Pressure Measurement

5.1 Motion Balance 727

SELECTION AND APPLICATION 712 Force Balance 727
Introduction 712 Atmospheric Reference Sensors 728
Orientation Table 712 Motion Balance 728
Reference Pressures 715 Single Bellows 728
An Example 715 Dual Bellows 728
Selecting the Pressure Detector 716 Force Balance 728
Accessories 716 Bibliography 728
Intelligent Transmitters 717
Bibliography 717 5.4
BOURDON AND HELICAL PRESSURE SENSORS 731

5.2 The Bourdon Tube 732

ACCESSORIES (SEALS, SNUBBERS, CALIBRATORS, C-Bourdon Pressure Sensors 732
MANIFOLDS) 718 Spiral Bourdon Pressure Sensors 734
Helical Bourdon Pressure Sensors 734
Pulsation Dampeners and Siphons 719 Fused Quartz Helix Sensors 735
Freeze Protection 720 Bibliography 735
Chemical Seals 720
Limitations 721
5.5
Standard Seals 721
DIAPHRAGM OR CAPSULE-TYPE SENSORS 736
Process Connections 722
Self-Cleaning Seals 722 Introduction 737
Volumetric Seal Elements 723 Diaphragm Elements 737
Valve Manifolds 724 Materials and Configurations 737
Calibrations and Communicators 724 Sensor Configurations 738
Bibliography 725 Absolute Pressure Sensors 738
Motion Balance 738
Force Balance Design 739
5.3 Transmitter Ranges and Materials 739
BELLOWS-TYPE PRESSURE SENSORS 726 Atmospheric Reference 739
Introduction 726 Motion Balance Design 739
Basic Designs 727 Materials of Construction and Spans 740
Absolute Pressure Sensors 727 Slack Diaphragms 740

709
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
710 Pressure Measurement
Force Balance Designs 741
Features and Construction Choices
Pressure Repeaters 741
Bibliography 742
5.6
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS
Introduction 744
Measurement Error 744
Example 745
Smart Transmitters Reduce Error 745
D/P Instrument Designs 745
Filter Status Indicators 745
D/P Switches 745
D/P Indicators 745
Temperature Compensation and Over-Range
Protection 746
Ranges and Materials 746
Liquid Manometers 747
D/P Transmitters 747
Dry, Force Balance Design 747
Pneumatic Version 747
Suppression and Elevation 748
Flat and Extended Diaphragms 748
Ranges and Pressure/Temperature
Ratings 748
Wafer Elements 748
Torque Tube Sensors 749
Low-Differential Transmitters 750
Membrane Type Design 750
Bibliography 750
5.7
ELECTRONIC PRESSURE SENSORS 751
Introduction 752
Electrical Safety 752
Strain Gauge Transducers 753
Historical Development 753
The Bonded Strain Gauge 754
Temperature Compensation 754
Detecting the Change in Resistance 754
Transducer Designs 755
Bonded Designs 755
Force Balance 755
Capacitance Transducers 756
Potentiometric Transducers 757
Resonant Wire Transducers 757
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors 757
Magnetic Transducers 758
Inductive Elements 758
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer 758
Inductive Transmitters 758
Reluctive Elements 759
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
Optical Transducers 760
741 Smart Transmitters 760
References 761
Bibliography 761
5.8
743 HIGH-PRESSURE SENSORS 762
Introduction 763
Mechanical High Pressure Sensors 763
Dead-Weight Piston Gauges 763
Button-Type Pressure Repeater 764
Helical Bourdon 764
Bulk Modulus Cells 764
Pressure-Sensitive Wires 765
Change-of-State Detection 765
Dynamic Sensors 765
Reference 765
Bibliography 765
5.9
MANOMETERS 766
Introduction 767
Liquid-Sealed Designs 767
Inverted Bells 767
Cylindrical and Ledoux Bells 767
Double Bell Unit 768
Ring Balance Manometers 768
McLeod Vacuum Gauges 768
90 ° Rotation Type 768
Piston-Type McLeod Gauge 769
Micromanometer With Precision Needle 770
Visual Manometers 770
Indicator Fluids 770
Liquid Barometers 770
Glass Tube Manometers 770
Well-Type Design 771
Vacuum Measurement 771
Multitube and Interface Manometers 771
Inclined Tube Designs 772
Micromanometers 772
Float Manometers 772
Servomanometers 773
Conclusions 773
Bibliography 773
5.10
MULTIPLE PRESSURE SCANNERS 774
Introduction 774
Rotary Pressure Scanners and Distributors 775
Scanning Frequency 775
Differential Pressure Scanning 775
Digital Interface Units 776

Rotary Air Signal Distributors 776
Air Signal Distributor Manifolds 776
Ramping Pressure Scanners 777
Electronic Pressure Scanners 777
Low Level Multiplexer 777
High Level Multiplexer 778
Bibliography 778
5.11
PRESSURE GAUGES 779
Introduction 780
The Gauge Components 780
The Gauge Housing 780
Gasket and Lens 780
Sensing Element 781
Safety Features 781
Dials and Pointers 781
Maximum Pointer 782
Digital Displays 782
Diaphragm-Type Vacuum Gauges 782
Special Features 782
Illumination 782
Temperature Compensation 782
Duplex and Differential Gauges 782
Failure Causes and Reliability 783
Conclusions 783
Reference 783
Bibliography 783
5.12
PRESSURE REPEATERS 785
Booster Relays 785
Flanged Repeaters 785
Force Balance Pressure Repeaters 786
Vacuum Repeaters 787
Button-Diaphragm Repeaters 787
Pressure Repeater Applications 788
Repeating a Vacuum 788
Level Measurement Applications 788
Bibliography 789
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
Contents of Chapter 5 711
5.13
PRESSURE AND DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
SWITCHES 790
Pressure Switch Features 790
Features and Configurations 790
Terminology 791
Selection 791
Differentials 791
Designs for Hazardous Area Applications 792
Differential Pressure Switches 792
Bibliography 793
5.14
VACUUM SENSORS 795
Introduction 796
Vacuum Gauge Classifications 796
Mechanical Vacuum Gauges 797
Manometers 797
Capacitance Manometers 798
Quartz Helix Vacuum Gauge 798
Viscous Friction of Spinning Ball 799
Molecular Momentum Vacuum Gauges 799
Mechanical Linkage Vacuum Gauge 799
Thermal Vacuum Gauges 799
Pirani Vacuum Gauge 800
Thermocouple Vacuum Gauge 800
Thermopile Vacuum Gauge 801
Convectron Vacuum Gauge 801
Ionization Vacuum Gauges 802
Hot Cathode Ionization Gauges 802
Cold Cathode Ionization Gauges 803
Vacuum Gauge Calibration 804
McLeod Vacuum Gauges 804
Calibration Reference Tubes 804
Vacuum Controllers 804
Aneroid Manostats 805
Cartesian Diver Regulators 805
Analog Electronic Controllers 805
Mass Flow Controllers 805
References 806
Bibliography 806
5.1 Selection and Application
B. G. LIPTÁK (1969) J. T. HALL (1982) J. A. NAY (1995, 2003)

Partial List of Suppliers: ABB Instrumentation (www.abb.com/us/instrumentation)

Barton Instruments (www.barton-instruments.com)
Brooks Instrument (www.brooksinstrument.com)
Dresser Instrument (www.dresserinstruments.com)
Endress + Hauser Inc. (www.us.endress.com)
Fisher controls (www.fisher.com)
Foxboro/Invensys (www.foxboro.com)
Honeywell (www.iac.honeywell.com)
Marsh Bellofram (marshbellofram.com)
Moore Industries (www.miinet.com)
Omega Engineering (www.omega.com)
Rosemount/Emerson (www.rosemount.com)
Siemens (www.sea.siemens.com)
United Electric (www.ueonline.com)
Youkogawa Corp. of America (www.yca.com)

Pressure detection devices can be classified on the basis of
the pressure ranges they can measure, on the basis of the
design principle involved in their operation, or on the basis
of their application. In this chapter, the various categories are
not separated in any strict manner. Industrial instruments are
discussed in detail, with emphasis on the most commonly used
devices; laboratory instruments are covered in less detail.
INTRODUCTION
Each section starts with a brief summary of basic features
applicable to the group of instruments discussed in that sec-
tion. This information allows readers to quickly determine
whether that category of instrumentation is suitable for their
application.
This chapter covers a wide range of pressure sensors,
which can measure pressures from ultrahigh vacuums, such
−13
as 10 mmHg, to ultrahigh gauge pressures approaching
400,000 PSIG (2,800 MPa).
The range of the costs and inaccuracies of these instru-
ments are equally broad. A simple, 1.5 in. diameter, 5% inac-
curate gauge might cost only $10, while a fused-quartz helix
sensor with an error of 0.01% and a digital readout could cost
$6000. The cost of pressure transmitters range from a few
hundred dollars or less for the disposable models that have
limited features, to $2000 for smart models with built-in
digital PID control algorithms and/or digital networking
capabilities.
Silicon microchip technology continues steadily to reduce
the cost of advanced features, reducing the size and weight
of hardware and improving their availability and accuracy,
while extending the long-term stability their calibration.
Many of the sensors are available with digital communication
capability, which can serve calibration, adjustment, and
reporting of process variables, allowing for complete plant-
wide integration.
With so many types of sensors, it might seem that making
the proper selection for a particular installation would be
difficult and time consuming. Actually, this is not the case.
A multitude of devices are covered here for the purpose of
completeness, but for a typical industrial installation, the
selection is fairly simple, and often repetitive.
Orientation Table
The reader should find Table 5.1a, the Orientation Table for
Pressure Detectors, of value in narrowing the choices. For each
category of sensors, this table indicates the overall pressure
range that the category is capable of detecting. The table also
notes whether the unit is available for industrial on-line instal-
lation or for laboratory use only. Although any transmitting
instrument can easily be provided with an inexpensive analog
or digital local indicator, the table differentiates those sensor
categories, which primarily serve as local gauges or indicators.
Also distinguished are the sensor categories, which are com-
monly available in microprocessor-based smart configurations.
The table also indicates the type of pressure reference used.
When the environmental pressure surrounding the instrument

712
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
 TABLE 5.1a
Orientation Table for Pressure Detectors
Features Applicable Pressure Ranges

mmHg absolute “H2O PSIG

Local Readout (Gauge)

Remote Readout Trans.

Smart Units Available

(1 mmHg = 133 Pa) (1"H2O = 250 Pa) (1 PSIG = 6.9 kPa)

Laboratory or Pilot
Inline Device

Plant Device 10 -14 10 -10 10 -6 10 -3 10 -1 1 50 200 400 600 4 7 11 102 103 104 105 106
Type of Design −300 -200 -100 -10 -5 -1 ±0.1 +1 +5 +10 +100 +200 +300

Abs. Press. Motion Balance

Bellows

Abs. Press. Force Balance

Atm. Press. Ref. Motion Bal.
Atm. Press. Ref. Force Bal.
Aneroid Manostats

C-Bourdon
Bourdon

Spiral Bourdon
Helical Bourdon
Quartz Helix

Abs. Press. Motion Balance

Diaphragm

Abs. Press. Force Balance

Atm. Press. Ref. Motion Bal.
Atm. Press. Ref. Force Bal.

Strain Gauge
Capacitive Sensors
Electronic

Potentiometric
Resonant Wire
Piezoelectric
Magnetic
Optical
High-Press.
Sensors

Dead Weight Piston Gauge

5.1 Selection and Application

Bulk Modulus Cell
Manganin Cell

Inverted Bell
Manometers

Ring Balance
Float Manometer
Barometers
Visual Manometers
Micromanometers
Repeaters.

D/P Cell
Pressure

Std. Diaphragm
Button Diaphragm
Ioniza-

Hot Cathode
tion

Cold Cathode

713
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
 714
TABLE 5.1a Continued
Orientation Table for Pressure Detectors

Pressure Measurement
Features Applicable Pressure Ranges

mmHg absolute “H2O PSIG

Local Readout (Gauge)

Remote Readout Trans.

Smart Units Available

(1 mmHg = 133 Pa) (1“H2O = 250 Pa) (1 PSIG = 6.9 kPa)

Laboratory or Pilot
Inline Device

Plant Device
10 -14 10 -10 10 -6 10 -3 10 -1 1 50 200 400 600 4 7 11 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
Type of Design -300 -200 -100 -10 -5 -1 ±0.1 +1 +5 +10 +100 +200 +300

Thermocouple
Thermal

Thermopile
Resistance Wire-Pirani
Convectron

Quartz Helix
Mechanical

McLeod
Molecular Momentum
Capacitance
Spinning Ball

- Indicates that the device uses full-vacuum reference in its operation.

- Indicates that the device uses atmospheric pressure reference.
- Indicates that the operating priciple used does not involve the use of reference pressure.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 5.1 Selection and Application 715

Reference Pressures
TABLE 5.1b
Pressure Conversion Reliable reference pressures are important, because they can
To Convert to Pascals (Pa) From Multiply by be a source of error just as much as an error on the measure-
atmosphere (standard) 1.01 × 10
5 ment side can. In the case of absolute pressure sensors, the
atmosphere (technical = 1 kgf/cm )
2
9.81 × 10
4 reference chamber cannot be fully evacuated to absolute zero
5 pressure, but full vacuum is only approached within a few
bar 1.00 × 10
3
thousands of a millimeter of mercury (torr). This means that
centimeter of mercury (0°C) 1.33 × 10 a nonzero value is being treated as zero, which, when mea-
centimeter of water (4°C) 98 suring higher vacuums, can cause significant errors. The other
2
dyne/cm 0.1 potential error source is the possibility of in-leakage of atmo-
foot of water (39.2°F) 2.98 × 10
3
spheric air into the vacuum reference chamber of absolute
gram-force/cm
2
98 pressure detector.
inch of mercury (32°F) 3.39 × 10
3 In case of positive pressure detectors, if the barometric
3 pressure is the reference, atmospheric pressure variations
inch of mercury (60°F) 3.37 × 10
cause a problem. As the atmospheric pressure can vary, by
inch of water (39.2°F) 249 about 1 in. of mercury (13.6 in. or 0.345 m of water), the
inch of water (60°F) 248 resulting error can be significant if the process pressure is
2 4
kgf/cm 9.81 × 10 near atmospheric. In addition, the output signal of the sensor
kgf/m
2
9.81 can change even when the process pressure is constant. The
kgf/mm
2
9.81 × 10
6 resulting error might not be significant when detecting high
2 6 gauge pressures, but it can be a problem with compound
kip/in (ksi) 6.89 × 10
detectors.
millibar 100
A compound pressure sensor is one that operates at near
millimeter of mercury (0°C) 133 atmospheric pressures and can detect the pressures on both
2
lbf/ft 47.8 above and below atmospheric. In controlling the pressure in
2 3
lbf/in (psi) 6.89 × 10 sealed rooms (clean rooms, biohazard containment chambers,
psi 6.89 × 10
3 ordinary tight buildings, etc.) where the ventilation systems
torr (mmHg, 0°C) 133 may purposely hold the pressure above or below atmospheric
pressure, this variable reference can be a source of problems.
3
Example: 1 PSI = 6.89 × 10 Pa/PSI = 6890 Pa In selecting pressure measurement devices for such applica-
= 27.7 in. water tions, the design engineer must not ignore this and must either
= 2.31 ft. water determine that the effect of barometric pressure variation can
= 2.04 in. Hg
2
be safely neglected, or must measure and correct for this
= 0.07 kgf/cm
variation in the measurement and control systems.

is used as reference (for the measurement of gauge pressures), An Example

it is noted by A for atmospheric. When the reference is an
evacuated chamber with almost perfect vacuum sealed inside,
which is used for the measurement of absolute pressures, this
type of reference is noted by V . There is no reference for
differential pressure devices because they just compare one
pressure against another. A few measurement technologies,
such as the thermal and ionization type vacuum gauges, do
not depend on the use of reference pressures or vacuums
within the instrument itself.
Table 5.1b gives a variety of pressure conversion multi-
pliers.
In addition to the general orientation provided by Table 5.1a,
a summary of the features of some of the pressure instruments
that are commonly used in the manufacturing, petrochemical,
and power industries is given in Table 5.1c. Note that in actual
practice the metric ranges are also rounded.
Take the example of a chemical reactor that has to be evac-
uated to 10 mmHg before being purged at 1 in. (25.4 mm)
H2O positive pressure. After purging, when the reaction
starts, this reactor operates at a higher positive pressure.
Due to the problem with the references, there is no single
pressure transmitter that can detect all these pressures. If a
vacuum reference is used, the purge pressure of 1 in. H2O
over atmospheric cannot be reliably detected. If an atmo-
spheric reference is used, the 10 mmHg vacuum cannot be
accurately detected, because it could be subject to a 25 mmHg
error. In the past, the logical solution was to use multiple
sensors. Today, we can also use intelligent transmitters,
which are provided with multiple references and are capable
of switching them on the basis of the batch sequence of the
reactor.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

716 Pressure Measurement

TABLE 5.1c
Pressure Detector Errors, Ranges, and Costs
Type Range Inaccuracy Approx. Cost
General-purpose Bourdon-tube 15–10,000 PSIG 2% $100
indicator (1–690 bars)
High-accuracy test gauge Low vacuum to 3000 PSIG 0.1% to 0.01% $300–$6,000
(Low vacuum to 207 bars)
Bourdon/spiral case-mounted Low vacuum to 50,000 PSIG 0.50% $1,200
indicator/recorder (Low vacuum to 3450 bars)
Spring-and-bellow case-mounted Low vacuum to 50 PSIG 0.50% $1,600
recorder (Low vacuum to 3.5 bars)
Nested capsular case-mounted 10–90 PSIG, 0.50% $1,600
recorder (0.7–6.2 bars)
Low-pressure bell case-mounted −0.1 to 0.1 in. H2O 2% $2,200
indicator (−3 to 3 mm H2O)
Beam-mounted strain gauge 0–1000 PSIG 0.25% $800
(sensor only) 4–20-mA DC output (0–69 bars)
Piezoresistive transducer 0–5000 PSIG 0.50% $500
4–20-mA DC output (0–365 bars)
“Smart” piezoresistive transmitter 0–6000 PSIG 0.10% $1,200–$2,000
4–20-mA DC output (0–414 bars)
“Smart” field communicator for remote — $1000–$3,000
calibration and configuring of “smart”
transmitter
Capacitive sensor/transmitter 1 in. H2O–6000 PSIG 0.2% 1000
(25 mm H2O–414 bars)

SELECTING THE PRESSURE DETECTOR
When local pressure indication is required and the process
pressure range is between 0 to 10 in. H2O (2.6 kPa) and 0 to
100,000 PSIG (690 MPa), the conventional pressure sensors,
which are described in Sections 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, and 5.11 can
be considered. The local pressure gauges, described in Section
5.11, can have ranges from 10 in. H2O (2.6 kPa) up to 100,000
PSIG (690 MPa).
For the measurement of near-atmospheric pressures,
the bellows diaphragm sensors and manometers (Sections
5.3, 5.4 and 5.9) are the most likely choices. Similarly, for
local vacuum measurement down to 1 mmHg (0.13 kPa),
the diaphragm, the bellows-type, and the vacuum manom-
eters (Sections 5.3, 5.5, and 5.9) will give satisfactory
−12
performance. Vacuum sensors, ranging from 10 to 760
mmHg, are discussed in Section 5.14. See Figure 5.14a for
a summary of all the available vacuum sensors and their
ranges.
Where remote transmission is required, the force balance
or motion balance transmitters (Sections 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, and
5.7) will handle most applications. They can detect vacuums
down to 1 mmHg (0.13 kPa) absolute and gauge pressures
up to 100,000 PSIG (690 MPa). When small, near-atmospheric
or high pressures up to 200,000 PSIG (1,400 MPa) are to be
transmitted, the differential pressure or the electronic sensors
described in Sections 5.6 and 5.7 should be considered. The
high-pressure sensors, described in Section 5.8, are the rec-
ommended choices for pressures from 20,000 PSIG (140
MPa) up to 400,000 PSIG (2,800 MPa).
Multiple pressure sensors, including scanners and
multiplexers, are discussed in Section 5.10. Pressure rep-
eaters capable of repeating pressures from full vacuum to
10,000 PSIG (69 MPa) are described in Section 5.12.
Pressure and differential pressure switches for applications
at up to 20,000 PSIG (138 MPa) pressures can be found
in Section 5.13.
Accessories
The pressure detectors are often provided with various acces-
sory items (discussed in Section 5.2), which serve to protect
them from process conditions and environmental effects, are
provided to reduce maintenance. The most common causes of
failure or maintenance problems include plugging, vibration,
freezing, corrosion, excessive temperatures, and hard-to-
handle process materials. The various protection devices dis-
cussed in Section 5.2 can assist in making the installation

© 2003 by Béla Lipták


less sensitive to such effects and can reduce the required tasks
of periodic servicing, testing, calibration, and maintenance.
Intelligent Transmitters
Microprocessor based pressure and differential pressure
transmitters are widely available today. Such a transmitter
includes an input circuit referred to as an analog-to-digital
(A/D) converter that converts the sensor input into a digital
signal before it is sent to the microprocessor. The micro-
processor performs the manipulations of ranging, lineariza-
tion, error checking, and conversion and either transmits
the reading digitally or sends the resulting value to the
output digital-to-analog converter (D/A), which converts the
signal back to an analog signal of 4–20 mA DC, 0–1 V DC,
or 0–10 V DC.
Just as microprocessors have evolved in sophistication,
so have A/D and D/A converters, increasing their resolution
from 8-bit up to the 18-bit, which has been used in the better
transmitters since the beginning of 2000. These advanced
transmitters also check their own calibration on every mea-
surement cycle and incorporate self-diagnostics, while being
configurable by using simple personal computer (PC) software.
The reconfiguration process is not only quick and convenient,
but also tends to lower inventories by making the transmitters
interchangeable.
The benefits of remote setup, configuration, and access
to diagnostics has resulted in a dramatic increase in the use
of proprietary protocols that are supported by many of the
larger manufacturers. A wide variety of intelligent pressure
transmitters are available on the market today. Some common
features of the leading models include not only digital and
analog outputs, but also multiple ranges, remote zero and
span settings, configuration push buttons, PC software and
Hand Held Configurators. The available bus and network
protocols include Highway Addressable Remote Transducer
(HART), Foundation Fieldbus, Profibus, Ethernet, or just
4–20 mA. Some field locations will benefit from local indi-
cation and this feature is optional with most manufacturers.
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
5.1 Selection and Application 717
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