Add a result: people
would have enough petrol for their cars.
If the lorry drivers who supply petrol stations were not on
strike, people would have enough petrol for their cars.
e Fact you are not pleased about: Water is plentiful in the UK.
Imagine the opposite: If water were not plentiful in the UK …

Add a result: the government would have to introduce water
rationing.
If water were not plentiful in the UK, the government would
have to introduce water rationing.
Task 3 Using other modal verbs in the main clause

3.1 Modal verb possible in likely conditional sentences Reason for using it
will to predict (certainty)
might / may to predict (remote possibility)
could to predict (uncertainty)
should / ought to to give advice
must / have to / need to to show duty

3.2 1 Fact: Money is a problem.

a More students might study in the UK if money were not a problem.
b If money were not a problem, more students might study in the UK.
2 Fact: Powerful nations do not want to cancel Third World debt.
a If the powerful nations cancelled Third World debt, poverty could be eliminated.
b Poverty could be eliminated if the powerful nations cancelled Third World debt.
3 Fact: There are some scholarships for studying abroad.
a If there were no scholarships for studying abroad, more students would have to
study in their own countries.
b More students would have to study in their own countries if there were no
scholarships for studying abroad.
3.3 Modal / semi-modal verbs possible in Reason for their use

unlikely conditional sentences
would to evaluate (certainty)
might to evaluate (uncertainty)
could / might possibly to evaluate (remote possibility)
would have to / would need to to evaluate (duty)
3.4 b Fact you are not pleased about: The swimming pools are dirty.
Imagine the opposite: If the swimming pools were not so dirty …

Add a result: people
would swim more often.
If the swimming pools were not so dirty, people would swim
more often.
c Fact you are pleased about: The university has a sports centre on the campus.
If the university did not have a sports

centre on the campus …
Add a result: students would have to / need to travel to take
exercise.
If the university did not have a sports centre on the
campus, students would have to / need to travel to take
exercise.

d Fact you are not pleased about: Many health workers do not have sufficient
training to work in rural areas.

many health workers had sufficient
training to work in rural areas …
Add a result: fewer
people would undoubtedly die.
If many health workers had sufficient training to work in
rural areas, fewer people would undoubtedly die.
e Fact you are not pleased about: Students do not take effective notes.
Imagine the opposite: If students took more effective notes …

they might write better essays.
Add a result:
If students took more effective notes, they might write

better essays.
f Fact you are not pleased about: Food is expensive in the UK.
Imagine the opposite: If food were not so expensive in the UK …

families could have more holidays.
Add a result:
If food were not so expensive in the UK, families could have

more holidays.
g Fact you are pleased about: Students have their own computers.
Imagine the opposite: If students did not have their own

computers …
Add a result: They would have to / need to use the computers
on the campus.
If students did not have their own computers, they would
have to / need to use the computers on the campus.

Stage
3
Task 1 Identifying impossible events
1 The Nationalist Party.
2 The Nationalist Party.
3 Yes, it is too late. The elections were held last year.
4 He imagines the Democratic Party winning, as he wants to discuss the imaginary
outcome of this.
5 She imagines the Nationalist Party not winning, as she wants to discuss the imaginary
outcome of this.
Task 2 Evaluating an impossible event

2.1 You regret these situations which happened in the past. Evaluate them by
imagining the opposite.
1
a Imaginary fact in the past: If the course had not been useful
b Imaginary result now: most students would not have jobs.
2
a Imaginary fact in the past: If it had not rained yesterday
b Imaginary result now: the campus would not be muddy.
2.2 a The verb form used in the if-clause is the past perfect.
b The modal verb used in the main clause is would.
c The grammatical form that follows the modal verb is the bare infinitive.
2.3 c Fact you are not pleased about: There was an air-traffic control strike at the
airport.

there had not been an air-traffic
control strike at the airport …
Add a result: the
passengers would not be angry.
If there had not been an air-traffic control strike at the
airport, the passengers would not have been angry.

d Fact you are not pleased about: House prices increased by 10% last year.
Imagine the opposite: If house prices had not increased by 10%

last year …
more people would want to buy their own houses.
Add a result:
If house prices had not increased by 10% last year, more

people would have wanted to buy their own houses.
e Fact you are pleased about: The government banned this pesticide in the 1980s.

the government had not banned this
pesticide in the 1980s …
Add a result: more
people would have disabilities nowadays.
If the government had not banned this pesticide in the
1980s, more people would have disabilities nowadays.
f Fact you are not pleased about: Scientists did not realize that smoking was
harmful at the beginning of the 20th century.

scientists had realized that smoking
was harmful at the beginning of the 20th century …
Add a result: more
people would definitely be alive today.
If scientists had realised that smoking was harmful at the
beginning of the 20th century, more people would definitely
be alive today.
2.4 b If the writer had not destroyed her diary, people would know
more about her private life.
c If the politician had not studied for his master’s degree in
the UK, he might not speak such good English now.
d If the students had not passed their exams, they would
not have to / need to study now.
e If the immigrants had not all had visas, they could be in
prison now.
2.5 a The verb construction used in the if-clause is the past perfect.
b The modal verb used in the main clause is would.
c The grammatical form that follows the modal verb is the perfect bare infinitive.

2.6 b Fact you are evaluating: There was a power cut last week.
Imagine the opposite: If there had not been a power cut last
week …
Add a result: the
student might not have lost her essay.
If there had not been a power cut last week, the student
might not have lost her essay.
c Fact you are evaluating: The police arrested some people with knives during the
demonstration.

the police had not arrested some
people with knives during the demonstration …
Add a result: it
might have become violent.
If the police had not arrested some people with knives
during the demonstration, it might have become violent.
d Fact you are evaluating: The government increased tuition fees for international
students.

the government had not increased
tuition fees for international students …
Add a result: more
students would almost certainly have applied
for the course last year.
If the government had not increased tuition fees for
international students, more students would almost certainly
have applied for the course last year.
e Fact you are evaluating: The printer was reliable.
Imagine the opposite: If the printer had not been reliable …

Add a result: the
students would have used the library printer
more often for their essays during the course.
If the printer had not been reliable, the students would
have used the library printer more often for their essays
during the course.

Task 3 Choosing how to evaluate an impossible event

3.2 b If she had not taken her exam so early, she might not have failed it.
c Many people could not have survived if Oxfam had not organized a collection.
d She would have had to have taken the exam again if she had failed it.
e If he had not had a heart operation, he would not have needed to have lost weight.
3.3 b If the writer’s family had not destroyed her diary after her
death, people would have known more about her private life
during her lifetime.
c If the politician had not studied for his master’s degree in
the UK, he might have studied in America.
d If the journalists had not been local people, they would have
had to have left / they would have needed to have left the
country before now.
e If the immigrants had not all had visas, they would have had
to have returned home / they would have needed to have
returned home.
f If the employees had not lost their jobs, they could have
completed their training on time.
Task 4 Putting it together

4.1 b If the governors of the Bank of England had succeeded in being more organized, they
would have avoided causing psychological problems to investors.
c If the government increased the price of airline tickets, this may / might not effectively
reduce air pollution.
d If the government introduced a smoking ban in Dubai, bars would not be full of
smoke.
e If thousands of young men had not had to leave their families to fight in the war, there
would be enough people to work on the land now.
f In some countries, if men have relationships with women outside marriage, they could
go to prison.
g If people always respected other people’s religions, there would be no more wars.

4.2
Outline Eiras’s arguments in favour of free trade agreements
Free trade agreements are treaties between two or more countries which allow
goods to be bought and sold freely across national borders without tariffs or legal
obstacles. Such agreements are generally more beneficial for large and stable
economies. Eiras (2004) gives five reasons for supporting free trade in the United
States.
The first one is that free trade between nations improves standards of living and
quality of life. She points out that trade between countries is like trade between
people. If every person (a) had to produce all goods to use throughout his life, this
(b) would be an extremely inefficient situation. However, if one person (c) focuses
his potential on producing only the goods that he is best at, and with the profits
from this, he (d) purchases other goods made more efficiently and more effectively
by others, he (e) maximizes his wealth. This is why the whole society gains from the
lower world prices when a country is open to free trade.
The second reason that Eiras gives is that free trade boosts innovation and allows
new technologies to be invented which increase production efficiency. Producers
have an incentive to improve their production methods in order to remain
competitive with the rest of the world’s producers. At the same time, they can keep
prices as low as possible by buying cheap inputs from other countries. Introducing
new technologies often increases a sector’s competitiveness and can put its
competitors in temporary difficulty until they adopt new, more efficient production
methods and start gaining from their use. Even if a particular industry (f) declines,
sooner or later other sectors (g) emerge to do the job more efficiently.

The third reason is that free trade contributes to economic growth. The support
for this evidence is data presented over a seven-year period between 1995 and
2002, which shows that the economies of countries which open their markets
grow twice as fast as the economies of countries with less open or closed
markets. This happens because if the demand for goods and services (h) increases,
businesses (i) start to expand at national and international level, which leads to
new investments and the creation of new jobs. If China, for example, (j) had not
begun its process of lifting trade barriers under Deng Xiaoping in the 1970s, it
(k) would not have become the third-largest economy in today’s world.
The fourth reason in favour of free trade is that it makes institutions and
infrastructure stronger. In order to be able to control all trading contracts,
to prevent robbery and damage, and to protect its interests adequately, a
country has to develop strong legal institutions, an efficient police force and
an independent, efficient judicial system. Banking and financial institutions
are reinforced by international economic activity too, because more credit is
demanded, and more money is placed on deposit. Free trade also fosters the
expansion and development of infrastructure; if a country (l) expands its imports,
more docks with hangars and warehouses (m) are needed, and the road system
(n) needs to be constantly upgraded. Eiras adds: ‘Likewise important is the
development of all sort of new businesses to support free trade, including hotels,
restaurants, law firms, packaging and delivery services, software development
companies, automobile factories, construction businesses, among many others.’
Preserving peace is the fifth reason for promoting free trade. This is because if
countries (o) are potential trading partners, no country (p) has an incentive to
enter into conflict with another one. The empirical evidence for this is that the
areas torn by greatest conflict in the world are usually the most economically
repressed ones, such as some African countries and some former Soviet republics.
Even though there are many areas of conflict in the world today, if governments
(q) had not created free trade agreements, such as the EU, the world (r) might
have been a less peaceful place over the last 50 years. It is important to continue
to establish these treaties to ensure peace and economic progress globally in the
future.

X
8 Avoiding person-based writing
Stage
1
Task 1 Review of text flow
1.1 Sentences 1a) and 2b) allow better information flow than 1b) and 2a) respectively,
because in 1a) and 2b) the new information contained in each previous sentence is
summarized in a noun phrase at the beginning of each second sentence – the NPs being
1a) their produce and 2b) this widespread tradition. In 1b) and 2a), the subject noun
phrases they and people both provide redundant information.
1.2 1a their produce S

1b they S
2a people S
2b this widespread tradition C
1.3 concrete abstract
their produce 
this widespread tradition 
Task 2 Concrete and abstract noun phrases

2.1 1 wheat CN 8 burning AN 15 belief AN
2 sales AN 9 decline AN 16 teenagers PN
3 tables CN 10 failure AN 17 farmers PN
4 improvement AN 11 produce (n) CN 18 procedure AN
5 intervention AN 12 oil CN 19 lowering AN
6 president PN 13 access AN 20 vehicles CN
7 coal CN 14 analyzing AN
The three nouns that are gerunds are: burning, analyzing, lowering.

Avoiding person-based writing 8
2.2 1 The second sentence in a).

2 The second sentence in b).
3 The second sentence in b).
4 The second sentence in c).
5 The second sentence in c).
2.3 clause 1
S V O
They should develop a vaccine so that fewer people die.
complex abstract noun phrase
Det headword PP
The development of a vaccine will result in fewer deaths.
2.4 b The school suffers from a shortage of resources. For example, the teaching of
research skills without Internet access means pupils are not adequately prepared for
the real world.
c Axxion needs to improve its pricing strategy. In the future, increased sales of mobile
phones will result in its prices being more competitive.
d The police believed the car theft figures fell in 2009. Review of the data revealed this
to be untrue.
e The milk had an unusual colour. Analysis of its chemical content revealed the addition
of melanine.
f The area needs to be renovated. Conversion of the old warehouses into modern
apartment blocks would be an interesting option to consider.
g Turkey should join the European Union. The extension of free-trade markets will lead
to greater stability in Europe.
h Ambulances need larger doors and stronger flooring. Increased consumption of food
over the last decade has resulted in many patients being obese.
Task 3 Using abstract noun phrases as summary nouns

3.1 a The burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, various agricultural and industrial practices.
b People wasting time travelling, and goods and important documents being
transported at great expense.
c Business being less efficient
3.2 a This research d this problem f This improvement

b These results e This argument g this condition
c this situation

3.3 The summary nouns from the second column of the table in Ex 3.2 are listed in
the box below. Match each noun a–g with its meaning 1–7.
Summary noun Meaning
a procedure 2 the correct way of doing something
b view 6 opinion or belief
c issue 5 important, often controversial, topic for discussion
a sequence of events which repeatedly happen in the

d cycle 1
same order
e action 7 activity or behaviour
f effect 4 result or consequence
g crisis 3 serious situation of great difficulty or danger
3.4 a this action d this view f this issue

b This crisis e This cycle g This procedure
c this effect
3.5 a The investigations to separate a human-caused climate change from the background
noise of natural climate variability.
b The development of a single world political community.
c Developments such as local festivals and tribal dances taking place as a show for
foreign visitors.
3.6 a Such schemes d Such symptoms f such information

b such a solution e such a reform g such decisions
c such behaviour
Task 4 Review
Here are some possible answers. You may have other suitable answers of your own.
a This situation / This problem
b This issue / This situation / This problem*
c These views / Such views
d These attempts / such attempts
e This increase / such an increase
*Here, only use This situation or This problem if either phrase has not been used in a).

Stage
2
Task 1 Using impersonal language in an essay outline
1.1 An overview of policies in the post-independence period (1980 to the present day) 4
A brief overview of agricultural policies from 1890 to 1922 (the early colonial period) 1
Analysis of changes to agricultural policies since 1995 5
A more detailed explanation of agricultural policies between 1922 and 1979 (up to the
2
end of the colonial period)
A more detailed examination of policies in the post-independence period between

3
1980 and 1995.
1.2 There are six phrases in bold. In three of these phrases the verb form is a future simple
with will:
this essay will first examine + NP
it will then delineate + NP
the colonial period will focus in greatest depth on + NP
In the other three phrases, the verb form (underlined in the text) is the future passive,
using the future simple will + be:
the policies will be divided into + NP
the post-independence period will be further divided into + NP
an analysis will then be made of + NP
1.3 Read another essay outline. Use the vocabulary and structures you have learned
in Ex 1.1 to improve this text.
I This essay will describe the background to the Real Estate industry in
China in this essay. I It will delineate the policies in the real estate market
before 1990; then I will divide the these policies will be divided into the
1990–2001 period and the post-2001 period when China joined the WTO. I
will then analyze An analysis will then be made of the policies of the early
21st century, which is notable for the development of Chinese real estate
industry. I will also examine The future development of the real Chinese
estate industry will be examined, and several factors constraining the
development of major Real Estate issues.

Task 2 Discussing opinions and beliefs

2.1 1b It is estimated that fewer than 4,000 pandas exist in the wild.
1c Fewer than 4,000 pandas are estimated to exist in the wild.
2b It is believed that fewer than 1,000 blue whales survive in the
Southern Hemisphere.
2c Fewer than 1,000 blue whales are believed to survive in the
Southern Hemisphere.
2.2 1b It is thought that global warming is increasing.
1c Global warming is thought to be increasing.
2b It is considered that one in three bathing beaches is suffering
from pollution.
2c One in three bathing beaches is considered to be suffering
from pollution.
2.3 1b It is thought that 1,500 sea otters have died because of oil
pollution.
1c 1,500 sea otters are thought to have have died because of oil
pollution.
2b It is said that computer gaming has encouraged children to be
more aggressive.
2c Computer gaming is said to have encouraged children to be more
aggressive.
2.4 1b In the UK it is (widely) believed that a black cat brings good luck.
1c In the UK a black cat is (widely) believed to bring good luck.
2b It is thought that the temperature of the Gulf Stream is
gradually falling.
2c The temperature of the Gulf Stream is thought to be gradually
falling.
3b It is claimed that wearing masks in public places protects against
infectious diseases.
3c Wearing masks in public places is claimed to protect against
infectious diseases.
4b It is (widely) believed that policies of the colonial era in Zimbabwe
have helped to shape current agricultural policies (Johns & Waite,
2007).
4c Policies of the colonial era in Zimbabwe are (widely) believed to have
helped to shape current agricultural policies (Johns & Waite, 2007).

Task 3 Referring to data

3.1 Student’s own answers.
3.2 The sections are highlighted as follows:

1 The topic sentence (paragraph leader). 3 The writer’s interpretation of statistics.
2 The statistical evidence. 4 Discussion of reasons.
The number of one-person households in the UK is gradually increasing.

As can be seen from Figure 1, in 1971 only 18% of all households had one
person in them. This figure rose to 29% in 1996, and since that date even
more people have started to live alone. It is predicted that the number of
people who live alone will increase steadily to 36% in 2016. It is clear that the
singleton lifestyle is becoming more common in Britain. This may be because
more people now get divorced, live longer and therefore outlive their partners,
or choose to live alone to concentrate on their studies or work. In this way,
they can please themselves more easily and do what they want when they
want; they have fewer responsibilities and greater personal freedom.
3.3 Underline four phrases used for the purposes listed in 1–4 below.
1 To refer the reader to the bar-chart.
2 To show the statisticians’ prediction.
3 To state the writer’s interpretation of statistics (I can see that …).
4 To introduce reasons.
The number of one-person households in the UK is gradually increasing.

(1) As can be seen from Figure 1, in 1971 only 18% of all households had one
person in them. This figure rose to 29% in 1996, and since that date even
more people have started to live alone. (2) It is predicted that the number of
people who live alone will increase steadily to 36% in 2016. (3) It is clear that
the singleton lifestyle is becoming more common in Britain. (4) This may be
because more people now get divorced, live longer and therefore outlive their
partners, or choose to live alone to concentrate on their studies or work. In
this way, they can please themselves more easily and do what they want when
they want; they have fewer responsibilities and greater personal freedom.

3.4
(a) As can be seen from Figure 1 / As Figure 1 shows, ambulance performance
in the financial year 2010–2011 remained stable. At the beginning and end
of the year, approximately 76% of ambulances reached the patient within
ten minutes of receiving an emergency 999 call (76% in April and 76.3% in
March). There was a sharp decline in meeting response times in December
2010; only 58.5% of ambulances arrived within ten minutes of the emergency
calls in this particular month. (b) This may be because the weather was bad;
snow and ice made the roads impassable in some areas, particularly in rural
locations. (c) It is clear / surprising / interesting that response times could be
better; 100% of ambulances reaching patients within ten minutes should
be the government’s aim. (d) It is predicted that response times will improve
in the next decade due to extra government funding to cope with seasonal
weather problems.
Stage
3
Task 1 Guidelines for a research project proposal
Research project proposal structure

Introduction
This section will (a) outline the research problem, providing a general account of the
research context, the needs for the study, and its boundaries and limitations. It will also
(b) focus the aims and objectives of the project.
Literature review
This will (c) review in detail the research which has already been undertaken in this
field, and it will (d) demonstrate that the research questions to be addressed have
not been adequately answered in previous studies.

Methodology
This will (e) discuss the design and administration of the experimental studies. It
will (f) include the participant selection process, the justification for the apparatus
selected, the method of recording and measuring the results and the procedure for
administering the tests.
Research findings and analysis
This will (g) describe the experiment outcomes and (h) analyze the results.
Conclusions and recommendations
This will (i) provide recommendations for further research, based on the results of the
experiments, to further (j) explore the implications raised by this study.
Task 2 Research proposal extracts: part 1
2.1 1 yes 2 yes 3 yes 4 yes
2.2 3 Body imitation and gesture matching in autism 
2.3 Which paragraph makes greater use of person-based noun phrases? Paragraph a).
Which paragraph is the more academic? Paragraph b).
Note: The lack of imitative behaviour in autistic children is a complex abstract noun
phrase, with lack as the headword.
2.4
b One question that remains contentious in the field of autism research is
whether children with autism demonstrate impaired imitative abilities.
Imitation deficits in autism are of considerable theoretical interest because
imitation occurs very early in non-autistic children. The lack of imitative
behaviour in autistic children may be due to a lack of awareness of their
social environment and explain why such youngsters find it difficult to
interact with others as they grow up (Meltzoff & Gopnik, 1993).

2.5
One question that remains contentious in the field of autism research is whether
autistic children demonstrate impaired imitative abilities. (a) Imitation deficits in
autism are of considerable theoretical interest because imitation occurs very early
in non-autistic children. (b) The lack of imitative behaviour in autistic children
may be due to a lack of awareness of their social environment and explain why
such youngsters find it difficult to interact with others as they grow up (Meltzoff &
Gopnik, 1993).
If this study indeed provides support to the theory that children with autism have
imitation deficit, there will be a need for contributory research to explore the
reasons for this. Baron-Cohen (1988) suggests that such children’s (c) lack of
understanding of the link between thoughts and behaviour accounts for
their difficulties in understanding the reason for other people’s gestures; if the
(d) significance of a gesture is not understood, no attempt to copy it is made.
Aims: This study will consider both whether autistic children are able to match
body postures, and whether they can understand the meanings behind gestures.
It is hypothesized that a non-autistic group will give a better performance on
(e) the matching body posture trials. It is also predicted that the non-autistic
children will demonstrate better performance on (f) understanding the
meaning behind gestures.
2.6 Instead of I hypothesize that … the writer uses It is hypothesized that …

Instead of I also predict that … the writer uses It is predicted that …
Task 3 Research proposal extracts: part 2

3.1 In academic writing it is very important to constantly refer to the findings of previous
academic research – i.e., to the knowledge and collective experience of the wider
academic community. In a research proposal the literature-review section is intended to
set the background by referring to previous research. This is done concisely, by giving the
surname(s) of the researcher(s) plus the publication year of the research. Consequently, in
a literature-review section there will be many mentions of people’s names.
3.2 By using the passive voice.

Task 4 Completed research project extracts

4.1
Research findings and analysis
As (a) Figure 3 shows / can be seen in Figure 3, 14 non-autistic children aged

between 6 and 8 were able to match body postures on picture cards (70%),
whereas children with autism accurately matched 9 out of 20 picture cards
(45%). (b) It is clear that children with autism are not as able as non-autistic
children to imitate body posture. However, this task was not performed
accurately by all non-autistic children, indicating that it may not have been
simply the presence of autism which prevented accuracy of matching. The
training period for the task may not have been sufficient.
Since it appeared that children with autism displayed some posture matching
impairment, the second experimental task was conducted to discover whether
children with autism could understand the meaning behind gestures. (c) As
Figure 4 shows / As can be seen in Figure 4, 10 out of 20 children with autism
were able to accurately interpret the meaning of gestures (50%), compared
to 11 out of 20 non-autistic children (55%). (d) It is surprising that non-autistic
children had similar levels of difficulty as the children with autism when
matching gestures to tasks because it is well known that children with autism
find social interaction challenging.
4.2
This study has supported (a) the hypothesis that children with
autism find it more difficult to imitate body posture, but
found that (b) the reason for this may not be connected with
(c) difficulties in understanding the reasons behind
gestures. It is possible that (d) cognitive deficit impairs
(e) the ability to harness motor skills for accuracy of
movement. It recommends that (f) the experimental tasks be
repeated with (g) a broader representative sample of children
and that (h) the training session for the posture matching
tasks should be improved.

X
9 Using relative clauses
Stage
1
Task 1 Review of relative clauses
1.1 complex NP
S RC

a Monkeys that take food from tourists are overfed.
complex NP
S RC

b The subjects who interacted more did better in the task.
1.2 a
S V
The university lecturer is called Clare James. She received the best student feedback.
The university lecturer who received the best student

feedback is called Clare James.
b
S V
The computers will be replaced. They need an upgrade.
The computers that need an upgrade will be replaced.

c
S V
The money was used to employ a new assistant. It came from a research grant.
The money that was used to employ a new assistant came

from a research grant.
d
S V
The people have signed a petition about the traffic. They live in the street.
The people who have signed a petition about the traffic live
in the street.

Using relative clauses 9
e
S V
The laboratory has closed. It was used for animal experiments.
The laboratory that was used for animal experiments has

closed.
f
S V
The credit scheme was successful. It provided smallholder farmers with loans.
The credit scheme that provided smallholder farmers with

loans was successful.
g
S V
The eggs from the farmer are cheap. He lives close by.
The eggs from the farmer who lives close by are cheap.
1.3 a
S V
Employees with pensions have a more comfortable retirement.
Employees with pensions that their company pays into have

a more comfortable retirement.
b
S V
The library in the centre of town closes next week.
The library in the centre of town that lots of people use

closes next week.
c
S V
Negotiations for resolving the crisis are going well.
Negotiations for resolving the crisis that occurred last week

are going well.
d
S V
Some people in the music industry find digital downloads increase their revenues.
Some people in the music industry who think ahead find

digital downloads increase their revenues.

Task 2 Reducing the relative clause

2.1 In each pair the second sentence (1b, 2b, 3b) is the more concise and has the better
academic style. In academic writing it is important to package information into the smallest
number of words possible – particularly at the beginning of the sentence when referring
back to ‘old’ information.
2.2 b The countries which are required to reduce the quantity of their exports were defiant.
The countries required to reduce the quantity of their exports

were defiant.
c The policy which was introduced last year was successful.
The policy introduced last year was successful.

d The progress that was made was minimal.
The progress made was minimal.

e The issue which requiresing immediate attention is class sizes.
The issue requiring immediate attention is class sizes.

f The agreement that was reached involved trade restrictions.
The agreement reached involved trade restrictions.

g Farmers who useing harmful insecticides should be encouraged to change to organic
pest control methods.
Farmers using harmful insecticides should be encouraged to change

to organic pest control methods.
h Some regions that are facing serious food shortages have appealed for help.
Some regions facing serious food shortages have appealed for

help.
2.3 a There is no simple answer to the question of whether the world should promote
free or fair trade. They can both bring benefits and disadvantages to countries,
according to their specific economic conditions. Countries should consider carefully
their own economic structure and that of their trading partners in order to establish
a trading agreement which will maximize benefits and minimize negative effects on
both societies. In most cases, free trade agreements are beneficial for economically
developed countries whereas agreements based on fair trade are generally more
advantageous for poorer and smaller countries.
agreements which are based on fair trade

b The increasing number of countries in the European Union and the free trade
agreements, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement, show today’s
global tendency to open countries’ borders and globalization. At the same time,
the World Fair Trade Organization seeks to protect the producers in economically
underdeveloped countries by pointing out that many of the world’s economies need
support and protection and are not suitable for free trade. Both free and fair trade
policies have their supporters and adversaries. The world should continue its process
of opening to trade because the benefits of international trading are many, but
policies and fair trade agreements protecting the poor and more vulnerable groups
of society should always be adopted.
policies and fair trade agreements which protect the poor

and more vulnerable groups of society
2.4 1 A relative clause that expands a subject NP will often refer back to information that
has earlier been given to the reader. Since this information is not new to the reader,
it does not need to be emphasized, so is often referred to as concisely as possible –
by using a reduced relative clause. Doing this moves the reader on, as quickly and
efficiently as possible, to the new information found at the end of the sentence.
2 The complex subject NP the crop earning the highest foreign currency in Zimbabwe
refers back to agriculture, as shown by the arrow below.
Agriculture is the backbone of Zimbabwe’s economy. Seventy per cent of Zimbabwe’s
population is rurally based, and these people derive their livelihoods from agriculture
(Shapouri & Missiaen, 1990; Csaki, Dams, Metzeger, & Van Zyl, 1992). The sector
accounts for about 70% of the total employment and 40% of the total country’s
merchandised exports, and it provides approximately 60% of the raw materials required
by the industrial sector. Agriculture accounts for 15–19% of the country’s gross domestic
product (GDP) and contributes more than 60% of the country’s total export earnings
annually. The crop earning the highest foreign currency in Zimbabwe is tobacco, but
cotton lint, raw sugar and coffee, horticultural products and maize are also important
sources of income (Makamure, Jowa, & Muzuwa, 2001).
2.5 a There is no simple answer to the question of whether the world should promote
free or fair trade. They can both bring benefits and disadvantages to countries,
according to their specific economic conditions. Countries should consider carefully
their own economic structure and that of their trading partners in order to establish
a trading agreement which will maximize benefits and minimize negative effects on
both societies. In most cases, free trade agreements are beneficial for economically
developed countries whereas agreements based on fair trade are generally more
advantageous for poorer and smaller countries.

b The increasing number of countries in the European Union and the free trade
agreements, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement, show today’s
global tendency to open countries’ borders and globalization. At the same time,
the World Fair Trade Organization seeks to protect the producers in economically
underdeveloped countries by pointing out that many of the world’s economies need
support and protection and are not suitable for free trade. Both free and fair trade
policies have their supporters and adversaries. The world should continue its process
of opening to trade because the benefits of international trading are many, but
policies and fair trade agreements protecting the poor and more vulnerable groups
of society should always be adopted.
Stage
2
Task 1 Using relative clauses to expand object noun phrases
1.1 a The lecturer referred to the computer model that predicted the increase in global
warming.
b The government introduced a new healthcare programme that lasted until the year
2000.
c The hospital lost the file that contained the patients’ medical records.
d Professor Smith has a colleague who went to work in France last year.
e The research assistant conducted the experiment that led to the department’s
prizewinning discovery.
f Trade agreements guarantee a price that will cover the producer’s production costs.
1.2 a Governments do not understand the urgency of the problems which communities
face every day.
b The local co-operative group paints the furniture which their agent sells abroad.
c The advertising agency produces award-winning ideas which it sells for huge sums of
money.
d Protesters carried placards which some of them used as weapons.
1.3 1 Clause a) has the following S, V and O components:

a sub-clause 1 sub-clause 2

S V O S V O
it introduces lower market prices for goods that are purchased from foreign countries
2 In clause a), the relative pronoun that refers back to the previous NP goods.

3 Clauses b) and c) have the following S, V and O components:
b sub-clause 1 sub-clause 2
S V O S V O
Such trade agreements guarantee a price that will cover producers’ costs
c sub-clause 1 sub-clause 2
S V O S V O
the workers are guaranteed a wage that will ensure enough food for their families
4
In clause b), the relative pronoun that refers back to the previous NP a price.
In clause c), the relative pronoun that refers back to the previous NP a wage.
1.4 1 In the stretch of text incorporating d), e) and f), there are three relative clauses:
main clause
free trade can bring inefficiencies
relative clause 1
causing unemployment and a lowering of workers’ wages in industries
relative clause 2
that are competing with foreign ones
relative clause 3
that use very cheap or even exploited labour
2 The main clause is free trade can bring inefficiencies.

3 Section d) can be rewritten as: free trade can bring inefficiencies that cause
unemployment and that lower workers’ wages in industries.
4
main clause

S V O
free trade can bring inefficiencies
relative clause 1 relative clause 2

S V O S V O
that cause unemployment and that lower workers’ wages in industries
5 In e), the relative pronoun that refers back to the previous NP, industries.
6 In f), the relative pronoun that refers back to the previous NP ones in e); in turn, the
NP ones refers back to the earlier NP industries in d). Substituting ones for industries
allows the writer to avoid having to repeat the word industries.
Task 2 The possessive relative pronoun whose

2.1 Whose + NP is the subject of the relative clause (in both 1b and 2b).
Whose can refers to both persons and things.
2.2 The sentence is:

For example, if a poor country produces tea, and starts selling it internationally, the unit
cost may be higher than that for other global producers whose price would be set at a
lower rate by the world market because of more efficient production methods.
1 Whose is the object of the relative clause.
2 In this case, whose refers back to the earlier NP producers, here meaning ‘other tea-
producing countries’ – probably ‘a thing’ rather than ‘a person’.
3 If the relative clause were not in the passive voice, the sentence would be difficult to
understand. The sentence would read:
For example, if a poor country produces tea, and starts selling it on the world market,
the unit cost may be higher than that for other global producers whose price the world
markets would set at a lower rate because of more efficient production methods.
2.3 a The course participants work for an engineering company whose main area of
expertise involves analyzing sedimentary rocks
b The clinic works with clients whose lives are threatened by alcohol addiction.
c The course is for students whose IELTS score is 7.0.
d Keynes is still studied for his economic theories whose principles are still highly
regarded.
e After the earthquake, the rescuers found some children whose parents were in a safe
house.
f The students listened to the lecturer whose books were on the reading list.
Task 3 The relative adverbs where, when and why

3.1 a reason
b place
c time
3.2 a Important decisions should be taken (at a time) when everyone is present.
b There are many reasons why the economy of China has developed quickly.
c A new economic and social policy is emerging in the USA, where the new president
is attempting to make changes.
3.3 a He has found the house in Rome where Byron lived.

b The time that they spent in Brazil was the period when there were strikes in the UK.
c The samples were contaminated; this is the reason why the experiment did not work.
d New Year’s Eve is a time when it is traditional to have parties.
e It is difficult for young people to secure a job in today’s economic climate; this is the
main reason why internships are popular.
f However, this is not the case for poor countries where the production methods are
less efficient and flexible, and employees cannot be compensated for job losses.
Task 4 Using there is / there are with a relative pronoun or relative adverb
4.1 main clause (clause 1) relative clause (clause 2)
HS
HS V Relative adverb S V O
Plural noun (NP)
There are many reasons why people should learn English.
4.2 b There was a time in Britain when women did not have the right to vote.
c There are three main reasons why the government should lower taxes.
d There are no policies which / that help the poorest people.
e There is little* that can be done.
f There are few companies which / that operate on a non-profit basis.
g There was nothing that the rescuers could do to help the survivors.
h There were insufficient incentives given to the farmers who expressed an interest.
i There was a restriction on grain movement at a time when the country needed to
expand its exports.
*Here, little is a pronoun which means ‘not much’.
Stage
3
Task 1 Recognizing the difference between defining and non-defining relative
clauses
1.1 1a Here the embedded relative clause defines which islands the writer is referring to; it is a
defining relative clause.
1b Here the embedded relative clause simply adds more information; it is a non-defining
relative clause.
2a Here the linear relative clause defines which kind of wage the writer is referring to; it is
a defining relative clause.
2b Here the linear relative clause simply adds more information; it is a non-defining
relative clause.
1.2 1 The non-defining relative clauses (1b and 2b, with which), are separated from the
main clause using commas, whereas the defining relative clauses (1a and 2b, with
that), are not separated from the main clause – there are no commas.
2 The non-defining relative clauses (1b and 2b) use which, whereas the defining
relative clauses (1a and 2b) use that.
3 The relative clause in 1b) defines how the islands are used.
4 The relative clause in 2a) defines the purpose the wage fulfils.
Task 2 Non-defining relative clauses

2.1 L
a 
L
b 
E
c 
E
d 
L
e 
2.2 a The pre-sessional course, which has 90 participants, started in July.

(embedded clause structure)
b Higher rates of deforestation sometimes result in desertification, which makes the land
useless for production.
(linear clause structure)
c The current weather pattern, which is increasingly changeable, is a result of the high
pressure over the Atlantic Ocean.*
d The President delivered a fierce anti-war speech, which was well received.
e The lecturer was from Argentina, which is a beautiful country with many historical sites.
f The library, which the Queen opened, held over one million books.
g The study group was not pleased with one student, John, whom everyone thought
was lazy.
Note: this relative clause cannot be reduced because the phrase increasingly changeable is
an adjectival phrase.
Task 3 Possessive relative pronoun whose in non-defining relative clauses

3.1 b The director of the company, whose administrative assistant has moved to a different
town, has carried out all the administration tasks himself.
ND, subject
c Policies whose aims are to redistribute wealth more equally are popular.
D, subject
d Dr John’s team is researching proteins whose structures change with a rise in
temperature.
D, subject
3.2 b There are many students at university, but the students whose examinations are next
month still have plenty of time to study.
c Single people, whose taxes the council has raised, have less disposable income.
d The geologist Howard Fontaine, whose main interest is soil aggregates, has
discovered a very interesting fact.
e The problem can be traced back to the UK government, whose policies were
introduced too quickly.
f The building whose structure the occupants designed failed to comply with
regulations.
3.3 Sentences c) and f) would be better written using the passive voice, because in each case
the relative clause (whose taxes the council has raised and whose structure the occupants
designed, respectively) is defining, and the reader will probably find a sentence with two
noun phrases side by side difficult to understand.
Thus, for sentence f):
Main clause

Relative clause

NP NP
The building whose structure the occupants designed failed to comply with regulations.
The sentence is better written using the passive (past simple, passive voice):
Main clause

Relative clause

NP NP
The building whose structure was designed by the occupants failed to comply with
regulations.
Sentence c):
Single people, whose taxes the council has raised, have less disposable income.
could be better rewritten as:
Single people, whose taxes have been raised by the council, have less disposable income.
Task 4 Relative adverbs in non-defining adjectival clauses

4.1 Case b) is non-defining and there should be a comma before where:
However, this is not the case in Zimbabwe, where the production methods are less
efficient and flexible, and employees cannot be compensated for job losses.
4.2 b London is the capital city, where a wide variety of commercial

activities occur.
ND, comma needed
c Students are advised to take a break when they have studied for two
hours.
D, no comma needed
d This is the place where the fire broke out.
D, no comma needed
e The physics conference is held every year in Barbados, where McGill University
has a training school.
ND, comma needed
f The Beatles’ first musical success was in 1962, when they released their
single Love Me Do.
ND, comma needed
Task 5 Using a relative clause to refer back to a previous idea

a Sanctions meant the government had to increase import support, which was fully
implemented in 1980, when Zimbabwe gained its independence.
b The policies introduced by the government during the first ten years after
independence were funded solely by the government, which increased the
government’s expenditure.
Task 6 Review
6.1 Relative pronouns Relative adverbs
which that whom who whose when where why
6.2 a Population growth, which is currently exponential, is one of the main challenges that
the country faces.
b This will cause many problems which / that need to be solved effectively, especially for
developing countries.
c Developing countries depend on developed countries to extract the natural resources,
which they might not attract net profit for the poorer nation.
d The first problem which is related to population growth is that city life will be
overcrowded.1
e In China, one family can only have one child, which slows the speed of population
growth dramatically.2
f The second problem which faces / which is facing the world is food shortage.
OR
The second problem which faces / which is facing the world is food shortage.1
g There are several problems which are not easy to resolve.
h The majority of them live on the poverty line, which means an uncomfortable life.2
1
This is a reduced relative clause.
2
Here, which relates back to the idea in the previous clause.
6.3 a which / that

b which / that
c that*
*You need to use that here because the relative pronoun follows the noun phrase changes, which is part of a
prepositional phrase.
6.4 You need to use that in three places where the relative pronoun expands a noun phrase
that form part of a prepositional phrase.
a whose
b that
c when
d that
e that
f which
g which / that
h , who
i that
6.5
The policies introduced by the government during the first ten years after
independence were funded solely by the government and this increased
government’s expenditure. As the government borrowed the funds to finance
development, its fiscal deficit increased and the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
and the World Bank (WB) began to put pressure on the government to adopt
other measures not based upon government intervention, but on market reform. In
compliance to this, the government introduced the Economic Structural Adjustment
Programme (ESAP) in 1991 and the programme was set to run until 1995. The
ESAP focused on transforming Zimbabwe’s controlled economic system into a more
open, market-driven economic system.
The policies, which were introduced by the government during the first ten years
after independence, were funded solely by the government and this increased
government’s expenditure. As the government borrowed the funds to finance
development, its fiscal deficit increased and the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
and the World Bank (WB) began to put pressure on the government to adopt other
measures which were not based upon government intervention, but on market
reform. In compliance to this, the government introduced the Economic Structural
Adjustment Programme (ESAP) in 1991 and the programme was set to run until
1995. The ESAP focused on transforming Zimbabwe’s controlled economic system
into a more open, market-driven economic system.
6.6 The policies, introduced by the government during the first ten years after independence,
were funded solely by the government, which increased government’s expenditure.
English forfor
English Academic Study
Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 107
Providing evidence
10
X
for your argument
Stage
1
Task 1 Preparation for writing an essay
Before you begin to write an essay, you need to:
• understand the hidden question(s) in the title;
• prepare to respond to the task within the title.
To do this you should

• read the relevant sources and critically take notes as you read;
• ask yourself questions and cross-check facts and ideas with other reliable written
materials;
• keep accurate records of the publication details of your sources so that you can
acknowledge the ideas of other writers within your essay;
• write lists of references you have used in alphabetical order by family name at the
end of your essay.
Task 2 Selecting statistical evidence

2.1 1 The writer has chosen to report figures from or projected for 1971, 1996 and 2016
(the beginning, middle and end of the chart).
2 He / she has taken the information from the second half of the chart.
3 He / she has summarized a trend.
2.2 1 The writer has chosen to report an approximate average figure for the whole graph,
running from the beginning to the end of the year.
2 He / she has taken the information from across the chart.
3 He / she has summarized a trend.
2.3 Although the writer has identified a trend (‘the GDP of Taiwan has increased steadily over
the last decade’), interpreted the statistics (‘It is clear that …’), and provided reasons (‘the
government strategy of transferring to technology has been a critical factor’), he has not
referred to any individual statistics that support the trend he claims to have detected. The
writer should not expect the reader to have to search for unstated statistics.
2.4 b Between 2001 and 2003, GDP remained steady at approximately $13,000, but by
2006, this figure had risen to nearly $16,000. Two years later, Taiwan’s GDP reached its
highest point of approximately $17,000. 
Sentence b) is best because it describes the beginning, middle and end points of the trend.
Providing evidence for your argument 10
Task 3 Verb forms for describing data

3.1 a The GDP of Taiwan has increased steadily over the last decade.
Verb form: present perfect simple.
You studied the present perfect simple in Unit 3, Stage 2, Task 2. This form is used to
describe a situation that is true now, and to show how long the situation has been
this way. Over the last decade the GDP of Taiwan has increased, and the result is that
now it is high.
b By 2006, this figure had risen to nearly $16,000.
Verb form: past perfect.
You studied the past perfect in Unit 7, Stage 3, Ex 2.2. This verb form is used in a
conditional sentence to describe an imaginary event in the past.
c Between 2001 and 2003, GDP remained steady at approximately $13,000.
Verb form: past simple.
You have studied the past simple in Unit 3, Stage 1. The past simple is used to
describe an event which occurred at a particular time in the past – in this case,
between 2001 and 2003.
3.2 It is used when the writer wants to describe a change happening now or around now.
The change is considered to be temporary (not permanent).
3.4 a The number of books sold has been steadily declining. 
3.5 b The number of cars sold has steadily increased. 

It seems the increase in car sales has stopped. The present perfect simple is used to show
an activity which began at some point in the past and gives a result now: high car sales.
3.6
Saudi Arabia has not always been a rich country. In 1932, when King Abdul
Aziz unified most of the country, the main trade was in dates and milk,
and Saudis were poor. The King decided to invest in the country, which
gave the American company, Aramco, the opportunity to conduct oil
explorations. As Figure 1 shows, oil production changed the fortunes of
Saudi Arabia’s economy in the second half of the 20th century; it is clear
that (a) there was a steady growth in oil production between 1960 and
2006, and it (b) has been increasing ever since that date. Between 1960
and 1974, Saudi Arabian oil production (c) increased / grew / rose sharply
by 7 million barrels. Between 1974 and 1980, oil production (d) fluctuated
between 8 million and 10 million barrels. Between 1980 and 1985,
(e) there was a sharp decline / decrease / fall in the production of oil from
million barrels to 3 million barrels; this was a deliberate policy to try and
keep world oil prices high. After this period, production (f) continued to
grow / increase / rise, reaching 8 million barrels. Between 1990 and 2005,
it (g) improved steadily, reaching approximately 10 million barrels. Saudi
Arabia is now a developed country.
Task 4 Review
The sentence to which the writer should have added data as evidence is highlighted.
The history of China’s stock market

After the foundation of Peoples’ Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese
government shut down the stock market, mainly because it was
considered to be a feature of a capitalist economy. (a) In December 1978,
China initiated economic reforms in an attempt to establish a ‘socialist
market economy’ by modifying the centrally-planned management
through a market-oriented readjustment (Ma, 2004, p. 8), but it was not
until the late 1980s and early 1990s that China rebuilt its stock market.
Although the stock market (b) in China does not have a long history, it
(c) developed rapidly (d) between the 1990s and 2004.
By 2005, the government (e) had relaxed the rules which separated
different categories of investors, and the free market economy (f) had
become more highly developed; this situation (g) signalled a turning
point in China’s stock market. Encouraged by additional factors, such
as appreciation of RMB, excess liquidity and public companies’ good
performance, the stock market (h) grew steadily between 2005 (i) and
2007, (j) as Figure 7 (k) shows. The Shanghai Stock Exchange (SSE)
Composite Index (l) peaked at 6,124 points (m) in Oct 2007.
Faced with such an ever-prosperous stock market, economists expected
the Shanghai Index to reach 10,000 points. Unfortunately, this boom
time ended with the sudden levy of stamp duty tax and the unexpected
global subprime mortgage crisis. The index (n) plunged to less than
2,000 points (o) between October 2007 and October 2008, with
a (p) decrease / decline of 70.5% (Leijonhufvud, 2007). This was a
disaster for the development of China’s stock market. The causes of this
phenomenon deserve careful study.
Stage
2
Task 1 Author / date or numeric referencing systems
b Family name (year of publication of source material) 
Task 2 Referencing techniques (author / date system)

2.1 a NI
b I
2.2 Sentences a) and b) are highlighted in yellow and green respectively.

Which citation technique best allows focus on ideas, facts and concepts, allowing for
information to flow from old to new, without source details to interrupt the text flow?
Non-integrated citations.
Which citation technique allows the source details to link back to old information?
Integrated citations.
Older people also tend to connect their sense of belonging to their home while younger
adults are more likely to attribute it to friends, family and self (Cuba and Hummon,
1993). A home has a number of roles and meanings, such as an aid to daily living, a
social centre, a refuge, a place of privacy and control, a status symbol and so on (Leith,
2006; Clough et al., 2004; Gabriel & Bowling, 2004). (a) Many people feel a loss of
ownership, status and adulthood after moving into age-specific housing. It has been
suggested that this could be due to inappropriate design, which fails to give residents
a sense of home and belonging (Clough et al., 2004). (b) Indeed, according to the
EPSRC EQUAL-funded I’DGO Consortium findings (2009), there is a direct link between
the design of the built environment and older residents’ use of and attitudes towards
different spaces.
2.3 In this introductory paragraph, the most commonly used citation technique is non-
integrated citation.
In the case of non-integrated citation, the writer will put the author name(s) and date
directly following the material which has been taken from the source and then rewritten
in the writer’s own words.
2.4 The reference to Kellaher (2001) is an integrated citation.

The source details refer back to old information as follows:
It has been suggested that this could be due to inappropriate design, which fails
to give residents a sense of home and belonging (Clough et al., 2004). Indeed,
according to the EPSRC EQUAL-funded I’DGO Consortium findings (2009),
there is a direct link between the design of the built environment and older
residents’ use of and attitudes towards different spaces. As Kellaher (2001, p.
10) has found, people do not want dwellings ‘which loudly declare their special
nature’ whether the housing is age-specific or general housing that incorporates
Lifetime Homes standards or other adaptations.
2.5 a 2
b 1
c 3
There no reference to a source in sentence a) because the idea referred to in this
sentence is the writer’s own.
2.6 a According to Knights & Wilmot’s findings (2007), workers’ opinions about their
bosses give useful information about their management style.
b As Knights & Wilmot (2007) have found, workers’ opinions about their bosses give
useful information about their management style.
2.7 Example sentence 2 shows that the writer believes that Kellaher has made a discovery as
a result of his research (the key words are has found).
2.8 2 Knights and Wilmot’s findings (2007) show that workers’ opinions about their bosses
give useful information about their management style.
2.9 The use of the reporting verb show tells the reader that the writer believes the source he
is citing to be credible.
In this context, show means ‘provide evidence to support a claim that something is true’.
Task 3 Using a quotation or the writer’s own words

3.1 The key information is underlined below:
a The global Climate Research Council (2004) states that the amount of carbon dioxide
has increased by approximately 25% since the Industrial Revolution.
b The global Climate Research Council (2004: 22) states that ‘Pre-industrial levels of
carbon dioxide (prior to the start of the Industrial Revolution) were about 280 parts
per million by volume (ppmv), and current levels are about 370 ppmv.’
The key information is contained in a paraphrase in sentence a) (i.e., the information is

rewritten in the writer’s own words) and in a quotation (i.e., a direct quotation from the
original source) in sentence b). The information in sentence b) is more detailed than in
sentence a).
The number 22 in sentence b) refers to the page number in the source text from which
the direct quotation is taken. Because this is a quotation, the writer needs to give
the page number from the source, as well as the author name (here, referring to an
organization) and publication year. This style of citation (year: page) is one you may well
encounter and/or be expected to use.
3.2 In sentence b), the integrated citation with the reporting verb notes provides evidence
to support the claim made in the earlier sentence a) that housing does not meet elderly
people’s emotional and physical needs. The writer used a quotation from Kendig’s
published work because the writer believes this is an important statement particular to
this research.
3.3 The writer decided to quote Elliott (1991) and Wallace (1998) here because these two
sources provide definitions for the term action research. It is crucial for writers to
provide definitions as well as to perceive and communicate slight differences between
different authorities’ definitions. Often, there is dispute over the accuracy of particular
definitions, and it may only be possible to explore these slight differences by retaining the
original wording.
3.4 The quotation is inappropriate because there is no reason for it. It is not a quotation
which gives supporting evidence for the previous sentence; it is there to contrast the
statement by the Prolinnova Organisation with the statement of Tagore’s opinion that
local innovation is not easy to implement successfully. It is not a special or important
statement, nor is it a definition.
Task 4 Reporting verbs + that
4.1 1 state 2 state 3 state 4 show 5 suggest 6 note
The writer thinks that the author Reporting verb used
notices or realizes something notes
expresses something in a clear, logical, strong way states
puts forward an idea suggest
gives a clear, written account of a situation reports
provides facts or information to prove that

shows
something is true
4.2 Text 1
Many learners come from cultures in which classrooms are more teacher-
centred and expectations are therefore high that the teacher will provide
correction; for EAP learners, accuracy is especially valued (Hyland & Hyland,
2006, p. 4). Support for correction of errors exists in the literature, but is
tentative, due to the lack of clear research-based evidence (Chandler, 2003;
Ferris, 2004). Robb et al. (1986) and Fathman and Whalley (1990) both suggest
that location of errors, and re-writing, are as important as error correction
itself. Ferris (2004) argues that learner preferences for error correction, as
identified by Radecki and Swales (1988), should not easily be dismissed,
and, similar to Semke (1984) and Zamel (1985), calls for more praise and
encouragement, rather than negative teacher feedback, with which error
correction is often associated. Hyland and Hyland (2006, p. 4) sensibly conclude
that the consideration of form and content as separate entities in the research
is of ‘dubious theoretical value’, not accurately reflecting what happens in real
feedback practice.
1 suggest
2 argue
3 conclude
The writer has used the present simple tense to report the authors’ ideas, even though
the sources were clearly published some years ago. This is because the debate over the
best way to correct students’ errors is still going on today – so, in the writer’s opinion,
the views of the authors cited are as valid today as they were when they were first
stated.
Text 2
Tekereet et al. (2003) indicate that although the government retained the right
to announce the benchmark price for agricultural commodities, such as maize,
this had to be reduced in accordance with the Amber box requirements. They
further state that expenditure on general support measures under the Green
box fell from $13,471 in 1995 to $10,610 in 1999, which they attribute to the
reduction in farms acquired over this period and ultimately the reduction in the
demand for agricultural technical services.
1 indicate
2 state
Text 3
Many people feel a loss of ownership, status and adulthood after moving
into age-specific housing. Clough et al. (2004) suggest that this could be due
to inappropriate design, which fails to give residents a sense of home and
belonging (Clough et al., 2004). Indeed, the EPSRC EQUAL-funded I’DGO
Consortium findings (2009) show a direct link between the design of the built
environment and older residents’ use of and attitudes towards different spaces.
Kellaher (2001, p. 15) has found that people do not want dwellings ‘which
loudly declare their special nature’, whether the housing is age-specific, or
whether it is general housing that incorporates Lifetime Homes standards or
other adaptations.
1 suggest
2 find
In 2) above the reporting verb find is in the present perfect tense, i.e., has found. This
tense is used to refer to something that happened in the past which gives a result now.
Kellaher has made a discovery in the past that tells the reader about the types of houses
they prefer now.
4.3 The writer thinks that the author Reporting verb used
has discovered something has found
states that something is true, even though others may not agree,
argues
giving clear reasons
expresses something in a clear and logical way, and reminded the

further states
reader about a previously mentioned author
provides an indication that something may be true signals
decides that something is true (after considering all the information) concludes
Stage
3
Task 1 Reporting verbs + that (continued)
1.1 a Leki (1990, p. 60) found that there was ‘depressingly little evidence’ in both L1 and
L2 research that teacher feedback could lead to improvements.
b Cohen and Cavalcanti’s (1990) research confirmed that instances of teacher bias were
apparent in the feedback. Difficult pupils seemed to receive more negative feedback
comments than others whose behavior was more attentive in class.
c Kando (1997) strongly believed that old age was a time of decline, and that older
people were less physically active and able and, therefore, required less housing
space. However, Groc (2008) argues that many older people are also carers and
the first US housing facility for older people who look after grandchildren or other
dependants has just been built in New York City. Harding (2007) and Lansley et al.
(2004) point out that even single older adults make extensive use of their rooms for
family visits, leisure and other activities and they may also need room for a live-in
carer or aids and adaptations.
The adverb strongly is used in front of the reporting verb believe + that, to add emphasis.
1.2 The writer thinks that the author: Reporting verb used
mentioned a specific fact or idea points out
said that he was sure that something was true believed
stated that something was definitely true, possibly by

confirmed
providing further evidence
1.3 In Ex 1.1 the past simple is used in three cases: found, confirmed and believed. In all three
cases this is a historical narrative. Furthermore, in the case of sentence c), believed, the
information described is now outdated and has been superseded by the research of Groc
(2008), Harding (2007) and Lansley et al. (2004).
a calculated e agrees i hypothesized

b estimates f disagrees j explained
c emphasizes g claim k asserts

d mentioned h maintains l denied
1.4 The writer thinks that the author: Reporting verb used
strongly expresses a belief maintains
state that something is true, although it may not have been proved claim
guesses by using available evidence estimates
said that something was not true denied
makes it clear that he has a different opinion / idea (from someone

disagrees
else)
wrote about something quickly without giving details mentioned
found out something out for certain by using numerical data calculated
makes it clear that he has the same opinion / idea (as someone else) agrees
states forcefully that something is true asserts
put forward an idea based on known facts, which were then used as a
hypothesized
basis for further investigation
gave details about how or why something worked explained
stresses that an idea is important emphasizes
Task 2 Evaluative adverbs

2.1 Hyland & Hyland (2006: 4) sensibly conclude that …
2.2 Evaluative adverbs
Positive Negative
sensibly falsely
clearly
strongly
impressively
rightly
interestingly
Neutral evaluative adverb: briefly
Task 3 Reporting verbs + noun phrase

3.1 a The level of success of local innovation projects has been the focus of much
research in recent years. (1) Tagore (2006) discusses the difficulties of promoting
local innovation in Uganda whereas (2) Russell (2007) highlights important areas of
concern in Ethiopia. (3) Brown (2010) describes an impressive project in Sierra Leone
and (4) investigates the reasons for its success.
b (1) Littlejohn and Pegler (2007) advocate a blended learning approach. (2) They
recommend the use of face-to-face teaching and an online Virtual Learning
Environment (VLE) outside class to provide extension activities which promote
independent study. (3) Smith (2009) draws attention to the limited and inconclusive
nature of blended learning research, and (4) presents the case for further research
studies in this area.
c (1) Jayne and Jones (1997) dispute the necessity for the selective price subsidies
whereas (2) Mwanza (2000) robustly defends them. (3) He supported a controversial
government pricing policy of 1999, centred upon the setting up of pan-territorial and
pan-seasonal prices, and (4) suggests the use of price subsidies in other countries.
d (1) Leki (1990) refers to an obvious dichotomy in the role of the L2 writing teacher,
who attempts to play all three parts of audience, coach and evaluator. A tension
inevitably exists between these roles, and (2) she acknowledges the risks of the
teacher ‘owning’ the writing. (3) Ferris (2008: 99) also warns against this undoubted
danger; however, in avoiding taking control over learners’ writing, teachers risk
failing to provide enough clear direction or guidance (Reid, 1994). (4) Tardy (2006)
outlines a more positive and interesting perspective, that ‘ownership’ might not be
only ‘one-way’, but ‘cross-directional’, where, for example, teacher feedback might
equally be ‘owned’ by the learner, and subsequently transformed into a positive
learning experience. In reality a complex interplay of cultural and contextual factors
might influence the effectiveness of feedback, including the ideologies of colleagues,
departments, institutions, and society; (5) Hyland & Hyland (2006) urge teachers not
to ignore these crucial perspectives.
3.2 The writer thinks that the author(s): Reporting verb used
makes an idea more prominent highlights
makes sure that the reader notices something draws attention to
mentions something refers to
agreed with something supported
suggest that something is a good idea recommend
writes about a subject in depth discusses
puts forward an idea suggests
do not agree with an idea dispute
The writer thinks that the author(s): Reporting verb used
gives details of what something is like describes
uses arguments to defend something from criticism defends
persuade urge
discusses something which may have negative consequences in the

warns against
future
openly admits acknowledges
clearly explains why something is needed presents the case for
tries to discover the truth about something investigates
strongly support an idea advocate
Task 4 Evaluative adverbs
Evaluative adjectives
Positive Negative
important limited
impressive inconclusive
obvious controversial
undoubted
positive
interesting
crucial
Evaluative adverb
robustly
Task 5 Review
You should provide your own answers here. However, it is suggested that the citations
that use the most suitable reporting verb are:
a 3 b 1 c 1
English forfor
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Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 119

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EAS Grammar for Writing:

English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 1

The supermarket is / are closed.

Dogs is / are beautiful animals.

They walks / walk slowly.

She studies / study every day.

English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 2

Task 2 Describing permanent events using the present simple tense

Task 3 Present simple tense – form

S AV Main verb (MV)

Students do not learn

Do the students learn

English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 3

3.2 b The university library is open on Sundays.

3.3 S MV Adjective (Adj)

The students are

The students are not

Are the students

3.4 b Developing countries are depend on aid from charities. depend

c Dubai have has many cinemas. has

d The population of Tokyo are large. is

e Many people in Oman speaks English. speak

f Do students cook for themselves every day?* do

j Accidents are happen frequently on this road. happen

k Many animals are die if there is insufficient water. die

l Depression occur for several reasons. occurs

Task 4 Using plural nouns to describe situations in general

English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 4

Task 5 Presenting new information – using there is / there are

5.2 a There is a new airport in Jeddah.

English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 5

1.1 a Nearly everyone in the UK own owns a car.

1.2 a Most couples in China only have / has one child.

1.3 a Some students arrive / arrives late every day.

1.4 a A small part of few students cook together.

1.5 a Milk (no plural) is an uncountable noun.

English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 6

1.6 Noun C U Noun C U Noun C U

English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 7

Task 2 Using the present continuous

2.1 1 Paragraph a).

2.2 At the moment, Deansfield’s …

English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 8

The students are studying

The students are not studying

Are the students studying

2.6 a People are eating more junk food nowadays.

English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 9

c Scientists do not completely understand why people sleep. 

d The students on the Real Estate course are studying hard.

f Running sometimes damages people’s knees.

Task 2 The subject

2.1 a Which teachers have six weeks’ holiday in the summer?

English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 10

2.2 b The library resources are excellent.

Task 3 The object

English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 11

Task 4 The complement

English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 12

English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 13

5.3 a At the moment, society change is changing fast.

English for Academic Study EAS Grammar for Writing: Answers 14

Task 2 Using noun phrases to link old and new information