When responding to a call to the scene of an apparent explosion, the investigator is

required
to have a working knowledge of a diverse set of disciplines. These include the
ability to
assess the incident to determine if, in fact, there has been an explosion;
investigate the
scene for evidence; identify bomb components; and recognize and document the dynamics
of the explosion. The dynamics of the explosion involve what occurs when an explosive
is
initiated and the results of that initiation. In other words, given a quantity of
explosives and
a suitable method of initiation or fuzing system, when an explosion occurs, what are
the
observable physical results? This explanation or knowledge assists the investigator
immeasurably
in understanding what he or she sees at the site of an explosion.
Rock blasters know that in order to move a rock, a number of factors need to be
considered:
the type of rock, drilling methods, type of explosive to be used, and the desired
end result of the blasting, that is, is it for clearing the way for a new road,
blasting the rock
from a quarry, or removing the rock from a building site? They start their work
knowing
the expected result beforehand. However, the bombing investigator begins with the
result—fragmented debris and the devastation at an explosion site—and they must work
in
reverse to understand not only the event that caused the scene but also how it
occurred. An
understanding of explosion theory and dynamics will assist the investigator in
forming a
theory or hypothesis in the search for these answers. To be sure, even with an
understanding
of explosion dynamics there will be times when the effects of a bombing are difficult
to
understand or when they defy an explanation. Similarly, the rock blaster may have
years of
experience and may have planned the shot to the minutest detail, but sometimes the
results
are not what had been expected. Sometimes, explosives do things that we do not
expect.
This chapter provides a road map for the investigator to understand, for example, why
there is massive window breakage, but no structural damage, blocks away from the site
of an
apparently small explosive device contained within a vehicle on a city street.
Additionally,
this chapter defines and explains the terms an investigator should know, including
explosion,
detonation, high and low explosives, high order and low order, velocity of explosion
(VOE), velocity of detonation (VOD), and explosives. Also, this chapter provides a
description
of the four types of explosions and the expected effects of these explosions.
Finally,
we study various explosive trains or initiation systems and the special use of
explosives in
various configurations, such as the shaped charge explosive.
This chapter starts the process of laying the foundation for all subsequent chapters
in
preparing the investigator to effectively respond to the explosion scene. To lay this
foundation,
the investigator is required to have a working knowledge of a number of terms
associated
with explosives and the basic problem-solving or investigative model.

With regard to conducting a bombing crime scene, or for that matter, any
investigation,
a problem-solving model should be identified, understood, and utilized. This model
can
be applied not only to investigations but also to social and behavioral sciences,
business
and management principles, and a wide variety of other problem-solving situations.
The
“scientific method” is such a model in that it provides a systematic approach to
solving a
problem. As defined by the Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, the scientific
method
is the principle for the systematic pursuit of knowledge involving the recognition
and
formulation of a problem, collection of data through observation and experimentation,
and formulation and testing of hypotheses. This method or model, although not
necessarily
recognized as such has been utilized by the investigative community over a very
long period of time. In fact, the method is unwittingly utilized every day by every
one of
us, from the time we wake up in the morning until we go to bed at night. Therefore,
it is
a simple and straightforward approach to problem solving that can be used by anyone,
regardless of whether the user has a scientific background or not.
The scientific method has seven identifiable steps: (1) identify that a problem
exists;
(2) define the problem; (3) collect empirical data; (4) analyze the data through
inductive
reasoning; (5) develop a hypothesis; (6) test that hypothesis through deductive
reasoning,
and (7) examine the conclusions and determine the course of action or the cause of
the
incident. By way of illustration, an example of the practical application of the
scientific
method in a case involving a reported explosion (Figure 1.1) is given here.
Before any investigation can begin, there must be an incident or a report of an
explosion.
The first responder or investigator does not know if the report is correct or not; so
he or she will go to the reported scene to determine whether there is a problem. In
some
instances, this may not be as easy as one would believe. However, in this example, it
is evident
that there has been an explosion, and the steps to be followed by the investigator
are
as follows:
1. The problem needs to be defined, that is, what type of explosion was it? The
explosion of an explosive or a fuel–air explosion (FAE), such as a natural gas
explosion?
2. Empirical data (based on an investigator’s observation and experience) need to
be collected from the scene by examining or looking at the scene and conducting
interviews. These data would include the physical characteristics present at the
scene as a result of the explosion.
3. The information collected is then analyzed by inductive reasoning or in the light
of the investigator’s knowledge, training, and experience.
4. After the information is analyzed, it is possible to formulate a theory or a
hypothesis
to explain what happened. This hypothesis cannot be based on speculation,
hunches, or perceived facts, but only on the empirical data collected and analyzed
by the investigator.
5. In this case, the characteristics observed at the scene are indicative but not
conclusive,
at this point, of an explosion from a mixture of air and natural gas, that
is, an FAE. The investigator now tests the hypothesis that it was an FAE by
considering
all the other logical causes of the explosion. This deductive reasoning can

A high explosive is an explosive substance or compound that supports a detonation

wave, irrespective of the ambient condition of confinement. In other words,
confinement
is not a requirement for a high explosive to function properly. However, when
confined, its
speed of reaction or VOD increases and it has the capability of producing greater
damage
than unconfined high explosives. For example, dynamite contained within a metal pipe
has the capability of producing more damage than the same quantity not contained
within
a pipe, an effect that is independent of the effects of the deadly shrapnel that blow
away
from the fragmenting pipe bomb. Additionally, the high explosive’s reaction or
burning is
supersonic within the explosive. That is, the speed of the reaction within the
cartridge of
the explosive is higher than the speed of sound at sea level (1085 ft/s). Dynamite,
ANFO,
water gel, emulsion, cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine (RDX), pentaerythritol
tetranitrate
(PETN), and octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7 tetrazocine (HMX) are examples of
high
explosives. As with low explosives, many improvised formulations of high explosives
have
been utilized in the fabrication of IEDs, such as the explosives utilized in the
truck bombing
of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City.
High explosives detonate at velocities above 3300 ft/s. Overall, their
characteristics
include the following: supersonic (faster than the speed of sound in the product)
reactions
taking place in the explosive produce and support a detonation wave; they detonate;
the
material is usually a compound; depending on the type of high explosive, detonation
can
be initiated by either a weak flame or a shock; no confinement is required for the
detonation;
and the resulting explosion produces a high brisance, or shattering effect. High
explosives have a very broad range of detonating velocities. Some “slow” dynamites
have a
VOD as low as 6000 ft/s, whereas the very-high-energy explosive HMX has a VOD of over
27,000 ft/s. The high explosives trinitrotoluene (TNT), PETN, RDX, and nitroglycerin
are
true compounds. However, dynamite, water gels, and emulsions are mixtures containing
materials that are compounds (e.g., nitroglycerine in dynamite) and others that are
not.
Most high explosives are initiated with a detonator, which creates sufficient shock
for detonation.
Whereas primary explosives, a type of high explosive that will be discussed in detail
in Section 1.5, require no more energy than a spark to detonate, blasting agents, also
a high
explosive, require a “booster” to function.
Characteristics of High Explosives
• Detonate at velocities above 3300 ft/s
• Support a detonation wave
• Usually initiated with a detonator or booster
• No confinement is required for the detonation
Detonation is the instantaneous combustion of an energetic material at a rate faster
than the speed of sound in that product. Detonation is a violent chemical reaction
taking
place within a chemical compound or a mechanical mixture, involving the generation of