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Emailing Introduction To Power Engineering
Emailing Introduction To Power Engineering
Introduction To Power
Engineering
2010/2011 1431/1432
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Once electrical power has been produced, it must be distributed to the location
where it is used. This chapter deals with electrical power distribution systems. This chapter
provides an overview of distribution systems. Figure 1 shows the electrical power systems
schematic sketch and the major topics of this chapter, Electrical Power Distribution.
Figure 1:The “vertical power system.” Pow er is produced at a few large generators (only one is shown) and
moved over a transmission system consisting of dozens, even hundreds of regional power lines (only one path
is shown). Once brought to the local community, it is reduced in voltage and shipped to neighborhoods, and to
the individual consumer, on a distribution system (only one of thousands of lines and customers is shown).
Some utilities perform all the functions shown, others only a portion.
The subtransmission circuits extend from the bulk power source or sources to the
various distribution substations located in the load area. They may be radial circuits
connected to a bulk power source at only one end or loop and ring circuits connected to one
or more bulk power sources at both ends. The subtransmission circuits consist of
underground cable, aerial cable, or overhead open-wire conductors carried on poles, or
some combination of them.
Each distribution substation normally serves its own load area, which is a subdivision
of the area served by the distribution system. At the distribution substation the
subtransmission voltage is reduced for general distribution throughout the area. The
substation consists of one or more power-transformer banks together with the necessary
is usually run out from the low voltage bus of the substation to its load center where
it branches into threephase subfeeders and single-phase laterals. The primary feeders and
laterals may be either cable or openwire circuits, operated in most cases at 2400 or 4160
volts.
In studying any load area, the entire distribution or delivery system from the bulk
power source-which may be one or more generating stations or power substations, to the
consumers should be considered as a unit. This includes subtransmission-distribution
substations, Primary feeders, distribution transformers, secondaries, and services. All of
these parts are interrelated and should be considered as a whole so that money saved in
one part of the distribution system will not be more’ than offset by a resulting increase
elsewhere in the system.
For different load areas, or even different parts of the same load area, the most
effective distribution system will often take different forms. Certain principles and features,
however, are common to almost all of these systems. The distribution system should
provide service with a minimum voltage variation and a minimum of interruption. Service
interruptions should be of short duration and affect a small number of consumers. The
overall system cost-including construction, operation, and maintenance of the system-
should be as low as possible consistent with the quality of service required in the load area.
The system should be flexible, to allow its being expanded in small increments, so as to meet
changing load conditions with a minimum amount of modification and expense. This
flexibility permits keeping the system capacity close to actual load requirements and thus
permits the most effective use of system investment. It also largely eliminates the need for
predicting the location and magnitudes of future loads. Therefore, long-range distribution
planning, which is at best based on scientific guesses, can be greatly reduced.
takes the electricity from the highly meshed, high-voltage transmission circuits and delivers
it to customers. It can be divided into two subdivisions:
1. Primary distribution, which carries the load at higher than utilization voltages
from the substation (or other source) to the point where the voltage is
stepped down to the value at which the energy is utilized by the consumer.
Primary distribution lines are “medium-voltage” circuits.
2. Secondary distribution, which includes that part of the system operating at
utilization voltages, up to the meter at the consumer’s premises.
The spurs or laterals are usually connected to the primary main through fuses, so
that a fault on the lateral will not cause an interruption to the entire feeder. Should the fuse
fail to clear the line, or should a fault develop on the feeder main, the circuit breaker back at
the substation or source will open and the entire feeder will be de-energized.
To hold down the extent and duration of interruptions, provisions are made to
sectionalize the feeder so that unfaulted portions may be reenergized as quickly as practical.
To maximize such re-energization, emergency ties to adjacent feeders are incorporated in
the design and construction; thus each part of a feeder not in trouble can be tied to an
adjacent feeder. Often spare capacity is provided for in the feeders to prevent overload
when parts of an adjacent feeder in trouble are connected to them. In many cases, there
may be enough diversity between loads on adjacent feeders to require no extra capacity to
be installed for these emergencies.
Supply to hospitals, military establishments, and other sensitive consumers may not
be capable of tolerating any long interruption. In such cases, a second feeder (or additional
feeders) may be provided, sometimes located along a separate route, to provide another,
separate alternative source of supply. Switching from the normal to the alternative feeder
may be accomplished by a throwover switching arrangement (which may be a circuit
breaker) that may be operated manually or automatically. In many cases, two separate
circuit breakers, one on each feeder, with electrical interlocks (to prevent connecting a good
feeder to the one in trouble), are employed with automatic throwover control by relays. See
Figure 4.
(b)
(c)
Figure 3: Primary feeder schematic diagram showing trunk or main feeds and laterals or spurs.
In the open-loop system, the several sections of the feeder are connected together
through disconnecting devices, with the loads connected to the several sections, and both
ends of the feeder connected to the supply. At a predetermined point in the feeder, the
disconnecting device is intentionally left open. Essentially, this constitutes two feeders
whose ends are separated by a disconnecting device, which may be a fuse, switch, or circuit
breaker. See Figure 6.
In the event of a fault, the section of the primary on which the fault occurs can be
disconnected at both its ends and service reestablished to the unfaulted portions by closing
the loop at the point where it is normally left open, and reclosing the breaker at the
substation (or supply source) on the other, unfaulted portion of the feeder.
Such loops are not normally closed, since a fault would cause the breakers (or fuses)
at both ends to open, leaving the entire feeder de-energized and no knowledge of where the
fault has occurred. The disconnecting devices between sections are manually operated and
may be relatively inexpensive fuses, cutouts, or switches.
In many instances, proper relay operation can only be achieved by means of pilot
wires which run from circuit breaker to circuit breaker and are costly to install and maintain;
in some instances these pilot wires may be rented telephone circuits. See Figure 7.
To hold down costs, circuit breakers may be installed only between certain sections
of the feeder loop, and ordinary, less expensive disconnecting devices installed between the
intermediate sections. A fault will then de-energize several sections of the loop; when the
fault is located, the disconnecting devices on both ends of the faulted section may be
opened and the unfaulted sections reenergized by closing the proper circuit breakers.
This system is formed by tying together primary mains ordinarily found in radial
systems to form a mesh or grid. The grid is supplied by a number of power transformers
supplied in turn from subtransmission and transmission lines at higher voltages. A circuit
breaker between the transformer and grid, controlled by reverse-current and automatic
reclosing relays, protects the primary network from feeding fault current through the
transformer when faults occur on the supply subtransmission or transmission lines. Faults on
This type of system eliminates the conventional substation and long primary trunk
feeders, replacing them with a greater number of “unit” substations strategically placed
throughout the network. The additional sites necessary are often difficult to obtain.
Moreover, difficulty is experienced in maintaining proper operation of the voltage regulators
(where they exist) on the primary feeders when interconnected.
1. An individual transformer for each consumer; i.e., a single service from each
transformer.
2. A common secondary main associated with one transformer from which a group
of consumers is supplied.
In this type of system, the cost of the several transformers and the sum of power
losses in the units may be greater (for comparative purposes) than those for one
transformer supplying a group of consumers from its associated secondary main. The
diversity among consumers’ loads and demands permits a transformer of smaller c apacity
than the capacity of the sum of the individual transformers to be installed. On the other
hand, the cost and losses in the secondary main are obviated, as is also the voltage drop in
the main. Where low voltage may be undesirable for a particular consumer, it may be well to
apply this type of service to the one consumer. Refer to Figure 9.
Perhaps the most common type of secondary system in use employs a common
secondary main. It takes advantage of diversity between consumers’ loads and demands, as
indicated above. Moreover, the larger transformer can accommodate starting currents of
motors with less resulting voltage dip than would be the case with small individual
transformers. See Figure 10.
In many instances, the secondary mains installed are more or less continuous, but
cut into sections insulated from each other as conditions require. As loads change or
increase, the position of these division points may be readily changed, sometimes holding
off the need to install additional transformer capacity. Also, additional separate sections can
be created and a new transformer installed to serve as load or voltage conditions require.
The secondary system employing banked secondaries is not very commonly used,
although such installations exist and are usually limited to overhead systems.
This type of system may be viewed as a single-feeder low-voltage network, and the
secondary may be a long section or grid to which the transformers are connected. Fuses or
automatic circuit breakers located between the transformer and secondary main serve to
clear the transformer from the bank in case of failure of the transformer. Fuses may also be
placed in the secondary main between transformer banks. See Figure 11.
Some advantages claimed for this type of system include uninterrupted service,
though perhaps with a reduction in voltage, should a transformer fail; better distribution of
Some disadvantages associated with this type of system are as follows: should one
transformer fail, the additional loads imposed on adjacent units may cause them to fail, and
in turn their loads would cause still other transformers to fail (this is known as cascading);
the transformers banked must have very nearly the same impedance and other
characteristics, or the loads will not be distributed equitably among them; and sufficient
reserve capacity must be provided to carry emergency loads safely, obviating the savings
possible from the diversity of the demands on the several transformers.
Secondary networks at present provide the highest degree of service reliability and
serve areas of high load density, where revenues justify their cost and where this kind of
reliability is imperative. In some instances, a single consumer may be supplied from this type
The number of primary feeders supplying a network is very important. With only two
feeders, only one feeder may be out of service at a time, and there must be sufficient spare
transformer capacity available so as not to overload the units remaining in service; therefore
this type of network is sometimes referred to as a single-contingency network.
Most networks are supplied from three or more primary feeders, where the network
can operate with the loss of two feeders and the spare transformer capacity can be
proportionately less. These are referred to as second-contingency networks.
Secondary mains not only should be so designed that they provide for an equitable
division of load between transformers and for good voltage regulation with all transformers
in service, but they also must do so when some of the transformers are no longer in service
when their primary feeders are de-energized. They must also be able to divide fault current
properly among the transformers, and must provide for burning faults clear at any point
while interrupting service to a minimum number of consumers; this often limits the size of
Because these networks may represent very large loads, their size and capacity may
have to be limited to such values as can be successfully handled by the generating or other
power sources should they become entirely de-energized for any reason. When they are de-
energized for any length of time, the inrush currents are very large, as diversity among
consumers may be lost, and this may be the limiting factor in restricting the size and
capacity of such networks.
1.3.5 VOLTAGES
For all types of service, primary voltages are becoming higher. Original feeder
primary voltages of about 1000 V have climbed to nominal 2400, 4160, 7620, 13,800,
23,000, and 46,000 V. Moreover, primary feeders that srcinally operated as single-phase
and two-phase circuits are all now essentially three-phase circuits; even those srcinally
operated as delta ungrounded circuits are now converted to wye systems, with their neutral
common to the secondary neutral conductor and grounded.
In Europe
In North America
Figure 13 compares the two systems. Relative to North American designs, European
systems have larger transformers and more customers per transformer. Most European
transformers are three-phase and on the order of 300 to 1000 kVA, much larger than typical
North American 25- or 50-kVA single-phase units.
three-phase secondaries can reach over twice the length of a single-phase secondary,
overall, a European secondary can reach eight times the length of an American secondary
for a given load and voltage drop. Although it is rare, some European utilities supply rural
areas with single-phase taps made of two phases with single-phase transformers connected
phase to phase.
In the European design, secondaries are used much like primary laterals in the North
American design. In European designs, the primary is not tapped frequently, and primary-
Some of the differences in designs center around the differences in loads and
infrastructure. In Europe, the roads and buildings were already in place when the electrical
system was developed, so the design had to “fit in.” Secondary is often attached to
buildings. In North America, many of the roads and electrical circuits were developed at the
same time. Also, in Europe houses are packed together more and are smaller than houses in
America.
Each type of system has its advantages. Some of the major difference between
systems are the following:
Cost — The European system is generally more expensive than the North
American system, but there are so many variables that it is hard to compare
them on a one-to-one basis. For the types of loads and layouts in Europe,
the European system fits quite well. European primary equipment is
generally more expensive, especially for areas that can be served by single-
phase circuits.
Flexibility — The North American system has a more flexible primary design,
and the European system has a more flexible secondary design. For urban
systems, the European system can take advantage of the flexible secondary;
for example, transformers can be sited more conveniently. For rural systems
and areas where load is spread out, the North American primary system is
more flexible. The North American primary is slightly better suited for
picking up new load and for circuit upgrades and extensions.
Safety — The multigrounded neutral of the North American primary system
provides many safety benefits; protection can more reliably clear faults, and
the neutral acts as a physical barrier, as well as helping to prevent dangerous
touch voltages during faults. The European system has the advantage that
high-impedance faults are easier to detect.
Reliability — Generally, North American designs result in fewer customer
interruptions. Some researchers simulated the performance of the two
designs for a hypothetical area and found that the average frequency of
interruptions was over 35% higher on the European system. Although
European systems have less primary, almost all of it is on the main feeder
backbone; loss of the main feeder results in an interruption for all customers
on the circuit. European systems need more switches and other gear to
maintain the same level of reliability.
Power quality — Generally, European systems have fewer voltage sags and
momentary interruptions. On a European system, less primary exposure
should translate into fewer momentary interruptions compared to a North
American system that uses fuse saving. The three-wire European system
helps protect against sags from line-to-ground faults. A squirrel across a
bushing (from line to ground) causes a relatively high impedance fault path
that does not sag the voltage much compared to a bolted fault on a well-
Outside of Europe and North America, both systems are used, and usage typically
follows colonial patterns with European practices being more widely used. Some regions of
the world have mixed distribution systems, using bits of North American and bits of
European practices. The worst mixture is 120-V secondaries with European-style primaries;
the low-voltage secondary has limited reach along with the more expensive European
primary arrangement.
Higher secondary voltages have been explored (but not implemented) for North
American systems to gain flexibility. Higher secondary voltages allow extensive use of
secondary, which makes undergrounding easier and reduces costs. Westinghouse engineers
contended that both 240/480-V three-wire single-phase and 265/460-V four-wire
2 LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
In the planning of an electrical distribution system, as in any other enterprise, it is
necessary to know three basic things:
Logically, then, it would be well to begin with the basic building blocks, the individual
consumers, and then determine efficient means of supplying their wants, individually and
collectively.
1. Demand
2. Maximum Demand
• Example: the 15-minute maximum kW demand for the week was 150 kW
3. Average Demand
• The average of the demands over a specified period (day, week, month, etc.)
4. Diversified Demand
• Example: the 15-minute maximum diversified kW demand for the week was
500 kW
• For a group of loads, the sum of the individual maximum demands without
any restriction that they occur at the same time
7. Demand Factor
8. Utilization Factor
9. Load Factor
2.2.1 DEMAND
In order to define the load, the demand curve is broken into equal time intervals. In
Figure 14 the selected time interval is 15 minutes. In each interval the average value of the
demand is determined. In Figure 14 the straight lines represent the average load in a time
interval. The shorter the time interval, the more accurate will be the value of the load. This
process is very similar to numerical integration. The average value of the load in an interval
is defined as the 15-minute kW demand.
The 24-hour 15-minute kW demand curve for a customer is shown in Figure 15. This
curve is developed from a spreadsheet that gives the 15-minute kW demand for a period of
24 hours.
For this customer the 15-minute maximum kW demand occurs at 13:15 and has a
value of 6.18 kW.
( 1)
The total energy consumed during the day is the summation of all of the 15-minute
interval consumptions. From the spreadsheet, the total energy consumed during the period
by Customer #1 is 58.96 kWh. The 15-minute average kW demand is computed by:
A load duration curve can be developed for the transformer serving the four
customers. Sorting in descending order, the kW demand of the transformer develops the
load duration curve shown in Figure 20. The load duration curve plots the 15-minute kW
demand versus the percent of time the transformer operates at or above the specific kW
demand. For example, the load duration curve shows the transformer operates with a 15-
minute kW demand of 12 kW or greater 22% of the time. This curve can be used to
determine whether a transformer needs to be replaced due to an overloading condition.
The idea behind the diversity factor is that when the maximum demands of the
customers are known, then the maximum diversified demand of a group of customers can
be computed. There will be a different value of the diversity factor for different numbers of
customers. The value computed above would apply for four customers. If there are five
customers, then a load survey would have to be set up to determine the diversity factor for
five customers. This process would have to be repeated for all practical numbers of
customers. Table 2 is an example of the diversity factors for the number of customers
ranging from one to 70. The table was developed from a different database than the four
customers discussed previously.
Table 2: Diversity Factors
− ( 8)
to be determined.
The definition of the diversity factor (DF) is the ratio of the maximum noncoincident
demand to the maximum diversified demand. Diversity factors are shown in Table 2. When
such a table is available, then it is possible to determine the maximum diversified demand of
a group of customers such as those served by a distribution transformer; that is, the
maximum diversified demand can be computed by:
This maximum diversified demand becomes the allocated load for the transformer.
Many times the maximum demand of individual customers will be known, either
from metering or from a knowledge of the energy (kWh) consumed by the customer. Some
utility companies will perform a load survey of similar customers in order to determine the
relationship between the energy consumption in kWh and the maximum kW demand. Such
a load survey requires the installation of a demand meter at each customer’s location. The
meter can be the same type used to develop the demand curves previously discussed, or it
can be a simple meter that only records the maximum demand during the period. At the end
of the survey period the maximum demand vs. kWh for each customer can be plotted on a
common graph. Linear regression is used to determine the equation of a straight line that
gives the kW demand as a function of kWh. The plot of points for 15 customers, along with
the resulting equation derived from a linear regression algorithm, is shown in Figure 23. The
straight-line equation derived is
Knowing the maximum demand for each customer is the first step in developing a
table of diversity factors as shown in Table 2. The next step is to perform a load survey
where the maximum diversified demand of groups of customers is metered. This will involve
selecting a series of locations where demand meters can be placed that will record the
maximum demand for groups of customers ranging from at least 2 to 70. At each meter
location the maximum demand of all downstream customers must also be known. With that
data, the diversity factor can be computed for the given number of downstream customers.
Example 1:
This type of load survey meters the maximum demand on the transformer in
addition to the total energy in kWh of all of the customers connected to the transformer.
With the information available from several sample transformers, a curve similar to that
shown in Figure 2.10 can be developed, and the constants of the straight-line equation can
be computed. This method has an advantage because the utility will have in the billing
database the kWh consumed by each customer every month. As long as the utility knows
which customers are connected to each transformer by using the developed equation, the
maximum diversified demand (allocated load) on each transformer on a feeder can be
determined for each billing period.
The major disadvantage of allocating load using the diversity factors is that most
utilities will not have a table of diversity factors. The process of developing such a table is
generally not cost effective. The major disadvantage of the transformer load management
method is that a database is required that specifies which transformers serve which
customers. Again, this database is not always available.
Allocating load based upon the metered readings in the substation requires the least
amount of data. Most feeders will have metering in the substation that will, at minimum,
give either the total three-phase maximum diversified kW or kVA demand and/or the
maximum current per phase during a month.
The kVA ratings of all distribution transformers is always known for a feeder. The
metered readings can be allocated to each transformer based upon the transformer rating.
An “allocation factor” (AF) can be determined based upon the metered three-phase kW or
kVA demand and the total connected distribution transformer kVA.
The transformer demand will be either kW or kVA depending upon the metered
quantity.
When the kW or kVA is metered by phase, then the load can be allocated by phase
where it will be necessary to know the phasing of each distribution transformer. When the
maximum current per phase is metered, the load allocated to each distribution transformer
can be done by assuming nominal voltage at the substation and then computing the
resulting kVA. The load allocation will now follow the same procedure as outlined above. If
there is no metered information on the reactive power or power factor of the feeder, a
power factor will have to be assumed for each transformer load.
Modern substations will have microprocessor-based metering that will provide kW,
kvar, kVA, power factor, and current per phase. With this data, the reactive power can also
be allocated. Since the metered data at the substation will include losses, an iterative
process will have to be followed so that the allocated load plus losses will equal the metered
readings.
Example 2:
Assume that the metered maximum diversified kW demand for the system of
Example 1 is 92.9 kW. Allocate this load according to the kVA ratings of the three
transformers.
Solution:
Four different methods have been presented for allocating load to distribution
transformers:
Which method to use depends upon the purpose of the analysis. If the purpose is to
determine as closely as possible the maximum demand on a distribution transformer, then
either the diversity factor or the transformer load management method can be used.
Neither of these methods should be employed when the analysis of the total feeder is to be
performed. The problem is that using those methods will result in a much larger maximum
diversified demand at the substation than actually exists. When the total feeder is to be
analyzed, the only method that gives good results is that of allocating load based upon the
kVA ratings of the transformers.
For these studies it is assumed that the allocated loads will be modeled as constant
real power and reactive power.
Example 3 demonstrates how the method of load allocation using diversity factors is
applied. The same system and allocated loads from Example 1 are used.
Example 3:
For the system of Example 2.1, assume the voltage at N1 is 2400 volts and compute
the secondary voltages on the three transformers using the diversity factors. The system of
Example 2.1, including segment distances, is shown in Figure 2.12.
Solution:
From Example 1 the maximum diversified kW demands were computed. Using the
0.9 lagging power factor, the maximum diversified kW and kVA demands for the line
segments and transformers are
When only the ratings of the distribution transformers are known, the feeder can be
allocated based upon the metered demand and the transformer kVA ratings. This method
was discussed in Section 2.3.3. Example 4 demonstrates this method.
Example 4:
For the system of Example 1, assume the voltage at N1 is 2400 volts and compute
the secondary voltages on the three transformers, allocating the loads based upon the
transformer ratings. Assume that the metered kW demand at N1 is 92.9 kW.
Solution:
The impedances of the line segments and transformers are the same as in Example
3. Assume the load power factor is 0.9 lagging; compute the kVA demand at N1 from the
metered demand:
Shown below are the 15-minute kW demands for four customers between the hours
of 17:00 and 21:00. A 25-kVA single-phase transformer serves the four customers.
Example 6:
Two transformers each serving four customers are shown in Figure 26.
Example 7:
The 15-minute kW demands for the 12 customers between the hours of 5:00 p.m.
and 9:00 p.m. are given in the tables that follow. Assume a load power factor of 0.95 lagging.
The impedance of the lines are z = 0.306 + j0.6272 Ω/mile. The voltage at node N1 is 2500 V.
Transformer ratings:
Example 9:
Assume that each customer’s maximum demand is 15.5 kW + j7.5 kvar. The
impedance of the single-phase lateral is z=0.4421+j0.3213Ω/1000 ft. The four transformers
are rated as:
Z=0.01+j0.03 per-unit
Z=0.015+j0.035 per-unit
Example 10:
Given a 120-volt 15-ampere branch circuit supplies a load which consists of four
lamps. Each lamp draws 3 amperes of current from the source. The lamps are located at 10-
foot intervals from the power distribution panel. The resistance of 1000 feet of No. 14
copper wire is 2.57 ohms.
Figure 29: Circuit for calculating the voltage drop in a branch circuit.
Solution:
b. Calculate voltage drop VD No. 1. (R equals the resistance of 20feet of wire.)
Notice that the voltage across lamp No. 4 is substantially reduced from the 120-volt
source value due to the voltage drop of the conductors. Also, notice that the resistances
used to calculate the voltage drops represented both wires (hot and neutral) of the branch
circuit. Ordinarily, 120-volt branch circuits do not extend more than 100 feet (30.48 meters)
from the power distribution panel. The preferred distance is 75 feet (22.86 meters). The
voltage drop in branch-circuit conductors can be reduced by making the circuit shorter in
length or by using larger conductors.
In residential electrical wiring design, the voltage drop in many branch circuits is
difficult to calculate since the lighting and portable appliance receptacles are placed on the
same branch circuits. Since portable appliances and “plug-in” lights are not used all of the
time, the voltage drop will vary according to the number of lights and appliances in use. This
problem is usually not encountered in an industrial or commercial wiring design for lights,
since the lighting units are usually larger and are permanently installed on the branch
circuits.
Example 11:
Determine the feeder conductor size. The next larger size conductor is 400 MCM.
The 400 MCM RHW copper conductor will carry 335 amperes. This is less than the required
354.2 amperes, so use the next larger size, which is a 500 MCM conductor.
Example 12:
feeder circuit (three hot lines) will be a 300-foot length of RH copper conductor. The
maximum voltage drop is 1%.
Find the feeder size required (based on the voltage drop of the circuit).
Solution:
A two-core, single-phase distributor, ABCD, is 640 m long, is fed at end A only, and
supplies loads at B, C, and D. the distance from A to B is 274.3 m, that from B to C is 274.3 m,
and that from C to D is 91.4 m. the distributor has a resistance of 0.2 and an inductive
reactance of 0.075, each per 914.4 m of single core. Calculate the voltage required at A so
that the voltage at D shall be 220 V when the loads are as follows:
30 A at unity PF., at D.
In figure 1.6, the current fed in from end A is assumed to be A and the currents in
the other sections have been obtained using Kirchhoff’s first law.
Solution:
Obviously, these currents are alternating, but the arrows are useful in that they
indicate the direction of energy flow. Also they show that B is the point of minimum
potential.
Example 15:
Calculate the current distribution when the distributor in example 1.4 is fed at end A
at 250 V and at end B at 245 V, the load being unaltered.
Calculate the current distribution when the two-core ring main represented by the
single-line diagram, figure 1.10, is fed at point A.
Solution:
The solution is the same as that for a distributor fed from both ends at the same potential.
See example 1-4.
Example 17:
Calculate the current distribution when the two-core ring main represented by the
single-line diagram, figure 1.12, is fed at point A at 250 V. hence calculate the voltage at
each load point.