Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281

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Construction and Building Materials

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Surface roughness characteristics of corroded steel pipe piles exposed to

marine environment
Naftary Gathimba a,⇑, Yasuo Kitane a, Takeshi Yoshida b, Yoshito Itoh c
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan
b
JFE Steel Corporation, Civil & Construction Section, Plant Engineering Dept., East Japan Works, Keihin Area, Japan
c
National Institute of Technology, Gifu College, Kami-makukawa, Motosu 501-0495, Gifu Pref, Japan

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

A relationship exists between surface Surface roughness parameters variation with corrosion degradation
roughness and corrosion degradation.

Highest magnitude and variation of 3
surface roughness is observed at the Roughness 1. Height
splash zone. 3 characteristics
2 2 2. Hybrid

Only surface heights parameters are 1 characteristics
strongly correlated with corrosion 3. Spacing/volume
characteristics
degradation. 1

Empirical relationships between
some parameters and thickness loss Average thickness reduction
has been proposed. a) Surface roughness parameters b) General trend of surface roughness parameters
illustrated on a typical surface with increase in corrosion degradation

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In determining the residual capacity of corroded steel structures, many studies have focussed solely on
Received 25 April 2018 the section’s remaining thickness and its strength. However, it is anticipated that the condition of the cor-
Received in revised form 9 December 2018 roded surface may also have an influence on the performance of these structures. This paper presents
Accepted 15 January 2019
results of the evaluation of surface characteristics of corroded steel piles exposed to marine conditions
at varying exposure water levels for 19.5 years. A comprehensive study on the roughness characteristics
of these corroded steel pipe piles was done by calculating a number of general geometrical properties, as
Keywords:
well as descriptive statistical parameters. By subdividing the pipe surface into smaller sampling areas of
Corrosion
Gaussian filter
100 mm  100 mm, and employing a Gaussian filter to obtain roughness surface, the variation of topo-
Marine environment graphical features on the corroded surface were studied. Variations between the degree of corrosion,
Roughness parameters in terms of thickness reduction, and surface roughness characteristics are reported. The study revealed
Surface roughness analysis that unlike the amplitude characteristic feature of the surface roughness, which increases with increasing
level of corrosion, wavelength remains unaffected by the level of corrosion.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

1.1. Overview of studies on corrosion

Corrosion is a common phenomenon that is usually encoun-

tered in the service life of many metallic civil structures, steel
⇑ Corresponding author. being one of them. Corrosion, if not prevented, will affect the per-
E-mail addresses: gathimba.naftary.kimenju@i.mbox.nagoya-u.ac.jp formance of a structure by weakening it leading to either gradual
(N. Gathimba), ykitane@civil.nagoya-u.ac.jp (Y. Kitane), takes-yoshida@jfe-steel.co.
or abrupt failure. The consequences of excessive corrosion are
jp (T. Yoshida), itoh@gifu-nct.ac.jp (Y. Itoh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.092
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
268 N. Gathimba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281
detrimental to the safe, reliable, and efficient operation of these
structures. Although corrosion is usually addressed by applying a
proper corrosion protection system, the system may deteriorate
over time, resulting in corrosion. Thus, there is a need for regular
inspections involving data collection and analysis on thickness
reduction due to corrosion in order to assess the residual capacity
of these corroded structures.
Corrosion is a time-dependent process and depending on the
time and condition of exposure to the corrosive environment, steel
will exhibit a varying degree of corrosion. It occurs in a random
manner and typically commences on the surface of an element,
which causes variations in the topography of the surface. Different
corroded surfaces will depict variations in the distribution of
unevenness.
In determining the residual mechanical properties of corroded
steel members, condition assessment of the corroded surface is
of paramount importance. General or uniform corrosion exhibits
a uniform reduction in thickness of a structural member whereas
localised corrosion such as pitting corrosion reduces the member’s
thickness in a localised manner causing localized degradation [1].
Section loss due to corrosion and the stress concentration caused
by the surface irregularity of the corroded steel plates influence
the residual strength and durability of the corroded steel members.
Different studies have adopted different approaches in dealing
with the surface conditions of corroded specimens. The most sim-
plistic approach that many researchers have adopted is assuming
a uniformly corroded surface. Zahrai [2] and Bruneau and Zahrai
[3] considered uniformly corroded specimens having up to 60% loss
of cross-sectional area. Other researchers including Garbatov et al.
[4] and Ahmad and Sumi [5] have considered corrosion due to pits
where the rough formation is modelled in form of pits of varying
attributes. However, both approaches are just an approximation
of the actual nature of corroded surfaces. A study by Burke and Bru-
neau [6] has adopted a rigorous approach for thickness mapping in
an attempt to model the corroded surface as accurately as possible.
Recently, Qin et al. [7] while investigating the effect of corrosion
surface roughness on the mechanical properties of corroded steel
described the corroded surface by determining statistical parame-
ters using roughness data obtained from thickness measurements.
A deeper approach on the issue of surface roughness analysis have
been adopted by Watanabe and Itoh [8] whereby the surface rough-
ness of a corroded steel angle member which had been exposed to
oceanic environment for 19.5 years was studied using multi resolu-
tion analysis by wavelet and 3D surface roughness parameters.
Their study however did not relate the characteristics of the surface
with thickness reduction, which is an important aspect in deter-
mining the residual capacity of a structure.
As part of ongoing research efforts on the contribution of sur-
face roughness on the residual capacity of steel members, under-
standing the characteristics of the corroded surface is a key
research area. The ultimate goal is to understand surface character-
istics of corroded steel surface under different environmental con-
dition so that the surface profile could be artificially created as
close as possible to the reality. This paper presents results on the
surface roughness characteristics of corroded steel pipe piles
exposed to marine conditions at varying exposure conditions.
The descriptive statistical parameters adopted in this research
are selected from a list of 3-D surface texture parameters specified
in ISO 25178-2 [9]. The relationship between the degree of corro-
sion, in terms of thickness reduction, and surface roughness char-
acteristics is investigated.
1.2. Theory on digital signal processing
Typically, a surface is assumed to consist of waves of many
wavelengths [10]. The surface form is the underlying shape of an
object while surface textures are the features that remain once
the form has been removed. In order to quantify a surface, it is
essential to define the roughness wavelength components as well
as establish a datum plane (mean plane) from which the parame-
ters can be calculated.
The first step involves measuring thickness distribution in the x
and y directions and obtaining the digital representation (as a dis-
crete signal) of surface topography, Zðx; yÞ. Surface fitting and fil-
tering are employed to find a unique residual surface for
subsequent parameters characterization. Surface fitting, also
referred to as form removal, serves to remove nominal form. For
planar surfaces such as flat steel plates, nominal form can be
approximated using a first order linear least square mean plane
of the form given by Eq. (1).
f ðx; yÞ ¼ a þ bx þ cy ð1Þ
0
The residual surface Z ðx; yÞ is obtained by subtracting the least
square datum plane from the original surface as shown in Eq. (2).
0
Z ðx; yÞ ¼ Z ðx; yÞ  ða þ bx þ cyÞ ð2Þ
Secondly, long waves, which do not constitute the roughness
component, are filtered by setting an appropriate cut-off wave-
length in X (kyc) and Y (kxc) directions respectively. The Gaussian
filter can be utilized for separation of roughness and waviness on
a residual surface, Z 0 ðx; yÞ. Gaussian filtration is defined by the con-
volution of the 3-D signal Z 0 ðx; yÞ and applying a 2-D Gaussian
weighting function Sðx; yÞ as shown in Eq. (3).
mðx; yÞ ¼ Z 0 ðx; yÞ  Sðx; yÞ ð3Þ
The weighting function of the areal Gaussian filter is given in
Eq. (4) as defined by Muralikrishnan and Raja [11].
( "
2
2 #)
1 x y
Sðx; yÞ ¼ 2 exp p þ ð4Þ
a kxc kyc akxc akyc
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where a ¼ ln2=p ¼ 0:469: The discrete convolution operation can
be implemented in the direct convolution sum of the time domain
or via the Fourier transformation in the frequency domain. The lat-
ter is computationally more efficient, but the former is more easily
implemented [11]. In this study, direct convolution method in the
time domain was employed. The surface roughness is then obtained
using Eq. (5).
0
gðx; yÞ ¼ Z ðx; yÞ  mðx; yÞ ð5Þ
The filtered roughness data, gðx; yÞ; can now be used to compute
various surface roughness parameters for subsequent characteriza-
tion of different corroded surfaces.
2. Experimental procedures
2.1. Data acquisition
Uncoated steel pipe piles were exposed in the marine environ-
ment at Nippon Steel Kimitsu Steelworks for about 19.5 years as
shown in Fig. 1. Details of corrosion process and other tests on
these pipe piles are reported elsewhere [12,13]. The pipes’ nominal
outer diameter, nominal thickness, and lengths in the initial condi-
tion measured 406.4 mm, 9 mm, and 10 m, respectively. The pipe
piles are spiral pipes of steel type SKK490. After 19.5 years of expo-
sure, the pipes were cut into pieces of 1200 mm in length. The cut-
ting location was selected in such a way that corrosion details for
the different marine exposure zones were captured. By setting the
mean sea level (MSL) as the datum, pipe sections were selected at
an elevation of MSL + 2700 mm to MSL + 3900 mm for the splash
zone, MSL + 500 mm to MSL + 1700 mm for the tidal zone, and at
 N. Gathimba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281
Fig. 1. Exposure test condition of the steel pipe piles [12].
Fig. 2. Thickness measurement [12].
Fig. 3. Remaining thickness details for the pipe exposed at different marine environments.
269
MSL-1500 mm to MSL-2700 mm for the submerged zone. Thick-
ness measurement employed two laser displacement meters
where one was positioned on the outside and another one on the
inside of the pipe to obtain the surface profile data of both the
inside and outside of the pipe and consequently obtain the remain-
ing thickness. Thickness measurements were made at 2 mm inter-
val in the vertical direction and 2.08 mm in the circumferential
direction. Fig. 2 shows the experimental set-up for thickness mea-
surement. Surface thickness data, Zðx; yÞ, was obtained as a 601 by
600 matrix for each piece of pipe.
2.2. Surface data processing
Measured thickness data were first processed as described in
Section 1.2 prior to characterizing the surface. All data processing
in this study was performed employing a commercial program-
ming software package, MatLab [14]. For convenience, the size of
thickness data was truncated into a 600  600 matrix by removing
the last row data values. To visualize the overall remaining thick-
ness distribution as well as outer surface thickness reduction on
the corroded pipe, plots were made for an opened-up pipe surface
at various zones as shown in Figs. 3 and 4. The original surface area
of the pipe pile measured 1200 mm  1276 mm but the analysed
area was reduced to 1200 mm by 1248 mm by data truncation.
Locations of weld lines were noted and those areas were not con-
sidered when characterizing the surface roughness. Abnormal sur-
face roughness values such as those due to holes were considered
as ‘outliers’ and therefore were removed from further analysis. The
surface filtering process is summarized in Fig. 5. The Gaussian filter
was adopted in this research. The value of the cut-off wavelength
was set at 100 mm. In this study, the Gaussian filter was imple-
mented using 2D convolution approach. Filtering was performed
on the whole surface of each pipe section under consideration as
illustrated in Fig. 5a–d. Plots of filtered roughness data, for the
three zones are shown in Fig. 6.
Once the surface data have been filtered and the mean plane
has been determined, surface features were quantified. This was
done by partitioning pipe roughness data into 100 mm by
100 mm area segments as shown in Fig. 7. Selected roughness
parameters were then calculated for each segmental area resulting
in 144 values for each parameter for each pipe section considered.
270 N. Gathimba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281

Fig. 4. Outer surface thickness reduction for the pipe exposed at different the marine environments.

Fig. 5. Surface filtering process.

3. Results and discussion
3.1. General characteristic of the roughness surface
General characteristics of the surface were studied before
embarking on detailed characterization of the surface. The trend
of thickness reduction characteristic was investigated by compar-
ing the coefficient of variation, COV, of thickness reduction with
the average thickness reduction, tavg. Fig. 8 shows the relationship
between COV and average thickness reduction. COV tends to
decrease as corrosion progresses. There is more scatter of thickness
reduction values in the splash zone as compared to other zones.
This is because of the occasional wetting and drying by the
splashes making corrosion to progress at different rates at different
points on the surface of steel piles. On the tidal zone, during low
and high tide, the pipe surface is exposed to uniform dry and
 N. Gathimba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281 271

Fig. 6. Filtered roughness data for the pipe’s outer surface exposed at different marine environments.

wet conditions. The variation of thickness reduction with respect evaluation area is taken as the average length of individual wave-
to its mean is thus reduced at this zone. Uniform exposure condi- lengths, Sm1, Sm2, Sm3, . . ., and Smn calculated by Eq. (6).
tions submerged zone can be explained as the cause of reduced
values of COV. 1X n

Fig. 9 illustrates the concept of average wavelength. The average Sm ¼ Smk ð6Þ
n k¼1
length of one wavelength crossing the mean surface within the
Fig. 10 shows the relationship between the mean wavelength
and average thickness reduction for each 100 mm  100 mm
region. The mean wavelength varies within a range of 10–25 mm
for the three zones considered, regardless of the magnitude of
average thickness reduction.

Fig. 7. Illustration of parameters evaluation areas.

Fig. 9. Illustration of the average wavelength, Sm.

1
Splash zone
30
0.8 Tidal zone
Coefficient of variation

Mean wavelength, Sm (mm)

Submerged zone 25
0.6
20

0.4 15

0.2 10
Splash zone
5 Tidal zone
0 Submerged zone
0 2 4 6 8 0
Average thickness reduction (mm) 0 2 4 6 8
Average thickness reduction (mm)
Fig. 8. Relationship between coefficient of variation of thickness reduction and
average thickness reduction. Fig. 10. Variation of average surface wavelength with average reduced thickness.
272 N. Gathimba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281

0.8 0.8 0.8

Splash zone Tidal zone Submerged zone
Average Average Average
0.6 0.6 0.6

Variiance (mm2)

Variiance (mm2)
+2p
Variiance (mm2)

+2p +2p
-2p -2p -2p
0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0 0.0

0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Average thickness reduction (mm) Average thickness reduction (mm) Average thickness reduction (mm)
(a) Splash zone (b) Tidal zone ((c)) Submerged
g zone
Fig. 11. Relationship between variance of surface heights and average reduced thickness.

The relationship between the variance,r2 ; of surface heights
and the average thickness reduction is shown in Fig. 11. The effec-
tive range using the linear trend line and the standard error, p,
using the least squares method for each zone is also shown. Details
of respective trend lines are summarized in Table 1.
From Fig. 11, it is observed that the variance, r2 ; of the surface
heights increases with the average value of thickness reduction. In
addition, the tendency differs in different zones with the magni-
tude of the dispersion value being largest in the splash zone.
Although the average wavelength remains constant, the amplitude
characteristics of surface unevenness increase with an increase in
thickness reduction.
Dominant wavelength characteristics of the corroded surface,
kmax , were also studied by using the power spectral density, PSD,
function. For a discrete profile ZðxÞ having n number of points, at
a spacing of Dx units whose discrete Fourier transform is given
by Zf, the PSD is calculated as given by Eq. (7) [11].
Dx 2
PSDðf Þ ¼ jZf ðf Þj
n dominant wavelength on all evaluation areas was greater than the
Table 1
Details of approximation line for variance.
Zone Variance (mm2)
Splash 0.050tavg
Tidal 0.023tavg
Submerged 0.024tavg
where f is the spatial frequency equal to reciprocal of the spatial
wavelength given by h=l, h is an integer ranging from 1 to n/2 and
l is the length of the profile. The dominant wavelength is a wave-
length corresponding to the dominant wavenumber, xmax ; of the
power spectral density of the roughness curve. The concept of the
dominant wavelength is illustrated in Fig. 12. As an illustration of
nature of the actual PSD, sample PSDs for a 100 mm square region
at the splash zone, which is shown in Fig. 13, are plotted as shown
in Fig. 14. The naming of the profiles is done in such a way as to
reflect how data is stored and accessed in a matrix, i.e., in rows
and columns. From Fig. 14, it can be seen that the corroded surface
is dominated by low frequency waves, which means that waves
having long wavelength occur more frequently than those having
short wavelengths. A number of surface profiles that were used in
calculation of PSD are shown in Fig. 15. The variation of dominant
wavelength with average thickness reduction is shown in Fig. 16.
It can be observed that the dominant wavelength characteristics
do not change significantly for the three exposure zones. The values
ð7Þ vary within a range from 40 mm to 70 mm. It can be noted that the
mean wavelength calculated by Eq. (6).
3.2. ISO specified areal roughness parameters
Standard error, p (mm)
0.085 Detailed characterization of the roughness surface of corroded
0.024 pipe was conducted by determining a number of 3-D statistical
0.016 parameters specified in ISO 25178-2 [9]. Though not common in
civil engineering, these parameters have been in use in other fields
such as mechanical engineering to assess the quality of machined

2
(mm3)

λmax=1/ max
PSD

0
0.01 max 0.1 1
Wavenumber (mm-1)
Fig. 12. Illustration of dominant wavelength concept for a 100  100 mm evalu-
ation area. Fig. 13. Surface plot of 100 mm square sampling area.
 N. Gathimba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281 273

14 12
Row 5
Col 5
12 Row 10
Col 10
9 Row 15
10 Col 15
Row 20
Col 20

PSD (mm3)
PSD (mm3)

8 Col 25 Row 25
6 Row 30
6 Col 30
Col 35 Row 35
4 Col 40 Row 40
3
Col 45 Row 45
2
Col 48 Row 50
0 0
0.01 0.1 0.01 0.1 1
Frequency (mm-1) Frequency (mm-1)
(a) (b)
Fig. 14. PSD for surface profiles in (a) vertical direction and (b) circumferential direction for a 100 mm square region.

4 4
Col 5 Col 15 Row 5 Row 25
Col 25 Col 35 Row 35 Row 45
3 3
Col 45 Mean line Row 50 Mean line
Profile heights (mm)

Profile heights (mm)

2 2

1 1

0 0

-1 -1

-2 -2
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
(a) (b)
Fig. 15. Sampled surface profiles in (a) vertical direction and (b) circumferential direction for a 100 mm square region.

80
Splash zone Tidal zone
Dominant wavelength (mm)

Max surface height, Sz (mm)

6 Submerged zone
60

40

Splash zone Tidal zone 2

Submerged zone
20
0 2 4 6 8 0
0 2 4 6 8
Average thickness reduction (mm)
Average thickness reduction (mm)
Fig. 16. Variation of dominant wavelength with average reduced thickness square
region. Fig. 17. Variation of maximum surface heights with average thickness reduction.

surfaces [15]. The parameters determined in this research have

3.2.1. Amplitude parameters
been grouped into four categories based on their descriptive char-
3.2.1.1. Maximum surface height parameter (Sz). The Sz parameter is
acteristics, i.e., amplitude, spacing, hybrid, and volume related
the sum of the absolute values of maximum surface peak height,
parameters. The variations of these roughness characteristics with
Sp, and maximum surface valley depth, Sv, as defined in Eq. (8).
the degree of corrosion, in terms of thickness reduction, are
examined. Sz ¼ Sp þ jSv j ¼ Sp  Sv ð8Þ
274 N. Gathimba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281

Fig. 17 shows an increase in the maximum surface height with 1

the thickness reduction. In general, it is to be noted that the three Splash zone
Tidal zone

Mean surface heigh, Sa (mm)

maximum height parameters, Sz, Sp, and Sv, increase with the aver-
age thickness reduction at the splash zone. The calculated values of 0.8 Submerged zone
Sz at the splash zone varied between 0.84 mm and 5.93 mm. This Average
confirms the high amplitude characteristics of the roughness val- 0.6 +2.5p
ues as previously observed on the computed values of variance -2.5p
of surface heights. Localized corrosion is more pronounced in the
splash zone than in other zones due to high variation in exposure 0.4
conditions. Tidal and submerged zone experiences slow and sub-
stantially uniform corrosion which leads to lower the peaks, and
0.2
thus the range of maximum surface height values is narrow with
an almost constant trend as average thickness reduction increases.
0
3.2.1.2. Mean surface height parameters, Sa. Mean surface height 0 2 4 6 8
parameters are measures of how surface heights are fluctuating Average thickness reduction (mm)
about the mean plane. Arithmetic mean height, Sa, is the arith-
metic mean of the absolute value of the height within a sampling Fig. 18. Variation of mean surface heights with average thickness reduction.
area as defined in Eq. (9).

1 X
ny Xnx 
  3
Sa ¼  g xi ; y  ð9Þ
j
nx ny j¼1 i¼1

where nx and ny is the total number of data points in the x- and

2
y-directions, respectively, with i and j representing indices in the
x- and y-directions, respectively. The surface heights, gðx; yÞ; Skewness, Ssk 1
represents centred heights where mean height calculated on the
definition area is already subtracted from the heights. Sq is defined
as the root mean square value of the surface heights. gðx; yÞ, within 0
the sampling area, as defined by Eq. (10).
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Splash zone
u -1
u 1 X ny X nx
 
Sq ¼ t
Tidal zone
g2 xi ; yj ð10Þ
nx ny j¼1 i¼1 Submerged zone
-2
Sq is equivalent to the square root of mean squares of the mea- 0 2 4 6 8
sured surface. Sa and Sq are strongly correlated [16] and thus only Average thickness reduction (mm)
results for average roughness characteristics, Sa, are discussed in
the current study. Fig. 18 shows the relationship between Sa and Fig. 19. Variation of surface skewness with average thickness reduction.

average thickness reduction. The effective range using the linear

trend line and the standard error, p, using the least squares method
for the three zones combined, is also shown. The equation for the
trend line was derived as Sa = 0.079tavg, while the value of p was
found to be 0.06. It can be seen from the figure that there is an
increased mean surface height at high corrosion levels. Mean sur-
face height was the largest at the splash zone. A similar trend was
also observed for the Sq values.
3.2.1.3. Surface heights distribution parameters, Ssk, Sku. To under-
stand the distribution of surface heights above or below the mean
plane, skewness parameter, Ssk, was computed by using Eq. (11).
1 X
ny X
1 nx
 
Ssk ¼ 3 n n
g3 xi ; yj
Sq x y j¼1 i¼1
Fig. 19 shows the variation of Ssk with average thickness reduc-
tion at different water zones. For a surface with a Gaussian height
distribution above and below the mean surface, the skewness
becomes zero. The direction of the skewness is dependent on
whether the bulk of the material is above the mean surface, which
is called a positive skew or below the mean surface, negative skew.
Negative skewness indicates the presence of comparatively few
peaks and relatively narrow but deep valleys. Surfaces with a pos-
itive skewness have high spikes that protrude above the mean
plane. From the computed values, about 90%, 75%, and 55%, of
skewness values calculated at the splash, tidal, and submerged
zones, respectively, are greater than zero. This implies presence
of high peaks for all the three zones. This observation was con-
firmed by plotting sample surface profiles as shown in Figs. 20 to
22. A 100 mm by 100 mm representative area was selected from
the pipe surface, four surface profiles were plotted in the vertical
direction as well as in the circumferential direction. The profile
height data were selected at the 10th, 20th, 30th and 40th lines
of the surface roughness data. As can be seen in Figs. 20 to 22,
the magnitude of the positive values of profile heights is greater
than that of the negative values. The trend is similar for profiles
in the vertical and circumferential direction. In addition, as can
be seen from the vertical axis in the figures, the magnitude of pro-
file heights is greatest at the splash zone and reduced as one moves
ð11Þ from tidal to submerged zone. From this observation, as well as
from the calculated Ssk values, it is clear that the magnitude of
the peaks is higher at the splash as compared to tidal and sub-
merged zones.
Kurtosis parameter, Sku, is a measure of the combined weight of
the tails relative to the rest of the distribution [17]. Sku is
expressed mathematically as shown in Eq. (12).
1 X
ny X
1 nx
 
Sku ¼ g4 xi ; yj
4
ð12Þ
Sq nx ny j¼1 i¼1
Data set with high kurtosis tends to have ‘‘heavy tails’’ while
data set with low kurtosis tends to have ‘‘light tails.’’ A surface with
a Gaussian height distribution has a kurtosis value of 3.0. Fig. 23
 N. Gathimba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281 275

(a) Location of sampling area on the pipe’s surface (b) Surface plot of the sampling area

3 3
Column 10 Column 20 Row 10 Row 20
Column 30 Column 40 Row 30 Row 40

Profiles height (mm)

Profiles height (mm)

2 Mean line 2 Mean line

1 1

0 0

-1 -1
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Vertical length (mm) Circumferential length (mm)
(c) Profile plot along the vertical direction (d) Profile plot along the circumferential direction

Fig. 20. Thickness distribution and profile plots at the splash zone.

shows variation of Sku with average thickness reduction. From the
computed values of Sku, only 1%, 12%, and 7%, of the values calcu-
lated at the splash, tidal, and submerged zones, respectively, are
below 3.0. Thus, in general, the surface height distribution is char-
acterized by heavy tails for all the three zones. In physical terms, it
means that height values, which are located far away from the
mean value of the data sets, are occurring more frequently. The
values located far away from the mean, hereby referred to as the
‘‘extreme values,” represent either the valley or the peak height
values. The high frequency of occurrence of the ‘‘extreme values,”
as indicated by the high values of Sku, greater than 3.0, implies
high degree of roughness of the corroded surfaces.
3.2.2. Spatial parameters
3.2.2.1. Autocorrelation length, Sal. A measure of how repetitive a
surface pattern is can be evaluated by autocorrelation [11]. The
convolution of the surface with itself, shifted by (sx ; sy ), gives the
autocorrelation function, ACF, [16] as shown in Eq. (13).
Pny Pnx  
g xi ; yj gðxi  sx ; yj  sy Þ
ACFðsx ; sy Þ ¼
j¼1 i¼1
Pny Pnx 2   ð13Þ
j¼1 i¼1 g xi ; yj
The fastest decay autocorrelation length, Sal, is calculated from
ACF after applying an appropriate thresholding value. A more
robust approach to computing an ACF has been developed based
on Wiener-Khinchin theorem [18,19]. Based on the theorem, the
ACF is simply given by the inverse Fourier transform of the abso-
lute square of Fourier transform of the surface. One example of
ACF is shown in Fig. 24. Typical threshold values to obtain Sal are
1/e, 0.1, or zero, where e is the Napier’s constant [11]. For the cur-
rent research, the threshold value was set at the maximum, 1/e,
since corroded surfaces are better considered as rough surfaces.
By applying a threshold, a lobe is formed at the intersection of
thresholding plane and the ACF plot, an illustration of which is
shown in Fig. 25.
The shortest radius calculated from the centre to the perimeter
of the lobe at the threshold is called autocorrelation length, Sal. The
calculated Sal values for the corroded pipe surface are shown in
Fig. 26, and ranged between 2.0 mm and 13.0 mm. A large value
of Sal denotes a surface that is dominated by long wavelength com-
ponents. As it can be seen in Fig. 26, the values of Sal remain con-
stant with a range of 2 mm and 13 mm when average thickness
reduction is below 4 mm, regardless of exposure conditions. The
Sal value is a measure of wavelength or spacing of peaks of surface
roughness. Therefore as previously observed with mean peak spac-
ing parameter, Sm, the wavelength characteristic of surface rough-
ness does not depend on the degree of corrosion. In general, the
distribution of peaks on the corroded surface will remain constant
as corrosion progresses.
3.2.2.2. Texture aspect ratio, Str. Texture aspect ratio, Str, is the
parameter that indicates the degree of anisotropy and isotropy of
the surface. Str is calculated as the ratio between the minimum
and maximum radii from the centre to the perimeter of the lobe
obtained after thresholding the ACF plot as shown in Fig. 25, and
is defined by Eq. (14).
r min Sal
Str ¼ ¼ ð14Þ
rmax r max
The calculated values of Str for the pipe surface ranged from 0.2
to 0.9 as shown in Fig. 27, where a lower value, Str < 0.3, represents
an anisotropic surface while a larger value, Str > 0.5, indicates an
isotropic surface. The surfaces of corroded pipes exhibit both
276 N. Gathimba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281

(a) Location of sampling area on the pipe’s surface (b) Surface plot of the sampling area

1.2 1.2
Column 10 Row 10
Column 20 0.9 Row 20
0.9

Profiles height (mm)

Column 30 Row 30
Profiles height (mm)

Column 40 0.6 Row 40

0.6
Mean line Mean line
0.3 0.3

0 0

-0.3 -0.3

-0.6 -0.6
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Vertical length (mm) Circumferential length (mm)
(c) Profile plot along the vertical direction (d) Profile plot along the circumferential direction

Fig. 21. Thickness distribution and profile plots at the tidal zone.

anisotropic and isotropic nature at different levels of corrosion. For
regions of mild corrosion, corrosion may occur in a uniform man-
ner resulting in isotropic surfaces. Therefore, 74%, 93% and 94% of
splash, tidal and submerged regions with average thickness reduc-
tion smaller than 4 mm have Str greater than 0.6. The general trend
observed is that regions with larger thickness reduction will have a
wide variation of the texture aspect ratio depicting the complexity
and randomness of corrosion surface with increasing corrosion as
can be seen in the splash zone.
3.2.3. Hybrid parameters
These parameters combine the height variation and spacing
characteristics of the surface.
Dx and Dy represents the data spacing in x- and y-direction respec-
tively. A, the evaluation area, is given by the product of the lengths
in x- and y-directions, i.e., A ¼ ðnx  1Þðny  1ÞDxDy.
At different levels of corrosion, the corroded surface will pos-
sess varying degree of slope at different points. Sdq is a measure
of surface roughness, in terms of gradient of different points on
the surface, and a higher value of Sdq indicates a rougher surface.
The slope of the corroded surface increases with an increased
thickness reduction at the splash zone as shown in Fig. 28. How-
ever, the slope of the surface features at the tidal and submerged
zones remain constant, since max height and spacing characteris-
tics remain constant in these two zones. The calculated values of
Sdq ranged from 0.05 to 0.3.

3.2.3.1. Root mean square gradient, Sdq. This parameter is defined as 3.2.3.2. Developed interfacial area ratio, Sdr. This is the percentage of
the root mean square of gradient at all points for a defined area as the definition area’s additional surface area, Aij ; contributed by the
shown in Eq. (15). texture as compared to the evaluation area, A, which can be
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi obtained by Eq. (17).
u ny nx
u1 X X !
Sdq ¼ t q2 ð15Þ 1
nX X
y 1 n x 1
A j¼2 i¼2 ij Sdr ¼ Aij  A 100% ð17Þ
A y¼1 x¼1
where qij is the surface slope at a point which is calculated using Eq.
where Aij can be obtained using Eq. (18).
(16).
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi 2
2 312
u
gðxiþ1 ;yj Þgðxi ;yj Þ
u gðxi ;yj Þgðxi1 ;yj Þ 2
u þ 61 þ Dx 7
u Dx 6 7 ð18Þ
qij ¼ u ð16Þ Aij ¼ 6
2 7 DxDy
u
2 4 gðxi ;yjþ1 Þgðxi ;yj Þ 5
t gðxi ;yj Þgðxi ;yj1 Þ þ Dy
Dy
 N. Gathimba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281 277

(a) Location of sampling area on the pipe’s surface (b) Surface plot of the sampling area

0.6 0.6
Column 10 Row 10 Row 20
0.45 Column 20
0.45 Row 30 Row 40
Column 30
Profiles height (mm)

Profiles height (mm)

Column 40 Mean line
0.3 0.3
Mean line
0.15 0.15

0 0

-0.15 -0.15

-0.3 -0.3
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Vertical length (mm) Circumferential length (mm)
(c) Profile plot along the vertical direction (d) Profile plot along the circumferential direction

Fig. 22. Thickness distribution and profile plots at the submerged zone.

16
Splash zone

Tidal zone
12
Submerged
Kurtosis, Sku

zone
8

0
0 2 4 6 8
Average thickness reduction (mm) Fig. 24. ACF plots for 100  100 mm area showing a thresholding plane at a value of
1/e.
Fig. 23. Variation of Kurtosis with average thickness reduction.

eral, it can be seen that hybrid parameters show much larger

The parameter is used as a measure of the surface complexity.
For flat surfaces, Sdr, is equal to zero. The incremented area on
the corroded surface increases with an increased thickness reduc-
tion. Fig. 29 shows variation of Sdr values with average thickness
reduction. The calculated values of Sdr ranged from 5% to 25% at
the splash zone. The wide range shows that there is a high varia-
tion of corrosion depths on the pipe piles surface at the splash zone
than other zones. As was explained with Sdq parameter, Sdr param-
eter remains constant for the tidal and submerged zones. In gen-
values at the splash zone than other zones, indicating the rugged
nature of the corrosion surface at the splash zone.
3.2.4. Volume based parameters
In the field of surface metrology, volume-based parameters are
classified under functional parameters. They are used to examine
the functional characteristics of a surface such as wearing charac-
teristics and fluid retention. In the context of the current study,
these parameters are used to describe the volumetric distribution
of material and voids on the rough surface.
278 N. Gathimba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281

6 0.4
Splash zone
4
Tidal zone
(mm)

0.3
2 rmax
Submerged
zone
y

0
Y shift,

0.2

Sdq
-2

-4 0.1

-6
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 0
X shift, (mm) 0 2 4 6 8
Fig. 25. Illustration of a lobe at a threshold of 1/e for 100 mm sq. area.
Average thickness reduction (mm)

Fig. 28. Variation of surface slope parameter with average thickness reduction.

15
Splash zone
30
Tidal zone
Splash zone
Submerged zone 25
10 Tidal zone
Sal (mm)

20
Submerged zone
Sdr (%)

15
5
10

5
0
0 2 4 6 8
0
Average thickness reduction (mm) 0 2 4 6 8
Fig. 26. Variation of autocorrelation length with average thickness reduction. Average thickness reduction (mm)
Fig. 29. Variation of developed area with average thickness reduction.

0.8

0.6
Str

0.4

Splash zone
0.2
Tidal zone
Submerged zone
0
0 2 4 6 8
Average thickness reduction (mm)
Fig. 27. Variation of texture aspect ratio with average thickness reduction.

Volume-based parameters are computed from material ratio

curves. Fig. 30 shows surface heights distribution for one of
100 mm by 100 mm sampling areas by as a histogram of the sur-
face heights that quantifies the number of points on the surface
that lie at a given height. The normalized surface height is normal-
ized by the value of Sq [19].
Fig. 30. Histogram of surface heights distribution.
The material ratio curve, also referred to as the Abbott-Firestone
curve, is a cumulative curve of the heights distribution. For a
100 mm square sampling area of the corroded pipe surface
 N. Gathimba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281 279

Fig. 31. Volume parameters illustrated in the material ratio curve.
considered in this study, a typical plot of material ratio curve is
shown in Fig. 31, which also illustrates volume parameters. The
volume of material or void can then be calculated by integrating
the material ratio, mr, curve within the set limits as specified in
ISO 25178-3 [20]. The height from the mean plane of the mr curve
at a specified material ratio, q, can be evaluated using the inverse
material ratio function, Smc(q). The calculation of material volume,
Vm, and volume, Vv, is as shown in Eq. (19), where k is a unit
conversion factor.
( R mr )
VmðmrÞ ¼ k 0% ½SmcðqÞ  Smcðmr Þdq
R 100% ð19Þ
V v ðmr Þ ¼ k mr ½Smcðmr Þ  SmcðqÞdq
Peak material volume, Vmp, is calculated at a material ratio of
10%. It represents the volume of material at surface peaks. Core
material volume, Vmc, is the difference of material volume calcu-
lated at a material ratio of 10% and 80%. This parameter character-
izes a volume of the material excluding the extreme height values.
On the other hand, the void volume parameters are calculated in a
similar manner and at the same threshold values of between 10%
and 80% for core void volume, Vvc, and between 80% and 100%
for the valley void volume, Vvv.
Fig. 32 illustrates the variation of these volume parameters at
different corrosion levels for the three exposure conditions. For
all cases, a constant trend is observed with an increase in thickness
reduction. The values of Vmc vary between 0.005 mm and 0.01 mm
while those of Vvc vary between 0.009 mm and 0.016 mm. The vol-
ume of the voids is more compared to that of material near the
mean surface. On the other hand, Vvv and Vmp have their maxi-
mum value at 0.0015 mm. However, the smallest value of Vvv is
zero, which is lower than that of Vmp. This means that the extreme
valley values are smaller than the peak height values. From the dis-
tribution of volume at the core and the extreme regions, it can be
concluded that the corroded pipe surfaces are characterized by

1.6 0.2
Splash zone Tidal zone
Splash zone Tidal zone
Submerged zone
1.2 Submerged zone 0.15
Vmp (x 10-2 mm)
Vmc (x 10-2 mm)

0.8 0.1

0.4 0.05

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8

Average thickness reduction (mm) Average thickness reduction (mm)

(a) core material volume, Vmc (b) peak material volume, Vmp
1.6
0.2
Splash zone
1.2 Tidal zone
Vvc (x 10-2 mm)

0.15
Vvv (10-2 x mm)

Submerged zone

0.8 0.1

0.4
Splash zone 0.05
Tidal zone
Submerged zone
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Average thickness reduction (mm) Average thickness reduction (mm)

(c) core void volume, Vvc (d) valley void volume, Vvv
Fig. 32. Relationship between volume parameters and the average thickness reduction.
280 N. Gathimba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281
high peaks and few valleys. Thus, it can be concluded that the cor-
roded surfaces exhibit a form of roughness with protruding peaks
at all levels of corrosion and exposure conditions.
4. Discussions
4.1. Characteristics of different environmental conditions
Previous studies have shown that corrosion under marine envi-
ronment proceeds at different rates at different exposure zones
whereby thickness reduction is greatest at the splash zone and
reduced for the tidal and submerged zones [21]. In this study, a
similar trend has been observed with some of the roughness
parameters namely: amplitude parameters, r2, Sz, and Sa, and
hybrid parameters, Sdq and Sdr, where their magnitude increases
with increased thickness reduction. Thus, the greatest magnitude
of these parameters is reported at the splash zone with the values
decreasing at the tidal and submerged zones.
To evaluate residual capacity of corroded structural members,
thickness measurements are conducted, and average or minimum
thickness value is often used in the structural analysis. In under-
standing the correlation of surface roughness to the residual capac-
ity of the member, it is imperative that the analyst be able to
estimate the surface roughness characteristics based on thickness
reduction values without having to measure thickness at a great
number of points and undertake detailed statistical analyses. From
this research work, relations for estimating some of the statistical
roughness parameters that showed linear correlation with thick-
ness reduction have been proposed. Since the values are scattered
around the average trend line, the error range is also shown in the
equations.
The variance of thickness reduction can be estimated individu-
ally for the different zones using Eq. (20).
8 9
>
< Splash zone : r2 ¼ 0:050t av g  0:170 >
= piles, one would go ahead and evaluate these amplitude parame-
Tidal zone : r2 ¼ 0:023tav g  0:048
>
: >
;
Submerged zone : r2 ¼ 0:024t av g  0:032
The average height of roughness for the combination of the
three zones can be calculated using Eq. (21).
Sa ¼ 0:079tav g  0:15ðmmÞ
The variation of the maximum surface heights has revealed that
localised corrosion is more pronounced in the splash zone than in
other zones. The action of splashes at the splash zone causes vari-
ation of corrosion rate on the surface of the steel pipe piles. Even
though there is the issue of alternating tidal wave at the tidal zone,
less pronounced parameter variability is found. The submerged
zone experiences slow and relatively uniform corrosion, which
leads to a reduced variation in roughness parameters.
4.2. Important roughness parameters for corroded surfaces
Four categories of parameters have been investigated in this
paper, namely, amplitude (height), spatial, hybrid (height and
spacing), and volume-based parameters. A simplified summary of
the trend of these parameters with average thickness reduction
is schematically in Fig. 33. This is the typical trend for all the
parameters studied in all the three zones. The gradient of the line,
in the graph of trend of results, shows a general indication for the
strength of correlation between the roughness parameter and
average thickness reduction. As can be seen from Fig. 33, only sur-
face heights parameters and hybrid parameters show a correlation
while spacing and volume parameters show no correlation. There-
fore, it can be stated categorically that the amplitude parameters
3
2
1
3
Roughness
2
1. Height
characteristics
2. Hybrid
characteristics
1
3. Spacing/volume
characteristics
Average thickness reduction
Fig. 33. Summary of the trend of roughness parameters with average thickness
reduction.
are the best-suited parameters to express the level of corrosion
of the pipe piles exposed to a marine environment. In particular,
based on the proposed Eqs. (20) and (21), the variance of thickness
reduction, r2 best describes the level of corrosion at splash zone
while the average surface height parameter, Sa can suitably be
used to describe the corrosion level in all the three exposure zones.
Thus, upon measuring the thickness data from the corroded pipe
ð20Þ ters only, which would in turn assist in estimating the residual
capacity of the corroded pipes based on some known empirical
relationships. Development of such empirical relationships
between roughness parameters and the residual capacity of cor-
roded steel structures is a part of ongoing research work from
which this paper emanates.
ð21Þ
5. Conclusion
This paper presents results on the surface characteristics of cor-
roded steel pipe piles exposed to marine conditions at varying
exposure conditions. General geometric, as well as descriptive sta-
tistical parameters specified in ISO 25178-2 [9], have been used to
study the topographical characteristics of corroded steel pipe piles.
By subdividing the pipe surface data into smaller sampling areas of
100 mm  100 mm, the variation of topographical features on the
surfaces were studied. The conclusions from this research are as
follows:
(1) The value of the average wavelength of the surface rough-
ness ranges from 10 to 25 mm and does not change over dif-
ferent thickness reductions for splash, tidal and submerged
zones, although maximum corrosion occurs at the splash
zone.
(2) The amplitude of the surface heights increases with an
increase in average thickness reduction, although the mean
wavelength does not change significantly.
(3) The variance of surface heights increases with an increase in
average thickness reduction for the splash, tidal and sub-
merged zones. The variation is largest at the splash zone.
 N. Gathimba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 203 (2019) 267–281
(4) Mean surface height parameter, Sa has a positive correlation
with average thickness reduction for the splash, tidal and
submerged zones.
(5) From the computed values, about 10%, 25%, and 45% of
skewness values calculated at the splash, tidal and sub-
merged zones, respectively, are less than zero implying there
are more peaks than valleys for the three zones.
(6) Texture aspect ratio, Str shows that corroded pipe piles exhi-
bit both anisotropic and isotropic nature at different sam-
pling areas. The general trend observed is that areas with
larger thickness reduction will have a wider variation of
the texture aspect ratio depicting the complexity and ran-
domness of corrosion surface.
(7) The volume parameters do not show any correlation with
average thickness reduction.
(8) In general, only surface heights variations parameters have a
strong relation to corrosion degradation. Hybrid parameters
have a weak correlation while spacing and volume parame-
ters show no relation. The variance of thickness reduction,
r2 best describes the level of corrosion at splash zone while
the average surface height parameter, Sa can suitably be
used to describe the corrosion level in all the three exposure
zones.
Conflict of interest
None.
Acknowledgements
This research was partially supported by The Japan Iron and
Steel Federation. Thickness data of corroded pipe piles was pro-
vided by Prof. Sugiura of Kyoto University. The authors would like
to acknowledge their supports.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.092.
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