A three-dimensional

structures

Dr Hammida

1
 ‫‪ - Space frame‬إطﺎر اﻟﻔﻀﺎء‪:‬‬
‫ﻧﻣط ھو ھﯾﻛل إﻧﺷﺎﺋﻲ ﺻﻠب ﺧﻔﯾف اﻟوزن ﻣﺻﻧوع ﻣن اﻟدﻋﺎﻣﺎت اﻟﻣﺗﺷﺎﺑﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ھﻧدﺳﻲ ﻣﺛﻠث ﺷﺑﯾﮫ ﺑﺎﻟﺟﻣﺎﻟون‪ .‬ﯾﻣﻛن إﺳﺗﺧدام إطﺎرات اﻟﻔﺿﺎء ﻟﺗﻣﺗد ﻟﻣﺳﺎﺣﺎت‬
‫واﺳﻌﺔ ﻣﻊ اﺳﺗﺧدام ﻋدد ﻗﻠﯾل ﻣن اﻟدﻋﺎﻣﺎت اﻟداﺧﻠﯾﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻲ اﻟﺟﻣﺎﻟون ﻣﺛﻼ‪ ،‬ﯾﻌﺗﺑر إطﺎر‬
‫اﻟﻔﺿﺎء ﻗوي ﺑﺳﺑب اﻟﺻﻼﺑﺔ اﻟﻣوﺟود ﻓﻲ اﻟﻣﺛﻠث اﻟﻣﺷﻛّل ﻟﮫ؛ ﺣﯾث ﯾﻧﺗﻘل )ﻋزم‬
‫)‪ Compression‬واﻟﺿﻐط )‪Tension‬اﻻﻧﺣﻧﺎء( ﻛﻣﺎ ھو ﺑﺎﻟﻧﺳﺑﺔ ﻟﻠﺷد‬
‫ﻟﻸﺣﻣﺎل ﻋﻠﻰ طول اﻟﮭﯾﻛل اﻹﻧﺷﺎﺋﻲ‪ .‬وھﻧﺎك ﻋدة ﺗطﺑﯾﻘﺎت ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺔ ﻟﮭذا اﻟﻧظﺎم‬
‫اﻹﻧﺷﺎﺋﻲ‬

‫‪In architecture and structural engineering, a space‬‬

‫‪frame or space structure is a truss-like, lightweight rigid‬‬
‫‪structure constructed from interlocking struts in a‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
geometric pattern. Space frames can be used to span
large areas with few interior supports. Like the truss, a
space frame is strong because of the inherent rigidity of
the triangle; flexing loads (bending moments) are
transmitted as tension and compression loads along the
length of each strut.

3
4
Ribbed dome is the earliest type of braced
dome that has been constructed . A ribbed
dome consists of a number of identical
meridional solid girders or trusses,
interconnected at the crown by a compression

ring. The ribs are also connected by concentric

rings to form grids in trapezium shape. The
ribbed dome is usually stiffened by a steel or
reinforced concrete tension ring at its base.

5
6
7
SPACE FRAME

8
TYPES OF SPACE FRAME

9
TYPES OF SPACE FRAME

10
COMPONENTS OF SPACE FRAM

11
12
13
14
 Custom Geometries
Novel building shapes are possible with Space Frame designs by
combining the basic geometries shown here. All of these can also be altered to
suit your aesthetic preference or to align with adjacent buildings
or support locations. Building design often develops around
rectilinear spaces & the benefits of curved roofs & walls can
be overlooked.

Modern space frame design methods curved & complex

shapes very competitive against more traditional linear roofs &
walls. allow us to expand the edges of domes (or any curved
shape) to land on square, rectangular or any plan geometry.
Advanced spaceframe manufacturing & construction
techniques have made

15
In architecture and structural
engineering,
a space frame or space structure is a truss-like,

Lightweight rigid structure constructed from

interlocking struts in a geometric pattern.

Space frames can be used to span large areas with

few interior supports.

16
Like the truss, a space frame is strong because of
the inherent rigidity of the triangle; Flexing loads
(bending

moments) are transmitted as tension and

compression loads along the length of each strut.

17
18
19
20
21
22
23
 ‫اﺳﺘﺎد ﺣﻠﺐ اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ‬

TRIANGULAR MODULES
are efficient in transferring stresses. With little to no
bending moments
they are more stable and stronger than 90 degree frames.
3-D LATTICE STRUCTURES

can cover larger areas at a lower weight. The many

lightweight members in a lattice structure distribute
loads evenly and efficiently through the structure in
three dimensions, making it more efficient and lighter
than a conventional two-dimensional frame.
24
 DOUBLY CURVED GEOMETRIES

have the ability to span long distances. Their

curvature transfers stresses more efficiently with little to
no bending moments, making them stiffer than
conventional flat surfaces. Doubly curved geometries
now offer infinite possibilities of free-style designs.

Application Fields
– Industrial Structures (Factory, Warehouses, Antrepo,
Hangar etc.)
– Sports Complexes(Swimming Pools, Sport halls,
tribunes, etc.)

– Multipurpose Halls (Theatres, Concert Halls, Cinemas,

Convention Centres, Exhibition Halls,etc.)
– Hangar Buildings, Canopies, Stands etc.
– Shopping centres, showrooms, transportation
structures, school structures, etc.
– Fair stands
– Scaffoldings, load scaffoldings etc

25
1.

26
2.

27
3.

28
. Space Frames
A space frame refers to a spatial structure
whose members are connected rigidly to each
other so that they transfer moment and shear in
addition to axial forces. In comparison, space
trusses are pin-jointed and as a result, their
members are in tension or compression and do
not transfer moment or shear.

29
In most cases, the additional reduction in member
forces and deflection of space frames is less than
10% as compared to space trusses. Therefore, the
additional material required to provide rigid
connections does not justify the saving in the size
of structural members. As a result, the term “space
frame” is also the term used for pin-jointed three-
dimensional structures, such as space trusses.
Space frames are also called ‘braced frameworks’,
‘latticed structures’ or ‘reticulated structures’.

Space frames are either constructed from

prefabricated modular units (modular system)
or individual members assembled together
using different types of connectors or nodes
(nodular system). These systems are typically
proprietary.

It is also possible to construct space frames by

field-welding members to each other; this is
generally a more costly alternative. When field
welding, the joints are considered to be rigidly
connected, capable of transferring moment and
shear in addition to axial forces.

Nature has many examples of repetitive spatial

packing configurations used in space frames:
The hexagonal prisms of honeycomb; plant cell
organisms, the repetitive organization of
crystals and snowflakes, etc. The triangle is the
simplest stable geometry, which means that it
is not possible to change its shape in-plane
because there are three interconnected
30
members. This is not the case for polygons
such as squares, rectangles, hexagons, or
octagons. The bracing members of space
frames create the triangulation that stabilizes
the structure.

Space frames generally consist of double and multi-layer grids

in flat or free forms. Flat space frames have been typically
used as roof systems, but they can also be used to support
floors. Atriums, entryways, canopies, arenas, exhibit pavilions,
hangars, convention centers, mosques, terminals, grandstands,
sport facilities, reservoir covers, churches, swimming pool
covers, shopping malls, stadium pavilions, sloped glazing,
large-span warehouses, towers, space stations, and floating
platforms may also be constructed from space frames.

31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
o

40
Double Hexagon Space Frames

41
42
 X-module; complete triangulation

3-way prism; complete triangulation

square prism; squares are non-triangulated

pentagonal prism; pentagons are non-triangulated

hexagonal prism; hexagons are non-triangulated

Individual tension lines (strings, wires or rope) are
attached to the ends of the struts as shown so that each
assembly comprises a closed system of tension and
43
compression parts. Each tension line connects
individually to the ends of two struts; they do not
thread through like strings of beads.

44
45
Modular Display Systems

Cultural Centre is one of many buildings that will be erected in

Azerbaijan this year, and it is one of several projects exhibiting
progressive design elements and cutting-edge engineering solutions.

46
47
 Early in the design process, engineers performed a mathematically
based computer analysis. “It's good practice to do structural
calculations for projects of that kind with a 3D nonlinear finite element
analysis, including special loads like earthquake and high wind loads as
present in Baku, project engineer for the Heydar Aliyev Cultural
Centre. “We did the calculations with two separate full-model 3D finite
element programs, in order to compare the results and not to rely on a
single one.”

Curve space frame

48
49
Technology

50
51
 node connector of space frames

52
53
o

54
o

55
o

ADVANTAGES OF SPACE-FRAMES
Large spans can be achieved

Concentrated loads are evenly distributed on the entire structure

Pleasing decorative appearance

Fast installation at site due to pre-fabricated components

Very good acoustical properties

56
 TYPES OF SPACE-FRAMES

SUSPENDED STRUCTURES
Form of long-span structure that is subject to tension and uses

suspension cables for support

57
 SKELETON FRAMEWORKS
Number of bars interconnected at the nodes
STRESSED SKIN SYSTEMS
Using a composition of thin sheet material and ribs is a

total structural system called STRESSED

58
59
DOUBLE LAYER GRID
 Of all the types of space-frames, the double layered grid
structure is most popular because al its members are
mainly under the action of axial forces,leading to the full
utilization of all elements.
 They are easily extendable

D ouble layered grids have a top frame , a bottom frame and inter-connecting
diagonal members

SPACFRAME

Members (Pipe connector)

(Bolt, Collar, Bush end, MS pipe)

60
Space Frame Pyramid Structure

61
62
Once the entire steel frame is installed, the pipe connectors are fully
welded to the receptor sleeves.

63
SuperStructure Systems

64
65
 Space Frame & Skylight

In architecture and structural engineering, a

space frame or space structure is a truss-like,
lightweight rigid structure constructed from
interlocking struts in a geometric pattern.
Space frames can be used to

66
span large areas with few interior supports.

67
68
If a force is applied to the blue node, and the red bar is not
present, the behaviour of the structure depends completely on the
bending rigidity of the blue node. If the red bar is present, and the
bending rigidity of the blue node is negligible compared to the
contributing rigidity of the red bar, the system can be calculated
using a rigidity matrix, neglecting angular factors.

69
70
71
72
Design Loads-Dead Load

73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
System III Space Frame
The most versatile and attractive forged steel ball and tube system
available.
Exclusively ours.

 Easiest ball and tube system to assemble.

 Virtually unlimited span capability.
 Flexibility of form through freedom of angle.

Pyramid Sphere Space Frame

Traditional ball and tube appearance without the cost. Your space
frame system of choice for beauty and economy.
 Variable module designs.
 Top junction plate for economical design.
 Long span capability.
 Direct decking or cladding attachment.
 Bottom junction ball design for aesthetic integrity.

Hemispherical Node
Our most economical space frame system. Fits most geometric
designs.
 Easiest, most economical system to assemble.
 Variable module sizes.
 Ideal solutions for medium spans.
 Forged steel node-the most compact, high quality
connector.

Axent Space Frame

non-structural system
 Attractive and cost efficient addition to any display
or exhibit.
 Practical assembly with the aid of a hand wrench only.
 Consists of pre-cut and in-stock material ready to ship.

89
90
91
92
93
94
95
 With its ability to form organic shapes, diagrid
construction also stretches the ability of modern
structures through aesthetic freedom. The Diagrid
building structure is relatively hard to construct, because
the shape of the structure requires a lot of prefabrication
and customization for the specific building.
However, the shape of the structure allows for higher
structural efficiency (more strength using less steel), and
the stiffness is easily controlled.
The outer structure of the Diagrid allows for a column
free interior, for the loads are transferred through the
buildings facade, leaving room for customize-able floor
96
plans. Compared to more traditional (concrete & steel)
methods of sky scraper design, the diagrid allows for a
lighter design, which contributes to a smaller
foundation, making material costs lower in all
aspects. Although, due to the complexity of the
design, customized glass planels, and that the
construction method is relatively new, all contribute in
make the structure more expensive than traditional
systems. Because of these aspect, Diagrids are generally
used for high rise towers, and compete with normal
concrete and steel designs.

Diagrid Structural System

Materials and Limitations
Materials

97
 Very often these structures are composed of steel members.
However, they are not limited to steel and can be constructed of wood or reinforce
concrete as well.
Although concrete is good in compression, and reinforcement
helps with tensile
and reinforcement helps with tensile loads, neither wood nor
concrete has the combination of tensile strength
and compression strength that steel has. With a Modulus of
Elasticity being 30,000 ksi, steel retains its shape under high loads
very well making it ideal for this type of system.
Reinforced concrete can be used to alter. The height to width ratio
is typically from 6.0-8.7. For structures with a height to width ratio
higher than a 7.0 (70 stories, 80 stories), it is more beneficial to
use varying angles in the diagrid system (73, 69, 63 degrees).
When a building's height to width ratio is lower than 7.0 (40, 50,
or 60 stories), it is more beneficial to use uniform
angles throughout the system (69 degrees). The steeper angles at
the lower levels increase bending rigidity while shallow angles
increase shear rigidity.
It is important for shorter buildings to have higher shear rigidity.
It is also important for taller buildings to have higher bending
rigidity.

98
Limitations
The Diagrid structural system allows for a more sturdy
solution to building tall skyscrapers. Like all structural
systems,
99
 diagrids have limits too. For a diagrid system constructed of
steel, the typical height limitation is 100 stories.
For a diagrid system constructed of concrete, the typical
height limitation is lower at 60 stories. Both of these
materials allow for extremely tall, structurally stable building
systems.
Concrete diagrid systems require a large amount of form
work which leads to higher construction costs.

The connection nodes that hold together all the joining

members
are also very complex compared to typical orthogonal
building systems. These connections are prefabricated and
increase construction costs due to their complexity.

Skyscrapers
Owners of skyscrapers benefit from maximizing rentable
space in their structures. For this reason, a Diagrid system is
ideal because it can minimize the use of interior columns,
thus maximizing interior space. In addition, diagrids form a
100
 light and airy structure, which are desired for minimizing
gravity and lateral loads

Load Distribution
The load distribution in a Diagid is similar to that of a truss,
where loads applied at the nodes are transferred by each each
member through axial forces. However, unlike trusses where one
basic assumption is that all loads are applied at nodes (thus
eliminating shear forces), analysis of Diagrid systems include non-
nodal loads, which induce shear forces.
The following figure shows the load path in a Diagrid system
under a gravity point load. As evident from the figure, the nodal load
is transmitted by the diagonal members, quickly dissipating the
load.

101
 Load Path in a Diagrid Under a Gravity Point Load
Similar to this load distribution is that of a lateral point load
applied at a node. The diagonal members serves as a brace
frame, which transmits the lateral loads axially to the ground.
The following figure shows this load path.

102
 Load Path in a Diagrid Where
Lateral Loads are Applied at the Nodes

However, for the transmission of distributed loads or loads that

are not applied at the nodes, horizontal members transfer loads to
diagonal members through shear forces. The following figure
shows how the loads are transmitted to the ground. The green lines
show the transfer of loads by shear action, while the red lines show
transfer through axial action.

103
 Load Path in a Diagrid System Under
Distributed Gravity Loads
The load paths shown verifies the ability of a Diagrid system to
provide both lateral and gravity support in one system. The
diagonals, as stated earlier, provides a quicker way of
transferring loads to the ground through axial forces, while
horizontal may transfer forces axially or by shear, depending on
the type of loading applied.

Compared to conventional framing, Diagrid systems have a

wider spread of loads, and lesser contact with ground (as it has
lesser members), which may affect the selection of its
foundation system. Depending on the foundation system
chosen, Diagrids may require lesser support. For instance, for a
104
deep foundation, Diagrids may require less piles, since there is
less members and concentrated loads

105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130