UNIT-5

Electromagnetism and Magnetic Properties of Materials

Electromagnetism is the Physics of electricity and magnetism. An interaction between electricity
and magnetism, as when an electric current or a changing electric field generates a magnetic
field, or when a changing magnetic field generates an electric field.
Laws of Electrostatics:
Charles coulomb formulated laws of electrostatics or Coulombs laws:
First law: Like charges of electricity repel each other, whereas unlike charges attract each other.
Second law: According to this law, the force exerted between two point charges is
i) Directly proportional to the product of their strengths (𝑞1 𝑞2 )
1
ii) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. 𝑟2
1
iii) Inversely proportional to the absolute permittivity of the surrounding medium𝜖 .
0

If q1 and q2 are the two charges separated by a distance r then the force acting between the two
charges is
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹= 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2

𝜖0 is the permittivity of the medium 8.85 x 10-12 farad per meter (F/m).
1
Thus 𝑘 = = 9 × 109 Nm2/C2
4𝜋𝜖0

Electric current and Continuity Equation:

The flow of electric charge is called electric current. The net electric charge of any closed system
is always conserved; whatever happens, this net charge is not going to change. The electric charge
cannot suddenly jump from one point A to another point B; instead, it must flow as electric current
all the way from A to B.
Electric field accelerates the charge carriers and causes a flow of electric current through the solid.
Let A be the area of a solid through which charge Q passes then the current flowing across the
solid is
 𝑸 𝒏𝑨𝑳𝒆
𝑰= =
𝒕 𝒕
N is the number of carriers carrying the charge e in time t; A is the area of the solid of length L.
𝐿
represents the velocity and gives the average drift velocity of the electrons in the solid.
𝑡
𝒏𝑨𝑳𝒆
Hence 𝑰 = = 𝒏𝒆𝑨𝒗𝒅
𝒕
𝑰 𝒆𝑬𝝉 𝒏𝝉𝒆𝟐
The current density is 𝑱 = 𝑨 = 𝒏𝒆𝒗𝒅 = 𝒏𝒆 ( 𝒎 ) = 𝑬
𝒎
𝑰𝑳
𝝈= 𝑽𝑨
𝑽
But 𝑳 = 𝑬
𝑱
Thus 𝝈 = 𝑬

Point form of ohms law is 𝑱 = 𝝈𝑬

Continuity Equation:
Continuity equation is based on the principle of conservation of charge. Electric charge can neither
be created nor destroyed; the total charge in an isolated system remains constant. According to
Continuity equation the time rate of change of charge within a closed volume equals the net rate
of flow of charge into (out of) the volume.
Consider small elemental surface dS from surface S enclosing a volume V. Let J be the current
density at a point on the surface element. Then the current leaving the volume V bounded by the
surface dS is given by

𝐼 = ∮ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑠

∮ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑠 represents the rate at which charge is leaving the enclosed volume V. By Gauss divergence
theorem,

𝐼 = ∮ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑠 = ∭ ∇. 𝐽 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
𝑑𝑞 𝑑 𝜕𝜌
But the current 𝐼 = − 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑑𝑡 ∭𝑣 𝜌𝑑𝑉 = − ∭𝑣 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡

𝜌 is the charge density.

𝜕𝜌
Hence ∭𝑉 ∇. 𝐽 𝑑𝑉 = − ∭𝑣 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌
Thus ∫𝑉 ∇. 𝐽 𝑑𝑉 + ∫𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝜕𝑡
 𝜕𝜌
i.e. ∫𝑉 (∇. 𝐽 + ) 𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝜕𝑡

Since volume is arbitrary

𝜕𝜌
∇. 𝐽 + =0
𝜕𝑡
This equation is called as equation of continuity. It states that charge cannot flow away from a
given volume without diminishing the amount of charge existing within the volume.
Ampere's Law The line integral of magnetic field in a closed loop is 𝜇0 times the current flowing
through the loop.

∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼

specifically, says that the magnetic field created by an electric current is proportional to the size
of electric current with a constant of proportionality equal to the permeability of free space.

∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼

Consider an infinitely long wire carrying current I. The current carrying conductor creates a
magnetic field B around it. Let r be the radius of the circular path around the conductor in which
the magnetic field exists. 𝜇0 is the permeability of the medium. The current enclosed in the circular
path is the surface integral of current density.

𝐼 = ∯ 𝑱. 𝑑𝑠

Therefore the total current through the surface is ∮ 𝑯. 𝑑𝑙 = ∯ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑠

So ∮ 𝑩. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 ∯ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜇0 𝐼
Maxwells Equations
The basic equations of electromagnetism which are collection of Gauss’s law for electricity,
Gauss’s law for magnetism, Faradays law of electromagnetic induction and amperes law for
currents in conductors are called Maxwells equations. These equations are essential to understand
Electromagnetic waves, Optics, Radio and TV transmission, Micro-ovens etc. The four Maxwells
equations for free space are;
 Law Differential Form Integral form
Gauss law for electricity 𝜌
∇. E = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑞/є0
𝜖0
Gauss law for Magnetism ∇. B = 0
∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0

Faradays law of electro 𝜕𝑩 ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = −𝜕Ф𝐵 /∂t

∇×𝐸 = −
magnetic Induction 𝜕𝑡

Amperes law ∇ × B = 𝜇0 𝐼
∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = µ0 I

Amperes law modified by ∇×B 𝜕∅

∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = µ0 (𝐼 + 𝜖0 )=
Maxwell 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑡
= 𝜇0 (𝐽 + 𝜖0 )
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐷
= 𝜇0 (𝐽 + )
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐷
Also ∇ × H = 𝜇0 (𝐽 + )
𝜕𝑡

Maxwell Equations in Differential form:

Maxwells equations can be derived in integral form as below:

Consider a surface S enclosing volume V in dielectric medium. Let q be the charge, E the
electric field and B the magnetic field in the surface. In dielectric medium total charge enclosed
is the sum of free charge and polarization charge.

Maxwells Equation:
( 1 ) Div E=ρ/єo
The total electric flux passing normally through a closed surface is equal to 1/є0 times total
charge enclosed within surfaces where є0 is 8.86×10−12 𝑐𝑚2/𝑁𝑚2
Thus,
𝒒 𝒒
∬𝒔 𝑬. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝝐𝟎
∭𝒗 𝝐𝟎
𝒅𝒗
If ρ is volume charge density, then 𝒒 = ∫𝒗 𝝆𝒅𝒗

𝒒 𝟏
∫ 𝑬. 𝒅𝒔 = = ∮ 𝝆𝒅𝒗
𝒔 𝝐𝟎 𝝐 𝟎 𝒗

By Gauss divergence theorem,

∫ 𝑬. 𝒅𝒔 = ∮ 𝒅𝒊𝒗 𝑬 𝒅𝒗
𝒔 𝒗
𝟏
Hence ∮𝒗 𝒅𝒊𝒗 𝑬 𝒅𝒗 = 𝝐 ∮𝒗 𝝆𝒅𝒗
𝟎
𝝆
Therefore, 𝒅𝒊𝒗 𝑬 = 𝝐𝟎

But in vaccum,
є𝟎 Ē⁼𝑫
Therefore 𝛁. 𝑫 = 𝝆 or 𝛁. 𝑬 =ρ/є𝟎

2) Number of magnetic lines if force entering surface is equal to number of magnetic lines
of force leaving that surface. Hence magnetic flux in that field is zero.

∫ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝟎
𝒔

From Gauss divergence,

∫ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = ∫ 𝛁. 𝑩𝒅𝒗
𝒔 𝒗

∫ 𝛁. 𝑩𝒅𝒗 = 𝟎
𝒗

𝛁.B=0

3). 𝛁×E=-∂B/∂t
According to Faradays law whenever there is change in magnetic flux, e.m.f. induced
which is proportional to negative rate of change of flux
𝝏∅ 𝝏
i.e. 𝒆 = − 𝝏𝒕 = − 𝝏𝒕 ∬𝒔 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔

But if electric field induced due to change in magnetic flux is Ē then emf induced is equal to
line integral of electric field. So,
 e=∮ Ē. 𝒅𝒍 = −𝝏/𝒅𝒕 ∫𝒔 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔
from stokes theorem
𝝏𝑩
∫ (𝛁 × 𝑬). 𝒅𝒔 = − ∫ . 𝒅𝒔
𝒔 𝒔 𝝏𝒕

∮(𝛁 × 𝑬 + 𝝏𝑩/𝝏𝒕)𝒅𝒔 = 𝟎

𝝏𝑩
𝛁×𝑬+ =𝟎
𝝏𝒕
𝒊. 𝒆. 𝛁 ×= −𝝏𝑩/𝝏𝒕
4). 𝛁×B=µ0(J+𝑱𝒅 )
𝑱𝒅 =∂Đ/∂t=є𝟎 ∂Ē/∂t
If a time varying current is flowing in vaccum or dielectric medium, then according to Maxwell
magnetic field is produced due to time varying current along with magnetic field produced by
conduction current.
Now,
∮ 𝑩. 𝑫𝒍 = µ𝟎 (I+є𝟎 ∂/∂t Ф𝑬)

But I=∫𝒔 𝑱. 𝑫𝒔 and Ф𝑬 =∫𝒔 𝑬. 𝒅𝒔

Thus ∮ 𝑩. 𝑫𝒍 = µ𝟎 ∫𝒔 [𝑱 + є𝒐 ∂E/∂t].ds
By stokes theorem

∫ (𝛁 × 𝑩). 𝒅𝒔 = ∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍
𝒔

Hence

∫𝒔 (𝛁 × 𝑩). 𝒅𝒍 = µ𝒐 ∫𝒔 [𝑱 + є𝒐 ∂E/∂t].ds
𝛁 × 𝑩 = µ𝒐 [J+є𝒐 ∂E/∂t]
=µ𝒐 [𝑱 + 𝑱𝒅 ]
Maxwells Equations in Integral Form:

1). If ρ is the charge density enclosed in a small volume dv, then the charge is

q=∫𝒗 𝝆. 𝒅𝒗 …………..equ 1
From Maxwells differential equation 1
 𝛁. 𝑬 = 𝝆/є𝒐
𝛁. є𝒐 E=ρ ……………….equ 2
From 1 and 2

∫𝒗 𝝆. 𝒅𝒗 = ∫𝒗 (𝛁. є𝒐𝑬 )dv

=∫𝒗 (𝛁. 𝑫)dv ………………………….equ 3

By gauss divergence theorem

∫𝒔 𝑫. 𝒅𝒔 = ∫𝒗 𝝆. 𝒅𝒗 …………………..equ 4
From 3 and 4

∫ 𝑫. 𝒅𝒔 = ∫ (𝛁. 𝑫)𝒅𝒗 = ∫ 𝝆. 𝒅𝒗 = 𝒒
𝒔 𝒗 𝒗

∫𝒔 𝑫. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝒒 but D=є𝟎 so,,

∫ 𝑬. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝒒/є𝒐

2). From second differential equation ∇. 𝐵 = 0

∫𝒗 (𝛁.B)dv=0

By gauss divergence ∫𝒔 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = ∫𝒗 (𝛁. 𝑩)𝒅𝒗 = 𝟎

∫ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝟎
𝒔

3). From third Maxwell’s equation 𝛁 × 𝑬 = −𝝏𝑩/𝝏𝒕

𝝏𝑩
∫(𝛁 × 𝑬)𝒅𝒍 = − ∫ . 𝒅𝒔
𝝏𝒕
By stokes theorem

∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 = ∫(𝛁 × 𝑬). 𝒅𝒔

So
𝝏𝑩
∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 = − ∫ . 𝒅𝒔
𝝏𝒕
 =-∂/∂t∫𝒔 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = −𝒅Ф/𝒅𝒕
Ф is the magnetic flux from the surface S
4). From Maxwell’s fourth equation
𝛁 × 𝑩 = µ𝟎 𝑱 + µ𝒐 єo ∂E/∂t
𝛁 × 𝑩/µ𝒐 =J+є𝒐 ∂E/∂t
But µ𝒐=𝑩/𝑯
Hence 𝛁 × 𝑯 = 𝑱 + є𝒐 ∂E/∂t

∫𝒔 (𝛁 × 𝑯)𝒅𝒔 = ∫𝒔 (𝑱 + є𝒐 ∂E/∂t).dl
𝝏𝑫
=∫𝒔 (𝑱 + ) . 𝒅𝒍
𝝏𝒕

Electric dipole

A system consisting two equal and opposite charges separated by a distance is called electric dipole

Dipole moment

Product of charge and distance between charges is called dipole moment. µ = 𝑞𝑑, q is the charge

and d is the separation between charges. Unit is Coulomb-meter.

Permittivity

Permittivity of a material indicates the easily polarizable nature of the material. Permittivity of
𝐹
vacuum is 𝜖0 = 8.854 𝑥 10-12 𝑚

Dielectric constant

Dielectric constant or relativity permittivity of a medium is defined as ratio between the

permittivity of the medium to permittivity of free space.

𝜖
𝜖𝑟 = . It has no units.
𝜖0

ϵ is the permittivity of the medium and ϵ0 is the permittivity of free space.

Polarizability
The average dipole moment of a system is proportional to electric field E applied

i.e. µ = αE where α is polarizability. Hence it can be defined as the ratio of

average dipole moment to electric field applied (E).

µ
i.e. 𝛼 = Unit is Farad m2
𝐸

Polarization vector

It is defined as the average dipole moment present per unit volume of dielectric. If N is the number

of atoms present per unit volume and µ the average dipole moment then

𝑃 = µ𝑁 unit coulomb/m2

Electric susceptibility

The polarization vector is proportional to the total electric flux density E and is in same direction

of E. So polarization vector is

𝑃 ∝ 𝐸𝑜𝑟𝑃 = 𝜒𝐸
𝑃
𝜒= 𝐸

So susceptibility is defined as the ratio of polarization vector to electric field applied. It has no

units.

Displacement vector (or) electric displacement (or) Electric flux density

It is the number of lines of forces received by unit area. It is given as

𝐷 = 𝜖𝐸 = 𝜖0 𝐸 + 𝑃

Electronic polarization

The process of inducing electric dipoles by the influence of electric field is called electric

polarization.
Consider a crystal or glass containing positive and negative ions in an electric field then the

positive charges are displaced in the direction of electric filed and negative charges in the opposite

direction of the field. Thus a dipole is produced.

Different types of Polarization

 Electronic polarization

 Ionic polarization

 Orientation polarization or Dipolar polarization

Local field or internal field in solids

The total electric field present at a point or on an atom is known as internal field or local field.

When a dielectric is exposed to electric field then polarization takes place. Due to this polarization

different sets of dipoles are formed in the dielectric material. Total electric field present at a point

or on an atom in the dielectric, the electric fields produced by above said different dipoles should

be taken into consideration.

The dipole at the point A is imagined to be surrounded by a spherical cavity of radius r. If the

dielectric is placed between the parallel plates of a capacitor, the electric field experienced by a

molecule of the dielectric, if assumed to be placed at the center of cavity is given by

 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + 𝐸4

E1 is the field intensity at the point A due to charge density on the plates of the capacitor (i.e.

without dielectric)

E2 is the field at point A due to polarized charges on the plane surfaces of the dielectric.

E3 is the field at point A due to all the dipoles inside the spherical cavity.

E4 is the field at a point a due to the polarized charge on the surface of spherical cavity.

Displacement vector 𝐷 = 𝐸1 𝜖0 = 𝐸𝜖0 + 𝑃

𝐷 𝑃
𝐸1 = = 𝐸+
𝜖0 𝜖0

E2 charge density due to induced on the sides of the dielectric

−𝑃
𝐸2 = 𝜖0

E3 is the field intensity due to the dipoles present in the cavity. The imagined sphere is highly

symmetric then E3 becomes zero as dipoles are distributed uniformly in all the directions in the

imagined sphere.

E4 is the field intensity due to polarized charges on the surface of the spherical cavity was

calculated by

Calculation of E4

If dA is the area of area element on the surface of the sphere of radius r making angles between 𝜽

and θ+d𝜽 with reference to the direction of the applied field.

Area of the element dA = 2π (PQ) (QR)
𝑃𝑄
From triangle APQ, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟𝑃𝑄 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟

𝑄𝑅
And from sector AQR 𝑑𝜃 = so 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝑟

So 𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃

The charge dq on the surface dA is equal to the normal component of polarization multiplied by

surface area, i.e. dq = P cosθ dA

𝑑𝑞 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃) = 𝑃(2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃)

Here field due to charge dq is denoted by dEs at A, in the direction θ=0,

𝑑𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝐸𝑠 = = 𝑃 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2 2𝜖0

On integration
𝜋 𝑃 𝜋
∫0 𝑑𝐸𝑠 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
2𝜖0 0

For integration let 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 for θ =π, x = -1, for θ = 0, x = 1

−𝑃 1 2
Thus 𝐸𝑠 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝜖0 −1

𝑃 𝑥3 𝑃
= 2𝜖 [ 3 ] =
0 3𝜖0

Substituting E4 in equation of electric field

𝑃
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸 +
3𝜖0

Clausius Mossotti relation

It is a relation between the dielectric constant and polarizability of atoms. The average dipole

moment of a single atom is proportional to local electric field i.e. dipole moment µ ∝ 𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙

i.e. µ = 𝛼𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑃
But 𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸 + 3𝜖0
 Polarization 𝑃 = µ𝑁 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙

𝑃
= 𝑁𝛼𝑒 (𝐸 + )
3𝜖0

𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸
So 𝑃 {1 − } = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑜𝑟𝑃 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 (1)
3𝜖0 {1− }
3𝜖0

But 𝐷 = 𝑃 + 𝜖0 𝐸𝑜𝑟𝑃 = 𝐷 − 𝜖0 𝐸

𝑃 𝐷
𝑖. 𝑒. = − 𝜖0 = 𝜖 − 𝜖0 = 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 − 𝜖0
𝐸 𝐸

Therefore𝑃 = 𝐸𝜖0 (𝜖𝑟 − 1) (2)

Equating (1) and (2)

𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸
𝑁𝛼 = 𝐸𝜖0 (𝜖𝑟 − 1)i.e. 1 − =𝜖
{1− 𝑒 } 3𝜖0 0 (𝜖𝑟 − 1)
3𝜖0

𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸 𝑁𝛼𝑒 3 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝜖𝑟 + 2

i.e. 1 = + = (1 + ) = (𝜖 )
3𝜖0 𝜖0 (𝜖𝑟 − 1) 3𝜖0 (𝜖𝑟 − 1) 3𝜖0 𝑟− 1

𝜖 −1 𝑁𝛼𝑒
Hence (𝜖𝑟 + 2) = N is the number of molecules per unit volume. This is called as Clausius
𝑟 3𝜖0

Mosotti relation. Using this relation we can find electronic polarizability for known value of

dielectric constant.

Piezoelectricity

It is the ability of a material to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy and vice versa.

The crystals which exhibit this phenomena are called piezoelectric crystals and the phenomenon

is called as a piezoelectricity. E.g.: Quartz.

All ferroelectric crystals exhibit piezoelectricity but all piezoelectric crystals need not exhibit

ferroelectricity.

A piezoelectric substance is that produces an electric charge when a mechanical stress is applied

it means that the substance is squeezed or stretched.

A piezoelectric substance experiences a mechanical deformation that is compression or elongation

when an electric filed is applied. This effect is observed in crystals that have no symmetry. In a

crystal molecules possess some polarization that is one end is more negatively charged and other

end is positively charged that is a dipole is present. Polar axis is an imaginary line that passes

through the centers of both the charges. In a mono crystal all the polar axis of all dipoles lie in one

direction. In polycrystal there are different regions within the material that have a different polar

axis. It is asymmetrical.

In order to produce piezoelectric effect, the polycrystal is heated under the application of a strong

electric field. The heat allows molecule to move freely and the electric field forces all of the dipoles

in the crystal line up and orient in the same direction.

A piezoelectric material without stress or charge

If material is compressed then a voltage of the same polarity will appear. Conversely if a voltage

is applied the material will deform.

A voltage with opposite polarity as the poling voltage will cause the material to expand

A voltage with the same polarity will cause the material the material to compress.

If an AC signal is applied then the material will vibrate at the same frequency as the signal.

It refers to the creation of opposite kinds of charges at one pair of opposite faces of electric crystal

when subjected to mechanical compression or tension at other perpendicular pair of faces of the

crystal.

Ferroelectricity

The dielectric materials which are having spontaneous polarization in the absence of electric filed

are called as ferroelectric materials. The phenomenon of possessing spontaneous polarization in

the absence of electric filed is called ferroelectricity.

Eg Barium Titanate (BaTiO3), Rochelle salt, etc.

Properties
  All ferroelectric materials possess spontaneous polarization below a certain temperature.

 As temperature increases the spontaneous polarization decreases and at a particular

temperature, spontaneous polarization vanishes. This temperature is called as Curie

temperature.

 Below curie temperature the dielectric constant is a function of electric field.

 At sufficiently strong electric filed ferroelectric material converts into electrate that is

equivalent to magnet in magnetic materials.

 All ferroelectric materials exhibit pyroelectricity. The phenomenon of producing electric

e.m.f. by the application of thermal stress is known as pyroelectricity.

Hysteresis

 When electric field is applied on a ferroelectric material, polarization increases rapidly with

the applied field to a value and remains constant. This polarization is called as saturation

polarization (Ps).

 If electric field on the material is reduced back to zero, polarization will not travel in the

initial path, creates a new path and reaches to a remnant polarization (Pr).

 To reduce remnant polarization to zero, negative field has to be applied. At a particular

negative field applied the remnant polarization becomes zero and the field is known as

negative coercive field. Further if electric field is increased negative polarization takes

place, reaches to the negative saturation and constant with further increased.

 If the negative is decreased back to zero, negative saturation polarization will not travel in

initial path, creates a new path and reaches to negative remnant polarization (Pr). The

polarization left in the absence of electric filed is called residual polarization.

 To decrease negative remnant polarization to zero some positive field has to be applied.

The amount of electric field required to bring remnant polarization is called as coercive

field (Ec).

 Further increase of positive electric field the polarization reaches to positive saturation

again.

 The polarization vector which started from origin does not reach back to that point. Hence

it is an irreversible property.

 The polarization always lags behind the electric field applied.

 Shape of the hysteresis loop changes with temperature. Height and width of the loop

decreases with increase in temperature.

 At ferroelectric curie temperature, loop merges into a straight line.

O E
Magnetic dipole

It is a system consisting of two equal and opposite poles separated by a small distance of 2l

Meter.

Magnetic moment

It is defined as the product of its pole strength and the distance between the two poles.

M=2lm

2l is the length of the magnet and m is the pole strength.

Magnetization

It is the process of converting a non-magnetic sample into a magnetic sample.

Magnetic field induction

Magnetic field induction or magnetic flux density is the number of magnetic lines of force passing

𝜙
perpendicularly through unit area i.e. 𝐵 = unit weber/m2 or Tesla.
𝐴

It is also defined as the magnetic force experienced by unit north pole placed at a point in a
𝐹
magnetic field i.e. 𝐵 = unit Newton/ampere metre.
𝑚

Magnetic field intensity

Magnetic field intensity at any point in a magnetic field is equal to 1/µ times the force acting on a

unit north pole placed at that point where µ is the permeability of the medium in which the
𝐵
magnetic field is situated i.e. 𝐻 = unit ampere turn/metre.
µ

Magnetic Susceptibility

It may be defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization to applied magnetic field intensity.
𝐼
i.e. 𝜒 = . No Units.
𝐻
Susceptibility of a medium is a measure of magnetization produced in the specimen per unit field

strength. When a material has high susceptibility then it can be easily magnetized.

Permeability (µ)

Permeability of a medium is defined as the ratio between magnetic field induction and magnetic

field intensity at a given point in that medium i.e. µ = B/H unit Henry/metre.

Relative permeability

It is defined as the ratio of permeability of the medium to permeability of free space i.e.
µ
µ𝑟 = µ𝑜
µ0 is the permeability of free space whose value is 4 𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒.

It has no units.

Classification of magnetic materials

The matter is made up of atoms, each has a positively charged nucleus at its center and around the

nucleus negatively charged electrons revolve round in various orbits. The revolving electron

behaves like a magnetic dipole, which has some magnetic moment. This magnetic moment arises

due to orbital motion and spin motion. The magnetic moment is due to electron spin. The magnetic

moment vector is oriented in different directions in an atom. If the vector some of the magnetic

moments is zero then the material is diamagnetic. Here the direction of spin of an electron is

opposite to that of the other. So magnetic moment of one electron is neutralized by the other and

net magnetic moment is zero.

If the vector sum of magnetic moment is not zero then the atom has a resultant magnetic moment.

So the atoms or molecules of a paramagnetic substance possess permanent magnetic moment.

If the atom as a whole possess large magnetic moment then the substance is ferromagnetic.

Diamagnetic materials

 They do not have permanent dipole moment or magnetic moment in each atom is zero.
  The induced magnetic moment produced by external magnetic field decreases the magnetic

induction present in the material.

 Susceptibility is negative and independent of temperature.

 No spin alignment is present.

 In presence of magnetic field the magnetic lines of force are pulled out from the magnetic

material. Hence, magnetic field induction is greater outside the material than inside.

 Diamagnetic property disappears if the temperature is increased above the super

conducting transition temperature and the material behaves like normal material.

 Eg: Bi, Zn, Gold, etc.

Paramagnetic Materials

 They have permanent dipole moment or magnetic moment.

 The induced magnetic moment produced by external magnetic field increases the magnetic

induction present in the material.

 Susceptibility is positive and small. Further it is inversely proportional to temperature.

 𝐶
 𝜒 = C is the curie constant.
𝑇

 All spins or magnetic moments are randomly oriented is present.

 In presence of magnetic field the magnetic lines of force are attracted towards the center

of the material and hence the magnetic induction is greater inside the material than outside.

 Below the super conducting transition temperature the paramagnetic material exhibits

diamagnetism.

 Eg: Al, Pt, Mn, Cucl2, etc.

Ferromagnetic Materials

 They possess enormous permanent dipole moment or magnetic moment in each atom. The

induced magnetic moment produced by external magnetic field increases the magnetic

induction present in the material.

 Susceptibility is positive and large and it depends upon temperature in a complex manner.
 𝐶
𝜒 = 𝑇−𝜃 (only in paramagnetic region T >𝜽)

 All spins or magnetic moments are orderly oriented.

 In presence of magnetic field the magnetic lines of force are highly attracted towards centre

of the material and hence magnetic field induction inside the material is greater than outside

the material.

 Above curie temperature material behaves like paramagnetic material.

 Eg: Fe, Ni, Co, Mn, etc.

Classification of Ferro Magnetic materials

Ferro magnetic materials are classified into (i) Antiferromagnetic materials and Ferrri magnetic

materials based on their spin orientation.

Antiferromagnetic materials

 These materials have equal number of opposite spins with same magnitudes such that the

orientation of neighboring spins is antiparallel.

 Susceptibility is small and positive for these materials.

 Spin alignment is anti parallel manner.

  Antiferromagnetic material converts into paramagnetic material at Neel’s temperature.

 Susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature

𝐶
𝜒 = 𝑇−𝜃 when T>TN

 Eg: FeO, MnO, Cr2O3, etc.

Ferrimagnetic materials

 These are the materials with equal number of opposite spins and different magnitudes such

that the orientation of neighboring spins is in anti parallel manner are present.

 Susceptibility is very large and positive for these materials.

 Spin alignment is anti parallel manner.

 Susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature

𝐶
𝜒 = 𝑇±𝜃 when T>TN

 Ferrites are best examples of ferromagnetic materials

  General formula of ferrites Me2+OFe2O3 or Me2+Fe2O4 where Me2+ is divalent metal ion

 Eg: ZnFe2O4, CuFe2+O4, Fe3O4, etc.

Hysteresis Curve

Hysteresis of Ferromagnetic materials represent the phenomenon of lagging of magnetization

behind the applied magnetic field. It is an irreversible characteristic of ferromagnetic materials.

Loop also refers to the hysteresis loss.

 When the magnetic field is applied on a ferromagnetic material the magnetization increases

rapidly with increasing the magnetic field upto a certain point and there after it remains

constant. This magnetization is called as saturation of magnetization.

 If magnetic material field on the material is reduced back to zero magnetization it will not

travel initial path , creates a new path and it reaches a point called residual magnetization,

It is also called as retentivity.

 To make residual magnetization to zero negative coercive field is to be applied. At

sufficient negative field residual magnetization becomes zero and field is called as negative

coercive field.

 With further increase of negative field the magnetization is in negative direction and

reaches negative saturation. It is constant with further application of field.

  If negative field is decreased back to zero the negative saturation of magnetization will not

travel initial path, creates a new path and reaches to a point called negative residual

magnetization.

 It is also called as negative retentivity.

 To decrease the negative residual magnetization to zero, positive coercive field is to be

applied. The amount of magnetic field required to produce residual magnetization to zero

is called as coercive filed.

 Further increase of magnetic field, magnetization reaches again to positive saturation. It is

an irreversible cyclic process. Magnetization lags behind the applied magnetic field.

 Area of hysteresis loop refers to hysteresis loss. If loop area of ferromagnetic material is

large then more loss occurs during each cycle of hysteresis. If loop area is less then

dielectric loss will be less.

 Depending on hysteresis loss value ferromagnetic materials are classified as (i) soft

magnetic materials and (ii) Hard magnetic materials

Soft Magnetic Materials

 Magnetic materials that can be easily magnetized and demagnetized are called soft

magnetic materials. Salient features:

 Hysteresis loop area is less, hence hysteresis loss is less

 Coercivity and retentivity are small

  Magnetostatic energy is small

 Permeability and susceptibility are large

 Eddy current loss is more due to high resistivity

 They are used in electro-magnetic machineries and transformer cores. They are also used

in switching circuits, microwave isolators and matrix storage of computers.

 Eg: Ferrites, garnets, Iron silicon alloys, Ferrous nickel alloys, etc.

Hard Magnetic Materials

 Magnetic materials that can be easily magnetized and demagnetized are called soft

magnetic materials. Salient features:

 Hysteresis loop area is more, hence hysteresis loss is more. Coercivity and retentivity are

large

 Magnetostatic energy is large

 Permeability and susceptibility are small

 Eddy current loss is more due to high resistivity

 They are used in making permanent magnets, magnetic detectors, microphones, magnetic

separators, etc.

 Eg: Copper nickel cobalt alloys, Iron-nickel-aluminium alloys with certain amount of

cobalt called Alnico alloy.

Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism

Small region in which all spin magnetic moments are aligned in a specific direction is called

magnetic domain. In ferromagnetic materials the smallest region in which there is an alignment of

spin in one direction is called ferromagnetic domain. A ferromagnetic material consists of number

of domains. Generally size of domain will be in the order of 10-6 m or larger.

Each domain acts as a single magnetic dipole and is oriented in random direction. So net

magnetization is zero in absence of magnetic field.

Each domain is separated from other by domain by walls called block or domain wall. When

external magnetic field is applied, two cases arise:

(i) Domains which are parallel or nearly parallel to applied filed, grow in size at the

expense of other domains.

(ii) Rotation of direction of domains towards field direction.