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Calculus and Analytic Geometry: University of Calicut
Calculus and Analytic Geometry: University of Calicut
STUDY MATERIAL
B.SC. MATHEMATICS
III SEMESTER
CORE COURSE
CU CBCSS
(2014 ADMISSION ONWARDS)
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
THENJIPALAM, CALICUT UNIVERSITY P.O. MALAPPURAM, KERALA - 693 635
352A
School of Distance Education
UNIVERSTY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
Study Material
3. ax and log ax 19
5. L’Hospital’s Rule 30
6. Hyperbolic Functions 38
2. Infinite series 58
MODULE I
Chapter1: Natural Logarithm
Example 1.
Example 2:
Example 3:
Example 4:
Problem:
Solution:
We take natural logarithm on both sides
Chapter 2
The Exponential Function
Example:1
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Growth and Decay
Chapter 5
L’Hospital’s Rule
Chapter 6
Hyperbolic Functions
Problem-1
Problem-2
Problem-3
Problem-4
Problem-5
Problem-6.
Problem-7.
Problem-8.
Problem-9.
Problem- 10.
Problem-11 .
Problem-12.
Problem-13
Problem -14
Problem-15
Problem-16.
Problem-17.
Problem-18.
L’Hospital’s Rule
Problem-19.
Problem-20.
Problem- 21.
Problem-22.
Problem-23.
Problem-24.
Problem-25
Problem-26
Hyperbolic Functions
Problem-27.
Problem-
28.
Problem-29.
Problem-30.
Problem-31.
GRAPHS
MODULE II
Chapter 1
Sequences of real numbers
DEFNITION
EXAMPLES
PROBLEM 1
Prove that →∞ = 0, = 1/ .
Solution
Choose any > 0, we have to find a natural number such that │ − 0 │ < for all
≥
, 1/ < . , > 1/
so lim → = 0.
BOUNDED SEQUENCES
DEFNITION
A sequence { } is said to be bounded from above if there exist a real number such that
≤ . The number M is an upper bound for { }.
If M is an upper bound for { } and no number less than M is an upper bound for{an},then M
is the least upper bound for { }
{ }is said to be bounded from below ,if there exist areal number m such that ≥ for all
n.
IF m is a lower bound for {an} and no number greater than m is a lower bound for { },then
m is the greatest lower bound for { }.
EXAMPLES
1. {1/n} is bounded from below and from above .hence it is a bounded sequence.
Here 1 is the least upper bound and 0 is the greatest lower bound.
2. The Sequence {n} is bounded from below but is not bounded from above
.hence it is not bounded
3. The sequence {(−1) } is bounded above and below. hence it is a bounded
sequence.
THEOREM
If the sequence of real numbers { } is convergent .Then the limit of { }is unique.
Proof.
THEOREM
A nondecreasing sequence of real numbers converges if and only if it is bounded
from above.If a nondecreasing sequence converges ,it converges to its least upper
bound.
PROBLEM
Evaluate lim →
Solution
We have lim( → ) = 0. Using limit rules we can write
−1 1 1
lim = lim (1 − ) = lim 1 − lim = 1 − 0 = 1
→ → → →
PROBLEM
Evaluate lim
→
Solution
PROBLEM
Evaluate lim
→
Solution
lim = lim ( )(
= lim =0
→ → ) →
PROBLEM
Evaluate lim
→
Solution
We have −1 ≤ ≤1
So − ≤ ≤
THEOREM
PROBLEM
Evaluate lim
→
Solution
lim = lim = =2
→ →
Let ( ) = √ then f is continuous on the set of all non negative real numbers
and hence continuous at 2. So by previous theorem we get
RESULTS
1. lim → =0
2. lim → =1
4. If │ │ < 1, lim → =0
5. lim → 1+ =
PROBLEM
Evaluate lim → 1+
Solution
PROBLEM
Evaluate lim → (4 n)
Solution
EXERCISES
a) =
.
b) =8
c) =
d) = −√ −
Answers
2) 1, , , ,
Chapter 2
Infinite series
DEFNITION
Let { } be a sequence of real numbers. Then the sum of the infinite number
of terms of this sequence i.e, + + +. . . . . . . . . + + ⋯ … is defined as
an infinite series.
If denotes the the sum of the first n terms of this series i.e, = +
+ +. . . . . . . . . +
EXAMPLES
∑ =1+ + + + + ⋯………..+ + ……
=∑ = 1 + + ⋯……+ .
=∑ = -1, if n is odd
0, if n is even
If the sequence of partial sums does not converge ,then the series diverges.
PROBLEM
Show that the series 1 + + 1/2 + ⋯ … ….converges
Solution
Here the sequence of partial sums is given by
1 1
= =1+ + ⋯……+ .
2 2
1
1−
= 2
1
1−
2
1
=2−
2
1
→0 →∞ ( , 1/2 < 1)
2
1
lim = lim 2 − = 2
→ 2→
ℎere the sequence of partial sums converges and so the given series converges and
its sum is 2.
PROBLEM
Discuss the convergence of the series + + + ⋯..+ )
+ ⋯……
. . . .(
Solution
Here = nth term of the series = )
= −
.(
Hence
1 1
= −
1 2
1 1
= –
2 3
1 1
= −
3 4
……………………
…………………….
1 1
= −
+1
Adding we get
= + + + ⋯……+ = 1−
Since →0 →∞,
lim =1
→
here the sequence of partial sums converges .So the given series is converget and
its sum is 1.
GEOMETRIC SERIES
+ + + + ⋯…….. + ⋯…….= ∑ ,
Where and are fixed real numbers and ≠ 0.The number r is known as the
ratio of the geometric series.
RESULT
EXAMPLE
THEOREMS ON CONVERGENCE
THEOREM
THEOREM
RESULT
PROBLEM
Solution
PROBLEM
( )
Find the sum of the series ∑ ( + )
Solution
( ) ( )
∑ ( + )=∑ +∑ (using sum rule)
∑ = /1 −
= = =1
( )
∑ is also a geometric series, with = − and = −
= =
= -1/7
( ) ( )
Therefore ∑ ( + ) )=∑ +∑
= 1 − 1/7 = 6/7
PROBLEM
Solution
Here both series on the right side ,are geometric series . for the first series
= 5 and = and for the second series = 1 and =
For both the series , the common ratio is less than 1,so both series converges
and their sums are
∑ ( + ) =∑ +∑
= +
= +
= 10 +
PROBLEM
Solution
= .Here │ │ = │ │<1
∑ = =
PROBLEM
Examine the convergence of the series ∑ cos
Solution
∑ cos = 0 + + 2 + ⋯….+ + ⋯..
= 1 + (−1) + 1 + (−1) + ⋯ … + (−1) + ⋯ …
Which is a geometric series with = 1, and = −1.here │ │ = 1,so the
given series diverges.
OR
Here lim → = lim → (−1) does not exist ,so the given series diverges.
EXERCISES
1.Which of the following series converge and which diverge ? If a series
converge, find its sum:
a) ∑
b) ∑ (−1) ( )
c) a) ∑ (2 − 1)/3
2.Find the values of for which the geometric series converges. Also find the sum of
the series for those values of :
a) ∑
b) ∑ 2
c) ∑ (−1) (1 + )
3. Form a Geometric series that converges to the number 5 if = 2.
Answers
1. (a) converges .8. (b) converges , 1. (c) converges ,3/2.
( )
2. (a) ≠ , integer, . (b) │ │ < 1/2, .
(c) −2 < < 0,
3. = 3/5.
SERIES WITH NON NEGATIVE TERMS
THEOREM
PROBLEM
Solution
To show that the given series diverges we need only show that the sequence
{ } of its partial sums is not bounded from above.
1+ + ( + ) + ( + + + ) + ( + + ⋯ … … … . . ) + ⋯ ..
The sum of the first two terms is 1.5
The sum of the next two terms is + > + = =
The sum of the next 2 terms is
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1
+ + + > + + + = =
5 6 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 2
The sum of the next 2 terms is
1 1 1 1 1 1 8 1
+ + ⋯………..+ > + + ⋯….+ = =
9 10 16 16 16 16 16 2
In general ,the sum of 2 terms ending with is
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
+ + ………+ > + + ⋯…+ = =
2 +1 2 +2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Hence if = 2 ,then
= 1+ +( + )+( + + + )+ ( ) + ⋯….+ )
> + + + ⋯ ….( times) = /2.
Hence the sequence { } of partial sums is not bounded from above, so the give
series is divergent.
RESULT
The -Series ∑ = + + + ⋯…+ + ⋯ … where is areal constant
,converges if > 1 and diverges if ≤ 1.
COMPARISON TESTS FOR NONNEGATIVE TERMS
The Direct Comparison Test
Let ∑ be a series with nonnegative terms. Then
a) ∑ n converges if there is a convergent series ∑ n with ≤ for all > ,
for some positive integer m
b) ∑ n diverges if there is a divergent series of nonnegative terms ∑ n with an
≥ dn for all n>m, for some positive integer m.
The Limit Comparison Test
Suppose that an>0 and bn>0 for all n ≥ m ,for some positive integer m,
a) If limn→∞ an / bn = c>0 ,then ∑ n and ∑ n both converge or diverge
together.
PROBLEM
Test for convergence of the series + + + ⋯…
√ . √ . √ .
Solution
Here the nth term =
( )
Take =
Then = =
( ) ( / )
=
( )
Take =
( )
Then = =
( )( ) ( )( )
Here an=
Take bn =1/n
Then / = .
Take =
√
Then an/bn = √
=
√
EXERCISES
1) Test for convergence of the series + + + 9/25 + ⋯ ..
2)Discuss the convergence of the series ∑
3) discuss the convergence of the series ∑ sin
= ( + 1) / = 1+
PROBLEM
Test the convergence of the series ∑
Solution
Here = and =
( )
Then = /
( )
=
( )
3 1
So lim → = lim → = >1
2 1 3
1+
So by Ratio test the series diverges.
The nth Root Test
Let ∑ n be a series with ≥ 0 for ≥ and suppose that lim → √ =
√ n = =2/ √
limn→∞ √ n = limn→∞ ( 2/( √ )2 =2/1=2>1.
So by nth root test the series is divergent.
PROBLEM
Test for convergence the series ∑ ( √ -1)n
Solution
Here an =( √ -1)n then √ n = √ -1
Therefore,
limn→∞ √ n = limn→∞ ( √ - 1) =1 -1=0<1
Therefore by nth –Root test the given series diverges.
EXERCISES
1.Test for convergence:
a) ∑
b) ∑ ( + 1)( + 2)/ !
n
c) ∑ /n!
d) ∑
2.Discuss the convergence of the series + + + ⋯ … ..
3.Test the series 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ …. for convergence for all positive values of .
n
4.Examine the convergence of the series ∑ /(2n)2
∑
5. Examine the convergence of the series
Answers
1. (a)diverges (b)converges (c)divergent (d) converges
2. Converges
3. Converges if x<1 ,diverges if x≥1
4. Diverges
5. Converges.
ALTERNATING SERIES
A series in which the terms are alternately positive and negative is an
alternating series.
EXAMPLE
( )
1. 1 − + − + − + ⋯……+ + ⋯ … ..
2. 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ … … … … . +(−1) + ⋯…………….
Leibniz’s Test or Alternating series test
The series ∑ (−1)n+1 un =u1 –u2 + u3 – u4 +……
Converges if all three of the conditions are satisfied :
1.The un᾽s are all positive.
2. un ≥un+1 for all positive integer n.
3. limn→∞ un =0
PROBLEM
Examine the convergence of the series : − + − +
⋯ … … … ….(p>0)
Solution
Given series is an alternating series of the form ∑ (−1) , =
1
= = <1 ( > 0)
( + 1) 1
1+
therefore un+1<un
Also limn→∞ un = limn→∞ 1/np =0 (since p>0)
So the given series satisfies all the three conditions of the Leibniz’s test and
hence the series converges.
ABSOLUTE CONVERGENCE AND CONDITIONAL CONVEGENCE
DEFNITION
Let ∑ be a series real numbers.then
MODULE III
Chapter I
Power Series
=1 + + + ⋯……+ + ⋯ ..
This is a power series with = 1, for every n. See that, the given series is a
geometric series with first term 1 and common ratio x. So the sum of the series
is, , provided | | < 1. So,
= 1 + + + ⋯……+ + ⋯ . . , −1 < < 1.
Example: Consider the power series,
1 1 1
1 − ( − 2) + ( − 2) + ⋯ … … + − ( − 2) + ⋯ …
2 4 2
Find the sum and the interval in which the power series converges to this sum?
Solution: Given series is a geometric series with first term = 1 and common
ratio
= − ( − 2). So it converges when | | < 1 and the sum is .
Therefore, the series converges when,
| | < 1 ⟹ − ( − 2) < 1 ⟹ ( − 2) < 1 ⟹ −1 < ( − 2) < 1
⟹ −2 < − 2 < 2 ⟹ 0 < < 4
1 1 2 2
= = = = =
1− 1 1 2+ −2
1 − − ( − 2) 1 + ( − 2)
2 2
Hence, = 1 − ( − 2) + ( − 2) + ⋯ … … + − ( − 2) + ⋯ …and
the series converges to the sum when 0 < < 4
If the power series converges, when | − | < and diverges when| − | >
, then R is called the radius of convergence of the power series. The power
series converges in the interval, − < < + .
For a geometric power series we can find the radius of convergence from the
condition | | < 1.
For other power series’ we may make use of ratio test to find the radius of
convergence.
We have the series ∑ converges when, lim → < 1 and diverges
when lim → > 1. So the power series ∑ ( − ) converges
( ) ( )
when, lim → ( )
< 1 ⟹ lim → <1
⟹ | − | < lim
→
So choose = lim →
Remarks: 1) If = ∞, the power series converges everywhere.
2) If = 0, the power series converges at = and diverges everywhere else.
( ) ( )
Solution: a) = . =
( )
= lim → = lim ( )
= lim − = lim = lim 1 + =
→ → → →
1.
(∑ ) (∑ )=∑
Example:
1 1 1
= . =( )( )
(1 − ) 1− 1−
=( )( )= = ( + 1)
: ( )= ( − )
Similarly, ( )=∑ ( − 1) ( − ) ,
Each of the series converge for, − < < +
1
( )= =1+ + + ⋯……+ + ⋯..= , −1 < <1
1−
Solution:
( )
1
= =1+2 +3 +4 + ⋯……+ + ⋯..
(1 − )
= , −1 < <1
2
′′( ) = = 2 + 6 + 12 + ⋯ … … + ( − 1) + ⋯..
(1 − )
= ( − 1) , −1 < <1
1
: ( )=
1+x
Integrating, ( ) = ∫ = tan + .
From the given series, (0) = 0 − + ⋯ . . = 0
Therefore, (0) = tan 0 +
: = 0.
Hence, ( ) = tan , −1 < < 1
( )
So, ( ) = ∑ = x− + + ⋯… = , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
Example: Use the series 1 − + − + ⋯ … … , −1 < < 1, to find a
series for ln (1 + )
Solution:
We have, = 1 − + − + ⋯ … … , −1 < < 1.
Integrating over (0, ), we get,
= − + − + ⋯……
1+ 2 3 4
: [ln (1 + )] = − + − + ⋯ ..
2 3 4
(−1)
: ln(1 + ) = − + − + ⋯..= , −1 < <1
2 3 4
Remark: Convergence of a power series in the radius of convergence is
absolute convergence.
Additional Problems
1. Find the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of the series,
∑ (−1) (4 + 1) . Also find the sum.
Solution:
∑ (−1) (4 + 1) = 1 − (4 + 1) + (4 + 1) − (4 + 1) + ⋯ .. is a
geometric series with first term = 1 = −(4 + 1). So
it converges when | | < 1 ⟹ |−(4 + 1)| < 1 ⟹ |4 + 1| < 1
So radius of convergence is 1.
1
⟹ −1 < 4 + 1 < 1 ⟹ −2 < 4 < 0 ⟹ − < < 0
2
and diverges otherwise. Again the power series converges to the sum
1 1 1
= = =
1− 1— [−(4 + 1)] 1 + 4 + 1 4 + 2
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( ) ( )
= and =
( )
= lim → = lim → ( )
= lim = lim 1 + =1.
→ →
( ) ( )
=∑ =∑
which is divergent. When = −1,
(−1) ( + 2) (−1) (−1 + 2)
=
+1
Solution: The radius of convergence can be evaluated using root test. Consider
lim | | = lim
→ → +1
= lim | |
→ +1
= lim | |
→ 1
(1 + )
1
= lim | |
→ 1
(1 + )
1
| |
So the power series converges when,
| | < 1 or
| |< − < < . So the radius of convergence is .
Exercises:
1. Find the radius and interval of convergence of
( )
a) ∑
b) ∑ ( + 5)
( )
c) ∑
d) ∑ 1+
( )
e) ∑ (−1)
Chapter 2
Taylor And Maclaurin Series
Consider the power series,
( )=∑ ( − ) = + ( − ) + ( − ) + ⋯……+
( − ) + ⋯.
Substituting = in the equation, we get,
( ) = + ( − ) + ( − ) + ⋯……+ ( − ) + ⋯.=
Again,
( )= + 2 ( − ) + 3 ( − ) + ⋯……+ ( − ) + ⋯ ..
( )= + 2 ( − ) + 3 ( − ) + ⋯……+ ( − ) + ⋯ ..
So, ( )=
( )
So, ( ) = 2 . In general ( ) = ! . So = .
!
Hence the power series can be written as,
( )=∑ ( − ) = + ( − )+ ( − ) + ⋯……+
( − ) + ⋯.
( ) ( ) ( )
= ( )+ ( − )+ ( − ) + ⋯……+ ( − ) + ⋯.
1! 2! !
Definitions:
Let be a function with derivatives of all orders throughout some interval
containing as an interior point. Then the Taylor Series generated by at
= is,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( − ) = ( )+ ( − )+ ( − ) +⋯……+ ( − ) + ⋯.
! 1! 2! !
Example:
Find the Taylor series generated by ( ) = at = 2. Where, if anywhere,
does the series converge to ?
Solution:
The Taylor series at = 2 is,
(2) (2) (2) (2)
( − 2) = (2) + ( − 2) + ( − 2) + ⋯ … … + ( − 2) + ⋯.
! 1! 2! !
1
( )=
22!
( )=− =−
6 3!
( )= =
!
In general, ( ) = (−1)
1
(2) =
2
2!
(2) = −
2
3!
(3) =
2
… … … … … ….
!
(2) = (−1)
2
So the Taylor series of ( )
(2) (2) (2)
(2) + ( − 2) + ( − 2) + ⋯ … … + ( − 2) + ⋯ …
1! 2! !
1 ( − 2) ( − 2) (−1) ( − 2)
= − + + ⋯……+ + ⋯…
2 2 2 2
This is a geometric series with first term and common ratio =− . So
when | | < 1 ⟹ − < 1 ⟹ | − 2| < 2 ⟹ −2 < −2<2⟹0< <
4, the series converges to the sum
1
2 1 1
= =
−2 2+ −2
1+
2
Taylor Polynomials
Let ƒ be a function with derivatives of order k, for = 1,2, … . , in some
interval containing a as an interior point. Then for any integer n from 0 through
N, the Taylor polynomial of order n generated by ƒ at = is the polynomial
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )= ( )+ ( − )+ ( − ) + ⋯…+ ( − ) +. . … + ( − )
1! 2! ! !
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Example:
Find the Taylor series and Taylor Polynomial generated by ( ) = , = 0.
Solution:
We have ( ) = , ( ) = , ( ) = , … … … . , ( ) = , …., and
therefore, (0) = 1, (0) = 1, (0) = 1, … … … . , (0) = 1, ….
So, the Taylor series generated by ( ) = , = 0, is,
(0) (0) (0)
(0) + + + ⋯……+ + ⋯ ..
1! 2! !
2
=1+ + + ⋯ … + +. . … … =
1! 2! ! !
and the Taylor Polynomial of degree n is,
( )=1+ + + ⋯…+
1! ! 2!
Example:
Find the Taylor series and Taylor Polynomial generated by
( ) = cos , =0
Solution:
We have ( ) = cos , ( ) = − sin , ( ) = − cos , f ( ) = sin and so
on. Therefore, (0) = 1, (0) = 0, (0) = −1, (0) = 0, ….
So, the Taylor series generated by ( ) = cos , = 0, is,
(0) (0) (0)
(0) + + + ⋯……+ + ⋯ ..
1! 2! !
2 3 4 2
= 1 + 0. + −1 + 0. + 1. … … + −1 +. . … … = (−1)
1! 2! 3! 4! (2 )! (2 )!
and the Taylor Polynomial of degree 2n is,
( )= 1− + + ⋯ … + (−1)
2! 4! (2 )!
Additional Problems
1. Find the Taylor series generated by ( ) = 2 at = 1.
( )(
Solution: ( ) = 2 , ′( ) = 2 ln 2, ( ) = 2 ( 2) , ) = 2 ( 2)
1 + + + ⋯….+ + ⋯.
So, the Maclaurin series generated by ( ) = − is,
(1 − + + ⋯ … + (−1) + ⋯ … ..)-(1 + + + ⋯….+ + ⋯.)
! ! ( )!
=− − − −
+ − + ⋯ … ..
! !
3 23
=− − − − + ⋯ ..
2 24
The Maclaurin series of is valid for every ,but the Taylor series of
converges for −1 < < 1. So the resulting series converges absolutely for
−1 < < 1.
3. Find the Maclaurin series of
Solution:
The Maclaurin series of sin is
(0) (0) ( ) (0)
(0) + + + ⋯……+ + ⋯ ..
1! 2! !
(−1)
= − + − ⋯……+ + ⋯ … ..
3! 5! (2 + 1)!
So the Maclaurin series of is,
(−1)
− 2 + 2 − ⋯……+ 2 + ⋯ … ..
2 3! 5! (2 + 1)!
(−1)
= − + − ⋯……+ + ⋯…..
2 2 . 3! 2 . 5! 2 (2 + 1)!
∞
(−1)
=
2 (2 + 1)!
=0
Exercise:
1. Find the Taylor Polynomials of order 0,1,2 and 3 for
a) ( ) = , =0
b) ( ) = , =2
c) ( ) = sin , =
b) ( ) = , =1
3. Find the first three terms of Maclaurin series and the values of x for which
the series converges absolutely if,
( ) = sin ln (1 + )
Answers:
1. a) ( ) = 1, ( ) = 1+2 , ( ) = 1+2 +2 , ( )=1+2 +2 +
b) ( )= , ( ) = − ( − 2), ( )=
− ( − 2) + ( − 2) , ( ) = − ( − 2) + ( − 2) − ( − 2)
√ √ √ √ √ √
c) ( )= , ( )= + − , ( )= + − + − ,
√2 √2 √2 2 √2 3
( )= + − + − − −
2 2 4 4 4 12 4
2. a) ∑ ( − 2) b) ∑ (−1) ( + 1)( − 1)
!
3. − + + ⋯…
Chapter 3
Convergence of Taylor Series
Taylor’s Theorem:
If and it’s first derivatives , , , … … . . ( ) are continuous on
the closed interval between and , and ( ) is differentiable on the open interval
between and , then there exists a number and such that,
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )= ( )+ ( )( − ) + ( − ) + ⋯.+ ( − ) + ( − )
2! ! ( + 1)!
Taylor’s Formula:
If has derivatives of all orders on an open interval , containing , then
for each positive integer and each in ,
( ) ( )( )
( )= ( )+ ( )( − ) + ( − ) +⋯.+ ( − ) + ( ), where,
! !
( )( )
( )=
( )!
( − ) , for some c between and .
This equation is called the Taylor’s Formula, and the function ( ) is called the
reminder of order or the error term for approximation of ( ) by ( )
Remark: We can express ( ) as the sum of Taylor Polynomial of degree ,
( ) and ( ).
: ( )= ( )+ ( ).
Convergence
If ( ) → 0 as → ∞, for all ∈ , we say that the Taylor series generated by at
= converges to on , and we write
∞
( )
( )= ( − )
!
=0
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) = (0 ) + + + ⋯……+ + ( ),
! ! !
( )( )
Where ( )=
( )!
: =1+ + + ⋯…+ + ( )
1! 2! !
Where ( )= for some between 0 and .
( )!
Since is finite and lim → = 0 for every , lim ( ) = 0.nSo the series
( )! →
converges to for every . Thus,
= =1+ + + ⋯…+ + ⋯.
! 1! 2! !
=0
( ) ( )( )=1
( ) = 0,
…………………………………………………………………………….
( ) ( )( )
(0) = (−1) sin 0 = 0, 0 = (−1) cos 0 = (−1) .
By Taylor formula,
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) = (0 ) + + + ⋯……+ + ( ),
! ! !
( )( )
Where ( )=
( )!
1 0 −1 (−1)
: sin =0+ + + + ⋯………+ + ( )
1! 2! 3! (2 + 1 )!
(−1)
: sin = − + − ⋯……+ + ( )
3! 5! (2 + 1 )!
( )( )
Where ( )=
( )!
Example: Show that the Taylor series for cos at = 0 converges for all .
As in the above example, we have,
( )
cos =1+ + + + ⋯………+ ( )!
+ ( )
! ! !
(−1)
ie cos =1− + − ⋯………+ + ( )
2! 4! (2 )!
All the derivatives of cos have absolute value less than or equal to 1.
So, = 1 and
.| |
| ( )| ≤ .
( )!
a) (2 + cos ) b) cos
Solution:
a) We have the Taylor series generated by cos at = 0 is
∞
(−1)
cos = = 1 − + − + ⋯……
(2 )! 2! 4! 6!
=0
1 2
(2 + cos ) = + cos
3 3 3
2
= + 1− + − + ⋯……
3 3 2! 4! 6!
2
= + − + − ⋯……
3 3 6 72
= =1+ + + + ⋯……
! 1! 2! 3!
=0
Therefore,
=1+ + − − + + − + …
1! 2! 2! 1! 2! 3! 4! 2! 2! 4!
=1+ − − + ⋯ … … … … … ….
3 6
Remark: If ( ) is a continuous function, we can use the Taylor series of ( ) to find
the Taylor series of ( ( ))
2 2 2
=1− + − + ⋯……
2! 4! 6!
∞
(−1) 2
=
(2 )!
=0
sin = − ⋮+ − + ⋯……
3! 5! 7!
This is an alternating series for positive values.
c) cos(5 )
2. Using power series operations find the Taylor series at = 0 of the following
functions.
a) sin
b) cos
Answers:
(−1) 5
1. a) ∑ !
(−1)2 +1 2 +1 2 +1
b) ∑
22 +1 2 +1 !
2 4
(−1)2 5
c) ∑ 2 !
(−1)2 +1 2 +3
2.a) ∑ 2 +1 !
b) − + − + ⋯.= ∑ (−1)
! ! ! ( )!
( ) ( )
c) 1 + ∑ .( )!
3. − + − + ⋯ ….
MODULE IV
Chapater 1
Conic Sections, Parametrized Curves,
And Polar Coordinates
Definition:-
A circle is the set of points in a plane whose distance from a given fixed point in the
plane is constant. The fixed point is the center of the circle; the constant distance is the
radius.
the standard equation of a circle with center (h, k) and radius a is (x - h)2 + (y - k)2 =
a2.
the standard equation of a circle with center at the origin and radius a is x2 + y2 = a2.
Definition:-
A set that consists of all the points in a plane equidistant from a given fixed point and a
given fixed line in the plane is a parabola. The fixed point is the focus ofthe parabola. The
fixed line is the directrix.
Definition:-
An ellipse is the set of points in a plane whose distances from two fixed points
in the plane have a constant sum. The two fixed points are the foci of the ellipse.
Definition:-
The line through the foci of an ellipse is the ellipse’s focal axis. The point on the axis
halfway between the foci is the center. The points where the focal axis and ellipse cross are
the ellipse’s vertices
The ellipse defined by the equation PF1 + PF2 = 2a is the graph of the equation + =1
The major axis of the ellipse + = 1 is the line segment of length 2a joining the points
(± , 0) . The minor axis is the line segment of length 2b joining the points (0,± ).The
number a itself is the semimajor axis, the number b the semiminor axis. The number
=√ − is the center-to-focus distance of the ellipse.
( ) ( )
the equation + = 1 represent an ellipse having center at (h,k)
and axes parallel to the coordinate axes. The length of the semi-major axis and
semi-minor axis are a and b respectively.
Definition:-
A hyperbola is the set of points in a plane whose distances from two fixed points in
the plane have a constant difference. The two fixed points are the foci of the hyperbola.
Definition:-
The line through the foci of a hyperbola is the focal axis. The point on the axis
halfway between the foci is the hyperbola’s center. The points where the focal axis and
hyperbola cross are the vertices
Hyperbolas have two branches. For points on the right-hand branch of the hyperbola
shown here, PF1 – PF2 =2a . For points on the left-hand branch, PF2 – PF1 =2a,
the line = ± are the two asymptotes of the hyperbola
Definition:-
√
The eccentricity of the ellipse + = 1 ( > ) is = =
√
The eccentricity of the hyperbola − = 1 is = =
The eccentricity of the parabola is =1
Remark:-
In both ellipse and hyperbola, the eccentricity is the ratio of the distance between the
foci to the distance between the vertices (because c>a = 2c>2a).
Eccentricity =( distance between foci) /(distance between vertices)
For ellipse and hyperbola , the lines = ± act as directrices
The “focus–directrix” equation PF=e.PD unites the parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola
in the following way. Suppose that the distance PF of a point P from a fixed point F
(the focus) is a constant multiple of its distance from a fixed line (the directrix). That
is, suppose PF=e.PD where e is the constant of proportionality. Then the path traced
by P is
EXAMPLE 1
Find the ellipse’s standard form equation if the foci are(3,0) and (-3,0) and the
eccentricity is 0.5
for
In practice, this means determining a from one of the two equation
Solution The position P(x, y) of a particle moving in the xy-plane is given by the
equations and parameter interval
x = a cos t , y = b sin t , 0≤ ≤ 2 .
Solution We find a Cartesian equation for the coordinates of P by eliminating t between
the equations
x = a cos t , y = b sin t
We accomplish this with the identity + = 1 which yields + = 1 .
Since the particle’s coordinates (x, y) satisfy the equation the motion takes place
somewhere on this ellipse. When t=0 , th particle’s coordinate are x = a cos(0) = a, y = b
sin(0) = 0 so the motion starts at (a,0). As t increases, the particle rises and moves towards
the left , moving counter clockwise. It traverses the ellipse once, returning to its starting
position (a,0) at time t=2 .
Polar Coordinates
To define polar coordinates, we first fix an origin O (called the pole) and an
initial ray from O . Then each point P can be located by assigning to it a polar
coordinate pair(r, ) in which r gives the directed distance from O to P and
gives the directed angle from the initial ray to ray OP.
EXAMPLE 1 Write the standard polar and cartesian equation for the line in figure
.
Solution
Circles
Polar Equation for the Ellipse with Eccentricity e and Semimajor Axis a
a.