Chapter 1

The Pedagogical Roots

of Technical Learning and Thinking

Ron Hansen

1 The History of Technical Learning and Thinking

The early history of technical learning for the purposes of this account includes the
period from 700 BC to the Industrial Revolution. The earliest forms of ‘technical
being’ were associated with the controlling of fire. Through fire, humankind was
able to cook food, melt metals and shape simple tools. Eventually people became
miners, smiths, carpenters, masons, weavers and so on. Systematic learning, if there
was such a thing during this stage, is not well documented. It was a trial and error
process. The first evidence of organized learning came from groups who valued a
trade, skill or craft. In ancient times, the Jews, for example, sent their children to
school for religious studies in the morning and skill development in the afternoon.
Failure to give a Jewish boy an honest means of livelihood (manual trade) was ex-
cluding him from becoming a useful member of the community (Bennett, 1926).
Furthermore, the Jewish people felt that labour held religious significance. It was
regarded as a man’s [sic] duty.
At no point in the pre-Renaissance period is there evidence of what would be called a
system of instruction. Sons and daughters learned from their fathers and mothers. Their
goals were always survival and betterment for the family members and eventually for
larger communities of people. Even if a son was taught by someone other than his
father or mother, the relationship was a paternal one—master and apprentice.
During the Homeric Age (700 to 300 BC), handicrafts people in Greece occupied
a place of respect for their mechanical aptitude. Later, however, banausic or mechan-
ical arts lost their status. The beginnings of a stigma emerged. Manual arts were
thought to be for the peasant class and not fit subject matter for upper-class youth.
In 300 BC upper-class boys, according to Bennett,1 were taught drawing. The lower
classes continued to be apprenticed under a master as in earlier times. Interestingly,
the orators, lawyers, physicians and cooks of that time also employed the apprentice-
ship method in their training. Christian monks, much like the Jews, elevated manual
labour. Labour was required of everyone—weavers, carpenters, curriers and tailors.
Similarly, the Benedictines made manual labour a cardinal principle. Their thought
was that labour banished indolence (the enemy of the soul). For every moment in
the day that they celebrated the praises of God, they devoted one hour to labour, and
two to reading.

R. Maclean, D. Wilson (eds.), International Handbook of Education for the Changing 5

World of Work, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-5281-1 1,

C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
6 R. Hansen

The religious zeal and missionary enthusiasm of the Benedictines2 carried them
from Italy, north of the Alps, into Germany. Germany became filled with monas-
teries, each of which became a centre of civilization. Many of the church struc-
tures in Germany dating from 900 to 1200 AD are the work of the Benedictines.
Bookmaking and modernized buildings followed the development of the printing
press in 1450. The sole educational institutions of this period (900–1500) were
monasteries. Their subject matter was religious writing. Outside of these monas-
teries, participation in skilled labour was the principal means of education, though
not the kind of education which was recognized as such by schools. As trades and
crafts developed, i.e. became more differentiated and specialized, apprenticeship
included a large body of information, tools and techniques. The master was to teach
the recipes, rules, applications of science, mathematics, as well as the art of the craft.
The method was imitative and all instruction took place outside of school walls.
A new conception of the process of learning began to emerge in the 1400s—the
same spirit that led to the discovery of new methods for the schools. According
to Bennett, this period spawned two new fundamental ideas upon which modern
instruction in the manual arts has been built (1926, p. 30). The first is that the senses
are the basis of thought and, consequently, of knowledge. The second is learning by
doing. The idea that children could learn by working through a process and making
something by themselves, with tools, was seen as rational thinking. The placing of
handicrafts in schools followed.
It was Francis Bacon (1561–1626) who helped make the transition from learning
based on the writings of antiquity to learning based on nature and the arts of daily
life. Comenius followed (1592–1670) by advocating learning that starts with the
senses, then memory, the intellect, and finally the critical faculty. ‘The child per-
ceives through the senses; every thing in the intellect must come through the senses’
(cited in Bennett, 1926, p. 36).
British thinkers began to contribute to the technical learning story in the 1600s.
In 1663 Moxon published a volume entitled ‘Mechanik exercises or the doctrine of
handy works’. The subjects ranged from smithing to joinery and made extensive
use of illustrations. Locke (1642–1727) became the main spokesperson for the idea
that education should ‘fit a boy for practical life’ (Bennett, 1926, p. 61). Rousseau
(1712–1778) took Locke’s ideas a step further. He believed agriculture was the most
respectable of all arts and professions. Next to this came smithing and then carpen-
try. Bennett quotes Rousseau: ‘The great secret of education is to make the exercise
of the body and mind serve as relaxation to each other’ (1926, p. 80). Ultimately,
technical learning found its way into the school curriculum across Europe along-
side classic academic subjects, such as mathematics, science, language, history and
religion.
Four distinct movements, three in Europe and one in the United States, are de-
bated in the literature for their uniqueness and contribution to technical thinking and
learning. Each provides an important element in the evolution of a socio/experiential
pedagogy. Each shows how different cultures influenced or, adapted to, the Indus-
trial Revolution: the Russian system of workshop instruction; sloyd in Scandinavia;
manual training in Western Europe; and vocational education in the United States.
1 The Pedagogical Roots of Technical Learning and Thinking 7

1.1 The Russian System of Workshop Instruction

One of the first societies to analyse tool processes and construction methods em-
ployed in the mechanical arts was Russia.3 Progress in teaching mechanical arts had
been slow until the Russians institutionalized technical learning. Earlier student-
learning methods (prior to the 1800s), e.g. imitative or apprenticeship, were unsatis-
factory. The lack of an effective ‘system’ of instruction created a problem for which
a solution had not been devised. About this same time a Mr. Della Vos was appointed
to lead a new institution which became known as the Moscow School of Trades and
Industries (later decreed in Russia as the Imperial Technical School). He devel-
oped a six-year programme of instruction that would be considered college level
today.
The school was organized through instruction and construction shops. Large con-
tracts for development/project work were taken on by the school and carried out
partly by hired workmen and partly by the students. The machines they constructed
included steam engines, pumps and agricultural machinery. Students were permit-
ted to work in the construction shops only after completing required courses in the
instruction shops. The goals or ends of instruction were to teach the fundamentals of
mechanical arts in the least possible time, in large groups, with a strong knowledge
base and in steps that would allow the progress of each student to be assessed. Each
art or distinct type of work had its own separate shop, e.g., joinery, wood turning,
blacksmithing, locksmithing. Large display boards were used to provide enlarged
samples of wood joints, drawings, models, etc. The time devoted to joinery, as one
example, was fourteen hours per week for one year. Each student was required to
keep a ‘workbook’ recording the successive steps in each exercise, e.g. laying out,
squaring stock, cutting and planing. Students could master the elements of the arts
in a progressive sequence from easy to difficult. This separation of instruction and
construction shops, along with the development of sequential exercises, led people
to believe that mechanical arts could be taught in school settings. The way was
paved for technical instruction in schools—at least the perception that it could be
taught was beckoning and compelling (using the same methods as in the other school
subjects).
The Imperial Technical School provided a more economical and effective sub-
stitute for apprenticeship, or at least the early part of apprenticeship. Reference to
the developmental potential of project work in human terms is not mentioned in the
literature. Similarly, the Russian analysis does not mention how one mechanical art
might differ from another in terms of its fundamental nature and how that nature
might somehow define unique or distinct learning methodologies for each, or in fact
if either suited itself to being taught in schools.4 The issue of whether or not such
teaching or curriculum design was vocational or general was not an issue.
The literature also highlights the important contribution that the Russian dili-
gence and analysis made to tool and machine design. The word ‘design’ was not
one that was used in those early days. However, it was an important outcome of
the ‘system’ used in the many pioneering European schools that emerged through
the 1800s, including that of Pestalozzi. The transfer of knowledge and designs
8 R. Hansen

that were tested and refined is remarkable. The Diderot Encyclopedia5 is a testi-
mony of the contribution that European pioneers made to technical knowledge in
the 1800s.
In summary, the Russian system of workshop instruction and tool design proved
that mechanical arts could be analyzed and their fundamental elements arranged and
charted. It demonstrated that one instructor could successfully give instruction to a
large number of young workers and students at the same time. It also showed, after
years of trial and error, that whole-class instruction had to be supplemented with
one-on-one instruction, suggesting that learning of technical means is not always
viable in large-group situations. Furthermore, to ensure mastery of each step or op-
eration the teacher needed to evaluate the student’s progress, i.e. exercise diligence.
Without these safeguards or what Bennett called pedagogical procedures, lack of
patience and attention to detail often resulted in waste of materials and unsatisfac-
tory finished products, e.g. failed joints, awkward designs. Organizers and leaders
learned that the teacher must be an expert craftsperson in the work he or she is
teaching and must keep up his or her competence. Teacher credibility stemmed from
being able to demonstrate and inspire.

1.2 Sloyd: Scandinavia’s Contribution to Technical Learning

Sloyd (slojd, sloid) is a Scandinavian term that dates to the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. It was the term used to describe what Nordic families did in the harsh and
dark months of winter to pass the time. Webster’s International Dictionary (Bab-
cock, 1971) defines it as a system of manual training developed in Sweden for train-
ing in the use of tools and materials, but emphasizing training in wood carving as a
means to this end. Another historical analysis of sloyd gives credit to Finland for its
origins. Kananoja, Kantola and Issakainen (1999) researched the archives and found
that Uno Cygnaeus, a Finlander, first founded sloyd. In either case, families would
sit beside the stone hearth fireplace in their cottages making tools and handicrafts
out of wood. At first the tools and handicrafts were those needed for survival on the
farm. Later they served an economic purpose as they could be sold to others in the
spring and summer months.
Home sloyd eventually died out and was replaced by school sloyd. Apparently,
the abuse of alcohol had resulted in a breakdown of the skill and character of young
Swedish men. The revival was prompted by a national education policy that intro-
duced it into schools as a subject of study. The history from that point on differs
across the Scandinavian countries. Each contributed something to the programme
and tradition known today in all Scandinavian schools as sloyd.
Finland was once a part of the Russian Empire. In grateful appreciation for
the loyalty of the Finnish people in helping him resist the onslaught of Napoleon,
Alexander II promised Finland a new and complete primary school system. The
designer of that system (1860s) was Cygnaeus. In his early years Cygnaeus acquired
considerable manual skill, thanks to his father, who took him to various workshops.
1 The Pedagogical Roots of Technical Learning and Thinking 9

Also, for five years, he lived in Alaska where he learned about both the govern-
ing class and aboriginal people. He ascribed some of his thoughts on the need for
and character of popular education to these experiences. His philosophy was that
children, young and old, should be educated through the senses to appreciate the
aesthetics and functionality of independent artisanship and problem-solving. This
meant the use of one’s hands in building and making artefacts. In 1866 his plans for a
system of public or folk schools (as they were called) were enacted into law. He first
set up a teacher-training school at Jyväskylä. Student learning was divided among
book studies, domestic industries, and work in the garden and fields. He believed
that handwork should lead toward future practical efficiency, yet the school should
not become a technical or trade school. On these grounds, handwork was made one
of the fundamental subjects in the school established by Cygnaeus and in all folk
schools.
Meanwhile, in Sweden a successful merchant in Gothenberg, August Abraham-
son, retired to Naas (twenty kilometres away), a former hunting area of the King
of Sweden. Within this great estate were forests with oak and birch trees, pastures,
a castle and isolated villas. Abrahamson was a lover of nature and art, but with
an interest in bettering the conditions of the common people. Thus, in 1868, at his
wife’s suggestion, he opened a sloyd school. Originally this was intended for the
boys on the estate, but it quickly expanded and needed leadership. Otto Salomon
(1849–1907), a nephew and technical student at the Technical School of Stockholm,
was invited to operate the school. In 1872 an industrial school (Arbets-Skola) for
boys who had graduated from the folk school (the same concept as in Finland) was
established under Salomon’s direction. The course covered two years, fifty weeks
a year, ten hours a day (seven for sloyd, three for other subjects). In 1874 a similar
school for girls was opened. The need for capable teachers soon became evident.
Naas, as such, developed into a summer teacher education institution, with teachers
from all over the world attending to learn about the pedagogy (human development)
associated with handwork.
Though there is no evidence that Salomon was acquainted with Della Vos and
the Russian system of work instruction, he based his curriculum on a series of
tool exercises and elementary forms of construction. Unlike Della Vos, however,
he combined his exercises into the making of useful articles. There were three char-
acteristics of educational sloyd as developed by Salomon: making useful objects;
analyses of processes; and educational method. Salomon gave credit for the edu-
cational method characteristic to Cygnaeus. The pedagogical plan always included
working from the easy to the difficult, from the known to the unknown, and from the
interests and capacities of the children. Drawing or sketching often preceded project
work. First, he tried to make sloyd teachers out of artisans; later he spent more of
his effort in making sloyders out of teachers. Salomon believed that teachers should
use one-on-one instruction in their teaching. He admitted that whole-class teaching
was more economical but not sufficiently educational. Students from age 11 to 15
participated in sloyd.
In Denmark Ansel (Axel) Mikkelsen,6 a manufacturer, began in 1885 to teach
manual work to his apprentices, and a few other children. It wasn’t long before he
10 R. Hansen

heard of Salomon and Cygnaeus’s work. At his own expense, he started a sloyd
school in Copenhagen. What developed was the Danish sloyd system. The general
characteristics of Danish sloyd were: the starting point of all instruction should be
the natural interests of the child; the materials used should be wood and the tools
only those in common use; the course should be organized using a small or lim-
ited number of specific models and an unlimited number of co-ordinate (generic)
models; it should be flexible to meet the varying needs of individual pupils; both
whole-class and individual instruction should be used; tools should be selected or
constructed to suit the child’s size and strength.

1.3 Manual Training in Western Europe

The manual training movement is primarily a central and western European phe-
nomenon, although the idea found its way to North American shores where it
was renamed manual arts. More importantly, perhaps, it is a story of class differ-
ences, boyhood labour and schools as instruments of elitist beliefs. In France7 and
Germany,8 as in many European countries, manual training grew out of an earlier
type of workshop instruction, which was chiefly economic or industrial in its pur-
pose. Beiderman and Goetz were two prominent leaders who figured in the German
manual training movement.
Goetze took Biederman’s ideas and went a step further, writing an important
book entitled ‘Die Erganzung des Schulunterrichts durch praktische Beschaftigung’
[The completion of school instruction through practical activity]. Based on Bieder-
man and Goetze’s ideas, manual training in German schools began to flourish. First
a German Association for Boy’s Handwork (Leipzig Boy’s Workshop) was estab-
lished. Then in the summer of 1882 a course for teachers was established. Within a
span of ten years teacher training was provided at all major population centres across
Germany. Goetze was made director of a special teacher-training college in Leipzig
that was associated with the Leipzig Boy’s Workshop. Ultimately, the pedagogy
associated with manual training came to be known as the ‘Leipzig method’ and the
world-renowned German respect and valuing of technical learning in schools was
born.
The question of what form technical learning should take in the schools was
also addressed in the German story. Because of resistance to technical learning by
headmasters and other school leaders, Goetze raised the question of whether or not
manual training should be a servant to other school subjects or independent. Many
headmasters felt that technical learning should be offered in the curriculum if it
helped students learn natural history, geography or physics.
Is manual training to be admitted only on account of the service it renders to other branches
of education, or whether, by virtue of its peculiar educative influence, an independent po-
sition is to be assigned to it in the system of education? We [The German Association for
Boy’s Handwork] side with those who take the latter view. Manual training can neither do
its own work nor be an efficient auxiliary to other subjects unless it be methodologically
organized on an independent footing. Unless manual training is to become mere amateur
1 The Pedagogical Roots of Technical Learning and Thinking 11

bungling, it cannot possibly depart from the natural method of proceeding from easy to
difficult (cited in Bennett, 1926, p. 178).

In England a different story was evolving and the principles upon which manual
training and the school system were to be founded were being fixed. Before the
Industrial Revolution, the ruling class in England, according to Bennett, accepted
the idea that, in an ideal society, it was essential for a large proportion of the people
be ignorant and poor. It took a hundred of years of debate to change this idea and to
adopt a system of elementary schools at public expense (1926, p. 220). Elementary
schooling would not be available and free to all children in England until 1905.
At the same time lower-class parents felt it was their right to profit by the manual
labour of their children. Many parents needed all the revenue that children could
earn. To correct this situation the church became involved, followed by schools of
industry. Volunteer teachers came to the rescue of poor children and a movement
known as the ‘Ragged Schools’ emerged. Out of the Ragged School Movement
came the polytechnics intended for the social, moral and educational improvement
of adults. Independently, from 1824 to 1848, the Mechanics Institute Movement
flourished with many of the institutes becoming technical schools. The technical
curriculum for England was being shaped. They [the mechanics institutes] were
intended to help mechanics learn about the principles behind mechanical objects,
tools and machinery. However, it soon became apparent that a minimal level of
language competence was necessary between people who were trying to convey the
principles and those receiving it. This experience helped precipitate the opening of
schools for children. Eventually, art and technical schools also came into being to
provide skilled workers for industry.
Fuelling the growth of technical schools was intense industrial competition
between England and Continental Europe. It was felt that Belgium, France and
Germany were gaining prestige over England in the race to industrial supremacy.
The issue of what kind or form of education was needed to propel and sustain in-
dustrial development was being debated. In the end, a system of elementary schools
provided instruction in basic literacy to age 10. Forms of handicraft were evident in
the schools—but sporadic. Needlework is identified in the literature as one promi-
nent craft. Early on, inspectors of needlework and drawing were appointed in Lon-
don. Coincident with the emergence of both schools and crafts in them, the problem
of child and juvenile delinquency was becoming prominent. The English solution
was to incarcerate them in schools where they could learn heavy crafts. Here was
a solution to the government’s need for public obedience and industry’s need for
workers. ‘Industry schools’ were born. Moral reform was twinned with technical
learning.9
In Scotland, a school quite different in character and with more egalitarian pur-
poses was giving shop work a serious place in the curriculum. Allan Glen’s Institute
in Glasgow was established in 1853 together with a free school for elementary edu-
cation. It eventually became a school of secondary and technical education. Articles
made by students were of their own selection and became their own property upon
payment for the material consumed. In Scottish tradition, once a student mastered a
12 R. Hansen

scale model of wood, he or she began to work for the institution. Eventually, shop
courses became a regular feature of schools in both England and Scotland, some
with wonderful traditions of excellence and spirit.
The debate about the function and form of technical learning in schools paral-
leled those on the European continent. Some school officials saw manual training
as a distinct and important subject area; others viewed it as an adjunct. The one
element that separated the English story from the rest of Europe was the role of
the City and Guilds Institute of London. In 1886 the City and Guilds of London
and the School Board formed a committee to plan the equipping of four schools
for woodworking. Classes were visited by many men and women interested in the
problems of education. Reports from the School Board of London for 1888 suggest
the students were highly motivated and inspired to stay in school because of these
classes.
Another influence that impacted on manual training in English schools came
from Naas in Sweden. Beginning in 1884, teachers from England began travelling
to Sweden to take courses in sloyd. Armed with Salomon’s models and techniques,
as well as an enriched summer experience, these teachers began to promote sloyd
in their schools. A group of sloyd workers took shape and the promoters of man-
ual instruction found themselves representing two more or less opposing groups of
teachers. One group depended on the City and Guilds, the other on sloyd philoso-
phy and practice. Finally, an experiment integrating the two approaches to manual
training was undertaken. The result was ‘English Sloyd’.10 The English system of
manual training in the elementary school was thus set. Unfortunately, the Education
Department was unable to reconcile the two factions, partly because they were more
focused on technical education. ‘It [the Education Department] could not catch
the full significance of manual training as a vital factor in elementary education’
(Bennett, 1937, p. 247). Ultimately, a teacher preparation syllabus was established
and teachers (some from other subjects and some artisans) were certified to teach
manual training as a subject. Handwork, in spite of the turmoil over philosophy and
means, became a staple in English elementary schools leading quite certainly to the
arts and crafts for which British craftspeople are now famous.
Technical education in England is a distinguishable but separate part of the whole
story. While the general education advocates won out in rationalizing elementary
school manual training as a non-trade oriented learning programme, the same fate
would not befall technical education. The term technical education and the contents
of classes under this name came to include: a group of general education subjects in
the elementary and higher schools, to very trade specific teaching, to higher instruc-
tion in science and engineering, and to commercial studies. One other backdrop to
the technical education story in England began in 1851 and lasted till the end of
the century. In 1851 the Great Exhibition was held at the Crystal Palace in London.
This was intended to showcase the superiority of British manufactured articles. It
did, except for the category of superior skill and refined design. In this area, France
was clearly superior. In 1855 the European countries met the British challenge by
inviting the United Kingdom to compete in the Exposition Universelle in Paris. This
revealed remarkable progress on the Continent. Again in 1862 in London, Britain
1 The Pedagogical Roots of Technical Learning and Thinking 13

was confronted with a host of rivals. The Paris exhibition of 1867 provided further
evidence that the United Kingdom could no longer claim supremacy. The education
of continental workers was clearly superior.11
In the final analysis, the Great Exhibition of 1851 was a very significant turn-
ing point in the technical school learning story. Envy among nations clearly had a
significant impact on technical thinking and its position in schools during the mid-
nineteenth century. Its [technical learning and thinking] stock increased dramatically
in the public sentiment. But did it make any difference for technical teachers and
students in the schools? The evolution of schooling in the twentieth century would
surely prove, once and for all, how technical learning was central to both individual
development but also economic development.

1.4 The Vocational Education Movement in the United States

Bennett marks 1906 as being the beginning of the vocational education movement
in the United States (1937, p. 507). Manual arts had been expanding in the high
schools. Specific trades and apprenticeships were being identified by labour unions
and manufacturers. Students were looking for practical and profitable workplace
opportunities. Debates about social versus economic agendas took a back seat to
the government’s needs and wants. After much wrangling at the federal level, the
Smith-Hughes Act was passed (1917), paving the way for federal monies to be
spent on buildings and equipment for specific occupational training. The purpose
of vocational studies was to fit boys and girls for a job. Its integrity was tied to the
‘educative value of work’. Eventually, vocational guidance became a complimentary
force that cemented the movement, both in schools and in the work sector. Students
needed sound advice on which trade or occupation to choose.
Also taking a back seat was the issue of whether or not technical learning should
have cultural or industrial purposes. There was too much exciting work to be done
in the schools associated with teacher training, curriculum and facility design. Dis-
cussion of what form technical learning should take in schools was overshadowed
for the moment. Eventually many secondary schools and institutes would be known
(reflecting the vocational nature of studies in them) as vocational schools.
In his summation of the 1870 to 1917 period, Bennett traces the issues or interests
that gave technical learning and thinking in the United States its substance.

Throughout the years of effort to obtain the law [Smith-Hughes Act], there were three con-
stantly recurring and conflicting interests that had to be harmonized or at least propitiated.
One was between the manufacturer and the labor union; each wished to regulate vocational
training in order to control the labor market. Then there was the conflict of ideals between
those who feared that vocational training would lower the standard of cultural education.
And finally, when the need for vocational training was admitted, some believed that it could
be effective only when separated from the public-school work of general education; while
others insisted on the unity of control in public education and saw no good reason for a dual
system. The law passed was probably the best compromise that could have been obtained
at that time (1937, p. 550).
14 R. Hansen

2 The Irony of Displacing Technical Thinking and Learning

Regardless of whether or not technical learning and thinking is marginalized in the

school systems of most Western societies, it is useful to critically examine the model
that currently dominates and governs how children learn in school environments.
Increasing numbers of pedagogues point to the flaws in the classic academic model
of learning adopted in schools (Greenfield, 1993; McLaren, 1998; Rogers, 1997).
Acceptance of and reliance on the school-knowledge-acquisition model also raises
an important question. What are the limitations of that model of learning and think-
ing for technical teachers/students and for schools generally?
Debate about the validity of scientific knowledge seeking and ordering in recent
decades has been robust (Kuhn, 1962), but also ubiquitous. Seldom is any credence
given to a knowledge-generation model or theory that emerges from people who
value ‘doing’ as highly as ‘knowing’. Scholars point to the scientific method as a
source for deriving new knowledge and validating it. The knowledge-seeking and
validation process is known in the literature as ‘positivism’. Acceptance of posi-
tivism, even though it enjoys a nineteenth century history, has come under increasing
scrutiny. Kuhn’s challenge to positivism, along with that of Hooker (1987), points
to a renaissance of thinking regarding sources of knowledge. Missing from the
science-based knowledge-building model is a way of learning that recognizes tech-
nical knowledge and knowledge that comes from experience. Finnigan and Layton
refer to this in their annotated bibliography on teaching and learning in the third
culture.

So far as the schools are concerned, these developments [the recognition that technological
activity is fundamentally different from science] have a direct and practical implication.
If there is a distinct ‘technik’[technical thinking and learning], with characteristics which
distinguish it from the sciences and humanities, should it not have a place in the general
education offered by the schools? Are there, indeed, three cultures, not two as C.P. Snow
suggested, the third corresponding to the creative, problem-solving and productive activi-
ties of the engineer? Ought we not to recognize more clearly in curriculum terms that the
fundamental difference between science and technology is social, a difference in values
between a community whose sovereign value is ‘knowing’ and another whose ultimate goal
is ‘doing’? And if the answer to each of these questions is ‘Yes’, what problems arise in
relation to teaching and learning in the third culture? (1994, p. 2).

Questions about the validity and verification of knowledge as the featured commod-
ity of schools are also found in the field ‘sociology of knowledge’. Rogers (1997),
in her paper on new views of knowledge and its representation in schools, illustrates
the differences between subject-matter learning and disciplinary learning. She ex-
plores some of the problems posed by using disciplines as the primary source of
authority in shaping the curriculum, and goes on to propose a more radical, alterna-
tive model for thinking about the curriculum. The alternative integrates the influence
of the disciplines with other influences, such as the child’s world, the particulars of
context and the knowledge of professions. She argues that we should think more
broadly about the possible sources of influence and authority for the curriculum in
schools.
1 The Pedagogical Roots of Technical Learning and Thinking 15

As nations and economies rush to claim a ‘knowledge-based’ lifelong learning

model, the need for technical education to have its true nature and form properly
recognized and valued, in and out of the formal learning institutions, is vital. Why
would anyone want to exclude knowledge from everyday life in a learning model?
A paper subtitled ‘Towards a sociology of lifetime learning’ (Rees et al., 1997)
challenges the normative focus on ‘the learning society’ as one that can and should
be driven by more than human capital theory. The authors conclude that a narrow
approach looking only at human beings as capital will detract from an adequate
theory of lifetime learning.
There is a classic question that plagues educational policy and thought. It may
also underscore why there was a lack of rebuttal from practical people who know
how they learn when solving everyday problems. Can schooling, when separated
from everyday reality, ever be relevant? Dewey writes: ‘Connect schooling to every-
day life and the curriculum will, of necessity, be relevant’. Layton underscores the
same point when he states that schools decontextualize knowledge (1993, p. 15):
‘A general characteristic of school technology and one which makes it different
from many other school subjects is its engagement with practical action in the
made world. No subject challenges the historic role of schools as institutions which
decontextualize knowledge quite so strongly as does technology.’ Buchmann and
Schwaille perceptively ask: Can knowledge be acquired and retained independent
of practical action, by observing and imitating others and by extracting knowledge
from experiences coded in text? Does learning in schools always have to be an
interpretation of reality rather than reality itself (1983, p. 11)?
Technicians and technologists who know how they learn through experience are
often not informed about where knowledge and the school curriculum comes from,
much less whether or not it is valid. And, even when they do, their voices and the
platforms from which they might express themselves are remote.12 The fact that
such knowledge and its dissemination was contrived or that something might have
been lost in the translation, or that it might be at least once removed from world or
human reality, as such, is not resolved. Sheridan writes: ‘schooling contributes to a
priority of legitimacy of literacy, and this denies the legitimacy of experience, which
is necessary for learning’ (2000, p. 23). School-teachers, unfortunately, technical or
otherwise are seldom fully informed of this dichotomy/irony.

3 Epilogue

The knowledge-oriented tradition that underpins schooling in Western societies

continues to enjoy an unquestioned place in the minds of most parents, policy-
makers and professional educators. At the same time, the importance and place
of experience versus knowledge as an orientation or tradition for learning awaits
definition and institutionalization. The literature overview in this chapter draws
out three important features of the academic versus experiential learning divide.
First, the need for a deeper understanding of what it means to be technical and
to think and learn technically in a human and social sense requires documentation
16 R. Hansen

and clarification. Second, how and what one learns when being technical is an elu-
sive but culturally significant pedagogical terrain. Third, technological learning, as
a cultural phenomenon that defines societies and governs economic prosperity, is
undistinguished.
A ‘first principles’ or critical analysis may be the only one that offers hope for
reform. And, ironically, the one place where answers and enlightenment are tra-
ditionally found, i.e. the school, is the genesis of the problem. Formal learning
institutions, thereby, are not likely to see it in their best interests to pursue a full
and honest analysis.
Teachers are not taught what Lindeman and other educational philosophers have
known for some time—‘education conceived as a preparation for life locks that
learning within a vicious circle. Youth educated in terms of adult ideas and taught
to think of learning as a process which ends when real life begins will make no
better use of intelligence than the elders who prescribe the system’ (1926, p. 3).
In other words, we have become habituated to a method of achievement that is,
in essence, antithetical to intelligence and to technical learning. Teachers are not
taught or given this important contextual information in their training/education.
The absence of this understanding and teachers who know nothing of the problem
lies at the root of a huge dilemma in schools. Ironically, this ‘missing understanding’
is spoken about informally in workplaces and around the kitchen table all the time
by families and people who trust their experience and life’s work ahead of what
they learned or did not learn in schools. Lindeman puts it bluntly: ‘Too much of
learning [in schools] consists of vicarious substitution of someone else’s experience
and knowledge’ (1926, p. 6).
In fairness it should be said that the ‘learned’ colonialists who attempted to
share and rationalize this new-found way to learn and think were probably scep-
tical and euphoric at the same time. Book learning would eradicate a perceived
and increasingly legitimized problem—illiteracy. Peasants and pagans who roamed
many regions of the world using oral forms of communication were thought to
be backward and their ways limiting. Settler and colonialist cultures felt that the
printed word leading to widespread reading and dissemination of information would
homogenize and standardize people and cultures. It did. The technical printing
press, among other things, paved the way for a single and widespread way of
transmitting important information and ultimately knowledge. What they [settler
cultures] failed to recognize was that both the oral and the written forms of in-
formation dissemination and the ways of learning that go with each are equally
significant and inextricably connected. Wisdom, it was thought, could be passed
on from one generation to another by book learning. Can it? Does experience not
intervene?
The fact that the two kinds of thinking and learning [academic versus techni-
cal] are very different may be one of the explanations why technical thinking and
learning have not found a home in formal teacher-education practices. There is a
resulting universal conundrum. The notion of constructing knowledge and creating
academic subjects for its dissemination is itself an anomaly. The pedagogical terrain
in recent years has been tempered by the introduction of design as a precursor,
1 The Pedagogical Roots of Technical Learning and Thinking 17

if not a stand-alone component, of what is sometimes referred to as ‘Design and

Technology’ in the schools. The notion of designing is often so prominent that un-
dertaking a technical project and learning to be technical is discarded or deferred.
Design and technology serves as a reminder of what happens when technical think-
ing and learning is defined in a school general education context. It becomes what
McLaren (1998) calls another socially constructed subject.

Notes

1. Bennett was a professor of manual arts at Bradley Polytechnic Institute in Peoria, Illinois. He
devoted a good deal of his life to documenting a comprehensive history of manual training and
industrial education. His material provides a comprehensive review of the pioneers associated
with pedagogical thought about technical thinking and learning.
2. ‘Through the promotion of agriculture, the handicrafts, and art, along with religious instruc-
tion for all, and book learning for a selected few, the Benedictines became the civilizers of
barbarians and examples of enterprise, thrift, and Christian culture’ (Bennett, 1926, p. 20).
3. There is some debate about whether or not the French were engaged in systematic instruction
ahead of the Russians. Pannabecker (2004) found evidence of formal technical instruction in
Paris, France, as early as 1808, and certainly by 1828.
4. Two contrasting examples are joinery and blacksmithing (metal work).
5. The Diderot Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts, et des métiers
(1751–80) is a compendium of thirty-five volumes that is considered the centrepiece of the
Age of Enlightenment (Pannabecker, 1998).
6. Two authorities on Mikkelsen’s contribution to sloyd are Bent Illum and Benny Gaarde. The
National Institute for Sloyd Teacher Training, in Copenhagen, contains the documents that
record Mikkelsen’s contributions to Danish sloyd.
7. The following quote typifies how the French thought about manual training: ‘In France there
is absolutely no sympathy with any kind of manual instruction that pretends to aim at purely
educational results and entirely ignores the industrial condition of the country’ (cited in Ben-
nett, 1926, p. 107).
8. Thanks to Waldemar Goetze, leaders of the manual training movement in Germany were not
driven by the economic advantages of instruction in handwork but by its general educational
value. After apprenticing for a year, Goetze went to the University of Leipzig. There he was
able to study Friedrich Karl Biederman’s clear and democratic ideas on education.
9. The objective of the industrial work in those schools was ‘not to make profit of their labour,
but to help them acquire habits of industry, skill in some useful art, and such correct moral
habits as to render their service desirable’ (Bennett, 1926, p. 227).
10. It was shown that the instruction [City and Guilds curriculum] stimulated the intelligence and
improved the physique of the children; that the discipline was pleasant to the learners; and
that, whilst it gave reality to much of the abstract teaching of the school, it endowed the young
workers with manual skill and adroitness that remained with them a permanent possession for
life (Magnus, 1910). In 1892 an epoch-making book entitled ‘Woodwork’ detailed methods
of procedure in teaching woodworking. English sloyd differed from Swedish sloyd in that the
making of any object had to be preceded by the making of a working drawing.
11. John Mill, in a pamphlet entitled ‘What is industrial and technical education?’, summarized the
results of these world fairs as follows: ‘The Great Exposition of 1851, and those which have
been subsequently held, have given a rude shock to our insular pride and self-complacency by
showing us that our former excellence in numerous branches of manufacturing industry has
been lost’ (cited in Bennett, 1926, p. 277).
12. Hansen (1996) describes the apologetic nature of technological studies teachers in his teacher
socialization research.
18 R. Hansen

References
Babcock, P. 1971. The Webster’s New Third International Dictionary (unabridged). Springfield,
MA: G. & C. Merriam Company.
Bennett, C.A. 1926. History of manual and industrial education: up to 1870. Peoria, IL: Chas. A.
Bennett Co. Inc.
Bennett, C.A. 1937. History of manual and industrial education: 1870 to 1917. Peoria, IL: Chas.
A. Bennett Co. Inc.
Buchmann, M.; Schwaille, J. 1983. Education: the overcoming of experience. American journal of
education, vol. 92, pp. 30–51.
Finnigan, R.; Layton, D. 1994. Teaching and learning in the third culture? An annotated bib-
liography of issues in engineering education. Leeds, UK: Centre for Studies in Science and
Mathematics Education.
Greenfield, T.B. 1993. The man who comes back through the door in the wall: discovering truth,
discovering self, discovering organizations. In: Greenfield, T.; Ribbing, P., eds. Greenfield on
educational administration: towards a humane science, pp. 92–119. London: Routledge.
Hansen, R. 1996. Program equity and the status of technological education: the apologetic nature
of technology teachers (Editorial). Journal of technology education, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 57–63.
Hooker, C.A. 1987. A realistic theory of science. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Kananoja, T.; Kantola, J.; Issakainen, M. 1999. Conference proceedings: Development of Technol-
ogy Conference. Jyväskylä, Finland: University of Jyväskylä.
Kuhn, T.S. 1962. The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago
Press.
Lindeman, E. 1926. The meaning of adult education. New York, NY: New Republic Inc.
Layton, D. 1993. Technology’s challenge to science education: cathedral, quarry, or company
store? Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
Magnus, P. 1910. Educational aims and efforts: 1880–1910. London: Longmans, Green.
McLaren, P. 1998. Life in schools: an introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of edu-
cation, 3rd ed., pp. 171–98). New York, NY: Longman.
Pannabecker, J. 1998. Representing mechanical arts in Diderot’s Encyclopédie. Technology and
culture, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 33–73.
Pannabecker, J. 2004. Inventing industrial education: The Ecole d’Arts et Métiers of Châlons-sur-
Marne, 1807–1830. History of education quarterly, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 222–249.
Rees, G. et al. 1997. History, place and the learning society: towards a sociology of lifetime
learning. Journal of education policy, vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 485–99.
Rogers, B. 1997. Informing the shape of the curriculum: new views of knowledge and its represen-
tation in schooling. Journal of curriculum studies, vol. 29, no. 6, pp. 683–710.
Sheridan, J. 2000. The silence before drowning in alphabet soup. Canadian journal of native
studies, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 23–32.
Chapter 2
A Conceptual Framework for Technical
and Vocational Education and Training

Jay W. Rojewski

1 Introduction

Unprecedented changes in work, family, community and political life in the twenty-
first century—fuelled by myriad phenomena such as globalization, market deregula-
tion, the worldwide influence of capitalism, and a need for knowledgeable workers
skilled in information technologies—confront people in every region of the world.
While these phenomena pose significant economic, social and cultural challenges,
technical and vocational education and training (TVET) professionals are partic-
ularly challenged to develop, adapt or redesign strategies to address the needs of
workers and society.
But, what drives the changes and modifications made to TVET programmes?
Even more basic, what is the essential purpose of TVET programmes in an in-
creasingly global economy requiring highly-skilled and highly-educated workers?
Should TVET be viewed solely as a means for preparing people for specific types
of work or as a means of providing academic education for living in a demo-
cratic society? Should purposes differ at secondary and post-secondary levels?
Where is TVET headed in the foreseeable future, and what factors affect this
direction?
Answers to these questions—and many more—depend on any number of possi-
ble factors, not the least of which are the underlying philosophies, implicit assump-
tions and common vision held by those responsible for TVET. Presumably, this
information can be collected and coherently presented in a conceptual framework.
In this chapter, I attempt to articulate ‘a’ (rather than ‘the’) conceptual frame-
work for TVET. Because of differing views about the nature of TVET, a concep-
tual framework must accomplish several goals to be effective and useful, including:
(a) explaining the general purposes of TVET; (b) reflecting the underlying beliefs
and perspectives of its constituents; and (c) shaping current activity and future
direction—it cannot be developed in a vacuum. Many constituencies must be in-
volved to provide a comprehensive view of TVET and its applications in classrooms,
boardrooms, living rooms and factory floors. Therefore, this framework should be
viewed as an initial point of departure for discussion and debate rather than as an
arrival at the final destination.

R. Maclean, D. Wilson (eds.), International Handbook of Education for the Changing 19

World of Work, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-5281-1 2,

C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
20 J.W. Rojewski

2 Nature and Role of Conceptual Frameworks

Theoretical and conceptual concerns regarding TVET have often taken a back seat
compared to changing political and economic landscapes dominated by shifting
governmental and international agency policies and initiatives. Any attempt to artic-
ulate a framework for TVET is also fraught with potential points of contention about
the ultimate purpose(s) of TVET, the diversity of countries and constituents served
and their sometimes conflicting needs, and the degree of reliance on governments
or international agencies to provide guidance and definition.
A conceptual framework contains: (a) principles or ‘generalizations that state
preferred practices and serve as guidelines for programme and curriculum construc-
tion, selection of instructional practices, and policy development’; and (b) philoso-
phy which ‘makes assumptions and speculations about the nature of human activity
and the nature of the world [and] helps vocational educators decide what should
be and what should be different’ (Miller, 1996, p. xiii). Conceptual frameworks
should accomplish several things, including: (a) establish the parameters of a pro-
fession by delineating its mission and current practices; (b) account for historical
events by allowing understanding of how we got to where we are; (c) establish the
philosophical underpinnings of the field and underscore the relationships between
philosophy and practice; and (d) provide a forum for understanding directions of the
field. A conceptual framework does not necessarily solve all problems or answer all
questions, but it should provide a schema for identifying critical issues and allowing
for solutions. Frameworks should be fairly stable, but have the capacity to change
over time and adapt to external factors.
Any conceptual framework for TVET must be flexible enough to allow for dif-
ferences in secondary or post-secondary programmes and accommodate changes in
various economies and countries, but at the same time identify underlying assump-
tions, beliefs and values that are consistent for all types of programmes and are not
readily subject to change. Not a small order!

3 Philosophical Underpinnings

In the United States, TVET emerged in the early 1900s in the midst of debate
about the nature of vocational training in public education. A general consensus had
emerged about the importance of establishing vocational training in public schools
as an alternative to a classical, academic tradition. However, a disagreement existed
about the specific design and implementation of public vocational education. Two
historical figures, Charles Prosser and John Dewey, have come to represent opposing
positions on the nature of vocational education.
Prosser’s views on social efficiency, while lacking the qualities of a formal philo-
sophic system (Miller & Gregson, 1999), posited that the major goal of school was
not individual fulfilment but meeting the country’s labour needs. A bulwark of so-
cial efficiency was the preparation of a well-trained, compliant workforce (Doolittle
2 A Conceptual Framework for Technical and Vocational Education and Training 21

& Camp, 1999). TVET was organized and rigidly sequenced, an emphasis was
placed on hands-on instruction delivered by people with extensive experience, and
programme funding and administration occurred via a system that was physically
and conceptually separate and distinct from academic education. While strongly
supported by a majority of TVET proponents at the time, Prosser’s approach to
vocational preparation has been criticized in recent years for being class-based
and tracking certain segments of society—based on race, class and gender—into
second-class occupations and second-class citizenship (Hyslop-Margison, 2000;
Lewis, 1998).
In sharp contrast, Dewey believed that the principle goal of public education
was to meet individual needs for personal fulfilment and preparation for life. This
required that all students receive vocational education, be taught how to solve prob-
lems and have individual differences equalized. ‘Dewey rejected the image of stu-
dents as passive individuals controlled by market economy forces and existentially
limited by inherently proscribed intellectual capacities. In his view, students were
active pursuers and constructors of knowledge’ (Hyslop-Margison, 2000, p. 25).
Dewey’s work is recognized as a significant part of the philosophy known as
pragmatism. In the last several decades, pragmatism has been identified as the pre-
dominant philosophy of TVET. Change and reactions to it are significant features
of a pragmatic philosophy (Miller, 1985, 1996; Miller & Gregson, 1999). Pragmatic
education seeks to prepare students to solve problems caused by change in a logical
and rational manner through open-mindedness to alternative solutions and a will-
ingness to experiment. The desired outcomes for pragmatic education are knowl-
edgeable citizens who are vocationally adaptable and self-sufficient, participate in a
democratic society and view learning and reacting to change as lifelong processes
(Lerwick, 1979).
Miller and Gregson cogently argued that a proactive stance to change in both the
profession and society best reflects contemporary thinking in TVET and should be
adopted. This position, known as reconstructionism, emphasizes the role of TVET in
contributing solutions to problems such as discrimination in hiring, the glass ceiling
experienced by women and members of minority groups, or poor working condi-
tions. ‘One of the purposes of vocational education should be to transform places of
work into more democratic learning organizations rather than perpetuating existing
workplace practices’ (1999, p. 30).
Another issue directly connected to philosophy is the relationship of vocational and
academic education. Not only has vocational education struggled with self-definition,
but also with determining how it fits with an academic curriculum. Miller and Greg-
son (1999) instruct us that public education in the United States has been influenced
historically by the blending of two fundamental schools of thought—idealism and
realism—into a philosophy labelled essentialism. Essentialism is characterized by an
emphasis on basic academics (the Three Rs), respect for the existing power structure
and nurturing of middle-class values (Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott, 1995).
Education from an essentialist’s perspective includes the notions that: (a) ideas,
concepts and theory should hold a more dominant place than preparing for a life role
as a worker and producer; (b) learning theory reflecting a behaviouristic approach
22 J.W. Rojewski

These three philosophical positions are applicable to TVET. Specific choices about
the nature and scope of TVET depend on the specific combination of philosophies
selected to define a particular programme.

Pr
ism
Purpose of TVET is to meet needs of Purpose of TVET is to fulfill individual

ag
labor market. Characterized by needs for personal fulfillment and life

m
ial
sequential organized curriculum, preparation. Characterized by an
instructors need extensive emphasis on problem-solving and higher-

at
nt
business/industry-related experience. order thinking, learning is constructed

ism
System separate from academic se from prior knowledge (Miller, 1985, 1996)
Es
education (Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott,
1995)

Pragmatism
(Reconstructionist strand)

Purpose of TVET is to transform work into democratic, learning

organizations. Proactive rather than perpetuating existing
workplace practices. Adopts a stance against injustice and inequity
in work issues (Miller & Gregson, 1999).

Fig. 1 Alternate philosophies for TVET

and memorization should build over the individual’s personal experiences; and (c) a
subject-matter should emphasize the so-called basic skills and preparation for col-
lege (Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott, 1995, p. 25).
How should the presence of several different philosophies in TVET be treated
from a conceptual standpoint? I suggest using a three-dimensional triangle to rep-
resent the prevailing philosophies, each side representing one of three prominent
philosophies found in the field: essentialism, pragmatism and pragmatism with a
reconstructivist strand (see Fig. 1).
Philosophy is at the core of any conceptual framework. The specific tenets repre-
sented by the three philosophies reviewed here hold different answers to questions
about the ideal nature and scope of TVET that, in turn, dictate the types of deci-
sions made on curriculum structure, instructional strategies, programme delivery,
etc. Identifying three influencing philosophies complicates matters, although the
field seems to be converging on the pragmatic (combined with reconstructionism)
position (Miller & Gregson, 1999).

4 Notions of the New Economy

Economic developments often have major influences on the content and direction
of curricula and programmes. Until recently, those developments had been grad-
ual, fairly steady and, for the most part, predictable. However, more recently, most
economists and labour analysts have identified a new economy emerging around
the world (globalization). While specifics about the new economy are sometimes in
2 A Conceptual Framework for Technical and Vocational Education and Training 23

dispute, most peoples’ understanding (e.g., Carnevale, 1991; International Labour

Organization, 2001; Mandel, 2000; Reich, 2000; U.S. Department of Labor, 2000;
Weinstein, 1997) of the emerging economy includes at least some of the following
core characteristics.
r Manufacturers, spurred by advances in technology, maintain an accelerated level
of growth in productivity. Businesses are in a continual production mode. How-
ever, the emerging system of production is shifting away from high-volume mass
production to high-value production, and from standardization to
customization.
r The globalization of business markets results in substantial increases in competi-
tion for manpower and goods. Competition is particularly keen for highly-skilled
workers. The largest manpower needs are for persons with innovative and cre-
ative methods for: (a) producing new products and services; or (b) promoting
and marketing these new goods and services to consumers (Friedman, 1999;
Reich, 2000).
r Information handling—e.g. storage, transfer and production—continues to in-
crease in importance in the new economy. Low overhead costs require workers
to be able to manipulate data and provide customized, rather than mass-produced,
information and services.
r Business management practices are undergoing extensive restructuring and can
be characterized by: (a) continued downsizing; (b) a premium placed on person-
nel who can manage knowledge as opposed to people; and (c) an increasing re-
liance on outsourcing for most work. ‘Managers will become brokers/facilitators;
there will be more technical specialists, more lateral entry, and shorter, flatter
career ladders. Instead of the old-style division of labor into discrete tasks, job
functions will converge, and work teams will consist of individuals who alternate
expert, brokering, and leadership roles’ (Kerka, 1993).
r Fierce competition will affect both for-profit and not-for-profit institutions, re-
sulting in pressure to be innovative and to do it all better, faster, cheaper and
continuously. Restructuring will occur frequently in order to achieve the greatest
efficiency and productivity.
What does all of this mean? Hawke observed that ‘the very essence of work has
undergone a massive transition within the last decade and, for vocational educa-
tion, this is having major implications’ (2000, p. 1). Smaller entrepreneurial groups
linked to trusted name brands are likely to be big winners in the new economy. To
remain competitive, the people comprising these enterprises must ‘continuously cut
costs, lease almost everything they need, find the lowest-cost suppliers, push down
wages of routine workers, and flatten all hierarchies into fast-changing contractual
networks’ (Reich, 2000, p. 6). The decentralization of decision-making and reorga-
nization of work structures around semi-autonomous, task-oriented teams will be
the norm.
Many of the implicit rules that have governed employment during the latter half
of the twentieth century—e.g. employees who expect steady work with predictably
rising wages, a clearly defined employer/worker relationship, and a clear separation
24 J.W. Rojewski

between work and family—are no longer in sync with the emerging reality of work
(Hawke, 2000). Instead, Reich (2000) foresees the end of steady work, the neces-
sity of continuous effort regardless of tenure or seniority status, and widening in-
equality in wages paid to top- and lower-level workers. The new economy requires
that workers possess a broad set of abilities, including both technical and interper-
sonal/communication skills. Higher-order thinking skills, such as decision-making
and problem-solving, as well as flexibility, creative thinking, conflict resolution,
and managing information and resources will also be expected (Carnevale, 1991;
Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, 1991).
Workers will also need to commit to lifelong learning, and organizations will
need to provide on-going retraining for the existing workforce to remain viable. The
International Labour Organization (2001) describes how the new economy is influ-
encing the methods of instructional delivery and types of learning most desirable.
Two consequences of this are, first, a shift in teaching methodologies away from
the transfer of facts to students as passive recipients and, instead, towards teaching
students how to learn and instilling in them the curiosity to do so. In short, how
people learn is becoming as important as what they learn. The second consequence
is observable in high-tech firms exposed to fast-paced competition. The ability to
learn, to transform existing knowledge into new knowledge is a source of competi-
tive advantage of increasing significance.
Changes in the economy will also influence family and community life in many
ways. In fact, Reich (2000) concluded that ‘rewards of the new economy are coming
at the price of lives that are more frenzied, less secure, more economically divergent,
more socially stratified’ (p. 8). The high-powered work force of the twenty-first
century requires more and more employees to work late, be available at all hours,
develop contacts and connections, and stay current with new developments. The
new economy is also beginning to fragment communities, countries and geographic
regions into those groups that have access to education, resources and the like, and
those that do not. Reich explains that the growing demand for high-skilled workers is
juxtaposed against the pressures of competition pushing the earnings of employees
in routine jobs down. Thus, disparities in earnings continue to grow.
TVET stands poised to affect positive change in terms of support, preparation and
guidance in the areas of people’s lives likely to be affected. However, to be relevant,
professionals must critically examine and modernize their underlying assumptions
about the world of work and family life, and be willing to reconcile ‘the way we’ve
always done things’ with emerging directions of the economy and needs of the work
force.

5 Components of a Conceptual Framework

5.1 What Does a Conceptual Framework Entail?

Much, if not all, of the information needed to develop a coherent perspective of
the field has been addressed and is available through descriptions of the workplace
2 A Conceptual Framework for Technical and Vocational Education and Training 25

and work force, research, opinion and everyday practice found in national and in-
ternational arenas. Construction of the framework presented here, then, has capi-
talized on this information in an effort to synthesize and reflect current streams of
thought and practice, rather than devise a new vision. The conceptual framework for
TVET proposed here is offered as a graphic illustration of the relationship of major
components that shape the field (see Fig. 2). While relationships between various
components are given, the major function of the diagram is to serve as a starting
point for discussion about the conceptual underpinnings of the field.

The new economy Global pressures

Globalization and expectations

St
en

ud
sm

en
es

tp
ss

op
Curriculum
ta

ula
en

tio
Instruction and
ud

n
Programme Delivery
St

s
Options

Philosophy

Programme evaluation

Student learning, Community and

motivation, and societal expectations
achievement

Fig. 2 Visual representation of the conceptual framework for TVET

5.2 General Assumptions

TVET professionals hold certain beliefs and assumptions about the purpose of the
field, the curriculum and so forth. It is important that these often-unstated beliefs
be identified, so that confusion or misinterpretation about an articulated concep-
tual framework is minimized. To Miller (1985, 1996) philosophy is synonymous
with conceptual framework. It is mentioned here so as to acknowledge the per-
vasive role of philosophy on both our assumptions and implementation of TVET.
The assumptions listed here (adapted from several sources, including Copa &
Plihal, 1996; Hoachlander, 1998; and Lynch, 1996) are not exhaustive, but rather
serve as examples.

Assumption 1. The purpose of TVET is to enhance the vocational devel-

opment characteristics of an educated person. Vocational development is
a lifelong process of developing the capacity for assuming vocational re-
sponsibilities; that is, the expectations for accomplishments in social and
economic roles where individuals take responsibility to provide services or
26 J.W. Rojewski

produce products of value to themselves and others. Long-term career devel-

opment should be emphasized, rather than an exclusive focus on entry-level
employment.
Assumption 2. TVET must be dynamic and address the on-going changes found
in workplaces, homes and communities so as to serve the needs of the larger
society and interests of individuals it serves. The overarching structure con-
ceives of work broadly and in the long term, encouraging generalization of
learning and connections to work-based programmes and ideas.
Assumption 3. A knowledge base exists that under-girds all of TVET, regardless
of occupational specialization. A rigorous, coherent programme of academic
study exists and can be identified for all programmes.
Assumption 4. Changes in TVET must be concomitant with reform in academic
specializations, and with educational reform and renewal in general.
Assumption 5. Strong connections between high-school curricula and ‘the
full range of’ two-year and four-year post-secondary opportunities must be
forged.
Assumption 6. TVET should address the long-term needs of successful eco-
nomic and social development of individuals, and not the narrow, short-term
interests of special-interest groups, business or industry.

5.3 Past Conceptual Frameworks

Pratzner (1985) framed his discussion of the traditional paradigm in vocational

education around six primary components: subject matter; beliefs in theories and
models; values; methods and instruments; exemplars; and social matrices. This
framework reflects an enterprise that serves the interests of employers, provides
decontextualized instruction for specialized entry-level jobs, values job placement
and earnings, follows a rigid, prescribed curriculum, uses norm-referenced and stan-
dardized tests to assess student learning, and has a considerable support network of
professional associations and clubs.
More recently, Copa and Plihal (1996) challenged the existing paradigm in vo-
cational education, arguing for substantial change. They suggested a broad-field
approach to curriculum integration where vocational and technical education is
offered as a comprehensive subject for learning about work, family and commu-
nity roles and responsibilities. A major advantage of this approach is that ‘the
separate-fields structure fails to recognize the growing importance of the interac-
tion among work, family, and community responsibilities and interests’ (p. 103). A
major drawback to acceptance of Copa and Plihal’s proposal is that TVET would
need to be reconceptualized with the likelihood that firmly established (entrenched?)
traditions, organizations and structures would give way to new ones built on the prin-
ciples of one broad field of study. While these changes could provide TVET with a
focus needed to address emerging issues related to work, family and community, it
is doubtful that a wholesale change will occur.
2 A Conceptual Framework for Technical and Vocational Education and Training 27

Grubb (1997) advocated a shift from job-specific vocational preparation to a

more generic, academic-based approach similar to Dewey’s notion of education
through occupations. Four general practices framed Grubb’s new vocationalism.
First, the purpose of secondary occupational curricula should be more general
in nature rather than job specific. Second, traditional academic content would
be integrated into occupational courses while occupational applications would be
integrated in academic courses. Third, education through occupations would re-
quire a different school (institutional) structure designed to encourage curriculum
integration, such as the use of career academies or school-within-a-school de-
signs using career clusters as organizing themes. Fourth, several other elements
would need to be incorporated into teaching, such as: (a) the availability of var-
ious work-based learning activities; (b) a hierarchical connection of educational
and training opportunities; and (c) use of applied teaching methods and team-
teaching strategies that are more contextualized, more integrated, student-centred
and active.
Lynch (2000) describes a new vision for TVET that supports emerging aspects
of the new vocationalism. He proposed four major themes, including: (a) infusion
of career planning and development activities throughout the educational process;
(b) embedding TVET reform within the broad context of general education reform;
(c) development of contemporary programmes based on the needs of business and
industry; and (d) instituting a K-14 education model where all students are prepared
for post-secondary education. Six components are also outlined in Lynch’s frame-
work emphasizing both student achievement and school reorganization. They are to:
(a) organize programmes around major fields of study; (b) use contextual teaching
and learning; (c) infuse a work-based learning contributing to mastery of industry
standards; (d) use authentic assessment, (e) increase use of career academies, and
(f) implement successful models of tech-prep.

5.4 A Contemporary Framework

In Fig. 2, major components of TVET are represented by five categories: curricu-

lum; instruction and delivery options; student assessment; clientele; and programme
evaluation (accountability). Philosophy, whether implicit or explicit, provides the
motivation and impetus for actual practice and affects all areas. The influence of
internal and external forces on the field, such as the new or emergent economy
and globalization, the expectations of global institutions (e.g. World Bank, United
Nations, etc.) and transnational corporations, student learning, and the expectations
of society and local or regional communities are recognized.

5.4.1 Curriculum
Curriculum reflects the state of the field: what is considered important, what is being
taught and how it is taught (Lewis, 1999). Discussions surrounding required curricu-
lum components have shifted the debate from a narrowly defined set of academic
28 J.W. Rojewski

abilities toward a broader set of academic or general competencies, technical and

job-specific skills, interpersonal abilities and behavioural traits. Three core curricu-
lum issues are representative of the new vocationalism: (a) integration of academic
and career and technical education; (b) articulation of secondary and post-secondary
programmes; and (c) connections between school and the world of work.
Lynch (2000) identified four predominant schools of thought, each defining the
purpose of TVET according to the interests of primary stakeholders (see Table 1),
including:

1. Curriculum emphasis on ‘education through occupations’ (see also Grubb, 1997),

where TVET serves as the instructional (contextual) modality for teaching tradi-
tional academic content.
2. Focus on providing instruction around broad career clusters, along with special-
ized skills to the one-third of high-school graduates who are employment-bound
(i.e. have not prepared for, nor entered, post-secondary education immediately
upon graduation).
3. Provide TVET to the 8–12% of most educationally disadvantaged students who
need extensive (concentrated) job training to enter the labour market upon high-
school graduation.
4. Organize TVET programmes to be congruent with contemporary and successful
articulated models (agreements between a high school and a community or tech-
nical college). Provides ‘non-duplicative, sequenced study that integrates aca-
demic with career and technical education, uses work-based and
work-site learning, and leads to degrees, certificates and career placement’
(p. 17).

5.4.2 Instruction/Delivery Options

Biggs, Hinton and Duncan (1996) asserted that major changes in the educational
infrastructure are necessary to support and build a quality work-preparation system.
A number of contemporary teaching innovations have emerged or assumed a greater
role in TVET. Table 2 summarizes approaches to teaching and learning. Each ap-
proach requires new methods of pedagogy to accommodate teachers’ emerging roles
as collaborators, facilitators of learning and as lifelong learners, as well as familiar-
ity with the workplace and the ability to make school settings reflect workplace
environments (Naylor, 1997).

5.4.3 Student Assessment

The emphasis of many educational reform initiatives on higher-order thinking skills,
such as problem-solving, critical thinking, reasoning and so forth, and expressed
dissatisfaction with conventional testing approaches, demands that different ap-
proaches to assessing student learning be implemented (Johnson & Wentling, 1996).
Most educators refer to this new form of student evaluation as authentic, or
2 A Conceptual Framework for Technical and Vocational Education and Training 29

Table 1 Issues to consider when developing the curriculum component of a conceptual framework
in TVET
Four schools of r r TVET is modality for teaching
Employment through traditional academic content;
thought on TVET
occupation;
curriculum
r Employment-bound;
integration of academic and
vocational education;
r Educationally disadvantaged; r Instruction on broad career
r Tech-prep models. clusters, along with specialized
skills;
r Extensive job training to enter
labour market;
r Non-duplicative, sequenced,
and articulated secondary and
post-secondary programmes
integrating academic with
TVET.

Components of TVET r r Study of work, family and

Common core;
curriculum r Job-specific/content area
community as a composite of
vocational roles and
(workforce
specialties; responsibilities;
education)
r New vocationalism. r Focused on traditional
vocational subject areas;
r Broad array of integrated
academic (thinking skills,
personal qualities) and general
competencies, technical and
job specific skills, interpersonal
abilities, and behavioural traits.

r r Assessment;
Implications for
TVET teacher
Curriculum components r Curriculum framework
preparation (general education, common
programmes core, specialized workforce
education and workforce
preparation; knowledge of
learner, pedagogy, instructional
technology, and professional
education; and occupational
and educational experiences);
r Standards of knowledge and
practice;
r Philosophical
foundations/principles of
TVET.
30 J.W. Rojewski

Table 2 Contemporary approaches to teaching and learning in TVET

Approach Characteristics Strengths Challenges
Tech prep
r Articulation r Combines academic r Resistance to
agreement(s) rigour and applied career-oriented
between secondary instruction; concepts;
and post-secondary r Option to continue r Securing support
institutions;
r ‘2+2’ design (2 yrs
to baccalaureate
level (‘2+2+2’ r
from stakeholders;
Limited resources
secondary plus 2 yrs design);
post-secondary r Appropriate for r
(funding);
Uncertainty of
leading to associate nearly all career post-secondary
degree or certificate areas. curriculum reform;
r
in specific career); r Addition of
Common academic work-based
core. learning.

Integrated
r Modifications of r Uses TVET settings r Requires
vocational and academic and to apply and organizational
vocational reinforce change in schools;
academic
philosophies; academics; r
education
r Applied focus in r Life-relevant
Requires
interdepartmental
learning activities; education; co-operation and
r r collaboration;
Balances theory
with application;
Didactic instruction
replaced with r Design and
r Co-ordination activity-centred implementation
instruction and takes time;
between teachers
problem-solving; r
and counsellors.
r Appropriate for all
Need for
administrative and
students. community support.

Career
r School-within-a- r Career focus may r Scheduling
school run by team keep high-risk conflicts.
academies
of educators; students in school. r
r Career field focus
Requires
involvement of
rather than specific business and
job preparation; industry.
r Integrated academic r Requires
and vocational collaboration and
content; co-operation
r Includes workplace between academics
skills; and TVET
r professionals;
Employer
involvement.
r Limited
instructional
resources.
2 A Conceptual Framework for Technical and Vocational Education and Training 31

Table 2 (continued)
Approach Characteristics Strengths Challenges
Work-based
r Work experience r Creates a learning r Requires significant
youth and learning in situation that employer
industry; emphasizes the participation,
apprenticeship
r Linkage between skills and workplaces are
knowledge required transformed;
education systems
leading to high by the workplace. r Potential conflict
school diploma and between employers’
post-secondary and students’
diploma or needs.;
certificate; r
r Collaboration
Requires
collaboration
among groups; between schools and
r Modeling, employers.
scaffolding, fading,
coaching.

Co-operative
r Operated by r Students obtain r Lack of
traditional part-time jobs; co-ordination
education
programmes; r between students’
r Written training
Work-based
learning; school and work
agreements specify r Use as a screening experiences is
common;
what students will
learn and
device for new
employees.
r Use as a screening
employer’s device by employers
responsibilities. for new employees.

School-based
r Students produce r Students apply r Focus can shift to
enterprises goods or services academic production rather
for sale to knowledge to work than instruction;
customers. and gain r Lack of
understanding of understanding about
business;
r Instructors maintain
how learning occurs
in workplace.
control of
instruction.

Sources: Table structure and some content from Biggs et al., 1996. Additional content from
Kincheloe, 1999.

performance-based, assessment. Authentic assessment has three fundamental goals:

reforming curriculum and instruction; improving teacher morale and performance;
and strengthening student commitment and capacity for self-monitoring (Inger,
1993). At its core, authentic assessment is a reaction to the deficiencies perceived in
traditional approaches to testing. It requires students to demonstrate their grasp of
knowledge and skills by creating a response to questions or a product that demon-
strates understanding (Wiggins, 1990). This type of assessment reflects the com-
plexities of everyday life and a belief that learning is actively constructed knowledge
influenced by context (Kerka, 1995).
32 J.W. Rojewski

A variety of options are available for conducting authentic assessments in-

cluding: portfolios; exhibitions; checklists; simulations; essays; demonstrations or
performances; interviews; oral presentations; observations; and self-assessment.
Rubrics, scoring devices that specify performance expectations and various levels
of performance, are used to establish benchmarks for documenting progress and
provide a framework for ensuring consistency (Kerka, 1995).

5.4.4 Clientele
While the historic roots for vocational education were in providing job-specific
training to working class (non-college-bound) youth, the contemporary world of
work requires fewer of the manual job skills required a century ago. Today, am-
ple evidence shows that the work skills required in the twenty-first century include
higher-order thinking skills (reasoning, decision-making, problem-solving), flexi-
bility, interpersonal skills and technological literacy. Not only are cognitive skills
in demand, but many jobs now require some type of post-secondary education (less
than a baccalaureate degree) for entry-level.
Currently, TVET programmes serve several primary functions ranging from inte-
grated academics instruction to tech-prep to job preparation for employment-bound
and educationally disadvantaged youth. These diverse goals aim to achieve very
different ends and are often at odds with one another. Lynch (2000) suggests that
upwards of one-third of all secondary students in the United States enrolled in ca-
reer and technical education programmes are not college-bound. Another 8–12% of
students are identified as being educationally disadvantaged. Both of these groups
require job-specific preparation to transition from school to adult life. However,
recent trends to promote articulated secondary/post-secondary programmes may
overlook this substantial proportion of programme enrollees. And, when services
are available, they are often relatively low skilled, entry-level jobs that offer limited
advancement opportunities.

5.4.5 Programme Evaluation

Accountability has become a hallmark of educational reform initiatives in the United
States. Federal legislation requires that states develop evaluation systems to assess
four core indicators of student performance, including: (a) academic and vocational
achievement; (b) programme completion; (c) successful transition from school to
post-secondary education and/or employment; and (d) accessibility and equity. Al-
though programme evaluation is mandated, criticisms exist about the criteria and
methods used to collect data, and the usefulness of evaluation results (Halasz, 1989).
Indeed, collecting data to respond to these federal mandates can pose considerable
challenges.
Given current mandates and future projections, a conceptual framework in career
and technical education must include performance indicators that examine legisla-
tive mandates and the underlying philosophy, as well as specific outcomes, practices
and inputs. Halasz (1989) indicated that school culture and stakeholders’ needs
must also be considered. ‘A variety of information should be collected (personal,
2 A Conceptual Framework for Technical and Vocational Education and Training 33

instructional, institutional, societal and so on) from multiple sources (teachers, stu-
dents, administrators, parents) using multiple methods (survey, interview, partici-
pant observation, historical, archival)’.

6 Conclusions and Future Steps

6.1 Summary
Table 3 summarizes the main components of conceptual frameworks for TVET—
past, present and future. Historically, the conceptual framework of TVET has re-
volved around specific job training, clear distinctions between academic and vo-
cational education, and preparing adolescents to transition from school directly to
work. Curriculum and instructional approaches relied heavily on an essentialist phi-
losophy where students were viewed as products and taught in ways that reflected
the industries they were being prepared to enter.
In sharp contrast, the emerging conceptual framework reflects efforts at local,
state and national levels ‘to broaden vocational education—integrating the curricu-
lum more closely with rigorous academics, improving articulation to post-secondary
education (two-year and four-year), and stressing long-term preparation for produc-
tive careers that will be subject to increasing technological change and economic
reorganization’ (Hoachlander, 1998, p. 1). Secondary programmes will continue a
trend that focuses less on specific training for immediate entry-level employment
upon graduation. Rather, they will provide more general knowledge about the work-
force, offer career awareness and exploration activities in specified career clusters,
nurture higher-order thinking skills development, and support students in making
initial decisions about their career goals and plan post-secondary activities necessary
to achieve those goals. Post-secondary education, on the other hand, will remain in
the best position to prepare students for specific jobs.

6.2 Implications for the Curriculum

The implications of any proposed conceptual framework for TVET are substantial.
While myriad other arrangements or contextual structures can address the question
of specific content to include or exclude, a relatively simple, straightforward ap-
proach focuses on the types of instructional content needed in three areas: general
workforce education; content area specialties; and professional development. These
areas are broad enough to incorporate issues recognized as integral to the emerging
vocationalism (see Table 4).

6.2.1 General Workforce Education

Aspects of curricula that focus on general workforce education assume that a sub-
stantial portion of the knowledge and experiences that define TVET cross specialty
34 J.W. Rojewski

Table 3 Illustration of components and contents of a conceptual framework for TVET from past,
current and future perspectives
Components Past Current Emerging
r Social efficiency; r Pragmatism; r Pragmatism with
Purpose,
theories, r Essentialism; r Some aspects of reconstructivist
strand;
models
r
scientific method; progressivism
(Dewey); r Progressivism;
Serves employers’
interests; r Preparation for work r Critical perspective;
r Job training and and post-secondary r Preparation for work
preparation for less education and and post-secondary
than a baccalaureate training (mostly education and
degree. associate degree). training (all levels).

Teacher
r Work experience r College education r College education
education and job expertise focusing on general focusing on
paramount; and specific labour common core,
r market preparation; specialized content
Focus on job skills
preparation; r Focus on academic area(s), and
r Teacher-directed and vocational skills integrated
academics;
instruction.
r
instruction;
Emphasis on
r Comprehensive
contextualized / approach to learning
facilitated learning. using occupations as
modality;
r Emphasis on
contextualized /
facilitated learning.

Curriculum
r Narrow focus on r Four curricular r Multiple options,
entry-level, job strands; including curricular
specific skills; r strands currently
r Education through
available;
Separate vocational
content areas; r
occupations;
r Common core of
r Separation of
Integration of
academic and workforce education
academic and vocational for all regardless of
vocational education; post-secondary
r plans;
r
education;
Rigid prescribed
Job-specific,
entry-level training;
r Integrated
curricula. r Tech prep; (academic-
r Dual enrolment.
vocational)
curriculum;
r Career clusters used
to direct specialized
instruction.
2 A Conceptual Framework for Technical and Vocational Education and Training 35

Table 3 (continued)
Components Past Current Emerging
r Behaviourism; r Cognitive learning r Multiple options
Delivery options
r theory; available;
r
Applied academics;
r Tech-prep; r Democratic ideals
Co-operative
education. r Career academies; reflected in
r Work-based instructional content
and process;
apprenticeships.
r Separation between
school and work less
distinct.

Clientele
r Alternative track for r Different r Multiple
less academically programmes and constituency groups;
able students; purposes for r
r Increasing emphasis different student
Inclusion of all
students with
groups;
on special
populations. r Moderated emphasis
continuum of
outcomes available.
on special
populations
tempered with
phrases like ‘all
students’ and
renewed use of
quality standards;
r Multiple
constituency groups.

Student
r Standardized and r Standardized r Standardized
norm-referenced testing; testing;
assessment
testing. r Industry-based skill r Established
standards; alternatives to
r assessment;
Emergence of
alternative r Criterion-referenced
assessments (e.g. testing.
portfolios, authentic
assessment).

Programme
r Quality based on r In U.S., state plans
industry standards;
evaluation
r Job analysis.
r Quality based on
following guidelines variety of factors
established in including dropout,
federal legislation; retention, graduation
rates, job placement,
transitions to
post-secondary
education;
r Occupational
analysis.

Note: Information for past components column adapted from Pratzner, 1985.
36 J.W. Rojewski

Table 4 Possible components in TVET programmes based on conceptual framework

General workforce Content area specialty Professional development
education

r Foundations and r Entrepreneurship; r Contextualized teaching

philosophy of TVET r and learning;
(including changing Knowledge associated
with career clusters; r Integration of academic
nature of work place,
new economy); and vocational
r Communication/ r Agriculture and r
education;

interpersonal skills environmental sciences; Work-based learning

necessary in work place; r (e.g. apprenticeship,
r Communication,
Arts and
communications; r
co-operative education);

interpersonal, and r Business, marketing,

Articulation of
secondary-,
leadership skills
required when dealing information post-secondary,
with various management; school/business
constituencies; r instruction;
r
Family and consumer
sciences; r Student assessment
Higher-order thinking
skills such as r Health services;
(formal, informal,
alternative methods)
problem-solving and
decision-making;
r Human services; and programme
r r evaluation;
School-to-work Manufacturing and
engineering technology;
r Working with diverse
transition issues for all
students; r student populations;
r
Technology education.
r Notion of lifelong
Balancing work and
family life; learning;
r r TVET teachers as
Employability skills
(workforce readiness); change agent in school
r Acquiring a sense of
and community.

social justice regarding

the effects of work on
individuals and society.

Note: Adapted from the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 2001. While a use-
ful taxonomy, other organizational structures have also been proposed, e.g., the National Skill
Standards Board proposes fifteen large economic sectors to structure vocational specialization
(Hoachlander, 1998).

area boundaries. A common core of knowledge about the world of work is assumed
stressing topics such as: the function of work and family life in society; economics
and systems of production and distribution; cultural aspects of work, the family and
society; development and application of higher-order thinking skills; employability
skills; and job-seeking skills. The nature and underlying assumptions of general
workplace education topics suggest an integrated approach to instruction where
students from all vocational specialty areas are grouped together. This approach
2 A Conceptual Framework for Technical and Vocational Education and Training 37

should not only help students understand the need for a broad-based approach, but
also nurture a sense of professional commonality and shared purpose.

6.2.2 Content Area Specialty

Regardless of the specific structuring system used, some form of content area spe-
cialization will, in all likelihood, persist. While maintaining some aspect of tradi-
tional vocational education, teachers and students will increasingly be exposed to
something other than business as usual. Regardless of the specific curricula and
structure of TVET programmes, all must satisfy three essential requirements: They
must prepare participants to: (a) address long-term prospects, not just entry-level
jobs; (b) achieve high levels of academic proficiency and mastery of sophisticated
work-based knowledge and skill; and (c) access the full range of post-secondary
options for programme participants (Hoachlander, 1998). No small task.

6.2.3 Professional Development

TVET professionals must be able to incorporate an array of possible teaching
strategies in classroom, laboratory and work-based settings. Traditional teaching
approaches will need to be supplemented with greater emphases on emerging ped-
agogical approaches, such as integrating of academic and vocational education,
and contextualized teaching and learning forums. Knowledge about the diversity
of students and school settings will continue to be a critical element. The successful
implementation of changes to TVET programmes, and the field as a whole, requires
recognition of the slow and difficult process of reform. Teacher educators and train-
ers must be especially aware of and understand how to successfully negotiate the
change process.

7 Final Words

It seems appropriate to take stock in the future of TVET. Many authors have con-
tributed to an on-going dialogue about the nature of contemporary and future TVET.
Ideas and options have been proposed, articulated and studied. Yet, action is slow.
The development of any conceptual framework is of little value if action does not
result. Collectively, the field must be willing to tackle tough questions and debate
potentially contentious issues delineated in the professional literature to arrive at and
then maintain a clear and concise framework. Such a framework can guide funding
priorities, programme development, classroom instruction and relationships with
external constituencies. To do otherwise runs the risk of glossing over fundamental
issues and concerns, repeating the same arguments and issues for another century
or—perhaps worst of all—allowing others (e.g. national and regional governments,
funding agents, business and industry leaders) to make decisions for the field.
38 J.W. Rojewski

Acknowledgments Earlier versions of this chapter were published as ‘Preparing the workforce
of tomorrow: a conceptual framework for career and technical education,’ a monograph commis-
sioned by the National Centers for Career and Technical Education for presentation at the 2002
National Teacher Education Conference, Scottsdale, AZ (ERIC ED 461 771), and an abbrevi-
ated article of the same name published in the Journal of vocational education research, vol. 27,
pp. 7–35. Additional information was originally published in an article entitled, ‘Globalization and
the internationalization of research in career and technical education,’ published in the Journal of
vocational education research, vol. 28, pp. 3–13.

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Chapter 3
Towards Achieving TVET for All: The Role
of the UNESCO-UNEVOC International
Centre for Technical and Vocational
Education and Training

Astrid Hollander and Naing Yee Mar

1 Introduction: TVET Related Issues and Concerns

within UNESCO

1.1 Understanding TVET

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is concerned with the ac-
quisition of knowledge and skills for the world of work. Throughout the course of
history, various terms have been used to describe elements of the field that are now
conceived as comprising TVET. These include: apprenticeship training, vocational
education, technical education, technical-vocational education (TVE), occupational
education (OE), vocational education and training (VET), career and technical edu-
cation (CTE), workforce education (WE), workplace education (WE), etc.
Within the context of UNESCO and according to the 2001 UNESCO Revised
Recommendation concerning Technical and Vocational Education:
Technical and vocational education is used as a comprehensive term referring to those as-
pects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of
technologies and related sciences, and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, under-
standing and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social
life. Technical and vocational education is further understood to be:

a. an integral part of general education;

b. a means of preparing for occupational fields and for effective participation in the world
of work;
c. an aspect of lifelong learning and a preparation for responsible citizenship;
d. an instrument for promoting environmentally sound sustainable development;
e. a method of facilitating poverty alleviation (UNESCO, 2005b, p. 7).

In this broad definition, the term ‘training’ is not explicitly highlighted, with greater
emphasis being placed on ‘education’. This simply reflects on the earlier division of
roles with regard to TVET within the United Nations system, whereby UNESCO’s
concern used to be centred on technical and vocational education, as part of the

R. Maclean, D. Wilson (eds.), International Handbook of Education for the Changing 41

World of Work, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-5281-1 3,

C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
42 A. Hollander, N.Y. Mar

Education for All (EFA) initiative, while the International Labour Organization
(ILO) focused on aspects of training for employment at the workplace by stressing
the concept of decent work and the welfare of workers as a global demand to be
satisfied today. By giving prominence to joint efforts of promoting the world of
work, international participants at the second International Congress on Technical
and Vocational Training (Seoul, April 1999) clearly pointed out that:
The two most renowned international agencies in the field of vocational education and
training, UNESCO and ILO, need to address this issue seriously, so that we stop talking
different things about what should be the same thing, and stop insisting that UNESCO’s role
is vocational education, while ILO’s role is vocational training. This is not role splitting, but
rather hair splitting! (Masri, 1999, p. 13).

In the light of such international attention being paid to the need to share collec-
tive responsibility for workforce development, the term ‘training’ was included in
UNESCO’s terminology when referring to workplace and workforce education. In
addition, in aiming to promote the implementation (and realization) of TVET as a
fundamental human right, the concept of training for particular skills or appropriate
types of work-related practices over a period of time has been introduced as part
of UNESCO’s strategic objectives and activities. This makes sense, especially as
the notion of educating and training individuals to be fitted or matched to jobs
for life is being replaced by the necessity for lifelong learning. It becomes clear
that learning no longer takes place only in the form of formal school education,
but also in non-formal and informal settings, at the workplace, and through par-
ticipation in economic and social life, in partnership with the private sector and
employers.

1.2 Why is TVET Important?

The purpose of TVET is to make people (self-)employable and to be a vehicle of

transition for individuals to the world of work. Thus, in the ideal case, TVET leads
to (self-)employment and income-generation which is expected to contribute to the
individuals’ and their communities’ well-being. In line with this argument, TVET
is often considered as a mechanism for poverty alleviation and a vital contribution
towards the attainment of international development goals (such as the Millennium
Development Goals and Education for All) as well as towards sustainable devel-
opment. While this argument appears logical, it nevertheless needs to be used with
care, since a number of other factors have to be in place for TVET to actually have
an impact on phenomena such as poverty. In a situation of economic stagnation
or jobless growth, even the well-trained and best-educated have problems finding
employment and earning a living, let alone the poor and marginalized who often do
not even have access to education and training. For TVET to effectively contribute
to (self-)employment and poverty alleviation, there needs to be a labour market
which can absorb the TVET graduates and provide them with decent work and an
3 Towards Achieving TVET for All 43

income that allows them to live. In view of this, the purpose of TVET must per-
mit a concentration not only on poverty alleviation but also on (self-)employment.
There also is sufficient observational and research evidence to suggest that there
is a need to improve adjustments between the labour market and available human
resources.
Thus, the extent TVET should be focused on skills development depends on
the main policy set by countries (Lauglo, 2005, p. 4). Coombe (1988) explained
that economic goals were the main driver behind TVET policies, though personal
development goals and socio-political goals are also identified in some countries.
Overall, TVET should evolve through the educational process by initiating strate-
gic education planning which is ‘more analytical and less political’ (Wheelen &
Hunger, 1998, p. 3) and policy-oriented to foster all-round development of nations.
The 2004 World Bank Report on ‘Skills development in Sub-Saharan Africa’
sums this argument up clearly:
Getting the macroeconomic context right remains the essential first step in focusing on skills
development. Training does not create jobs. Skills are a derived demand and that demand
depends on policies for growth and employment creation (Adams & Johanson, 2004, p. xv).

Influencing the ‘demand’ by focusing on policies for growth and employment cre-
ation lies beyond the scope of the work of UNESCO. Instead, the organization
concentrates on optimizing the ‘supply’ of skilled labour. The general assumption
is that TVET can only make a better contribution to poverty alleviation if it is of
good quality, relevant to the demands of the labour market, and inclusive and ac-
cessible to all, especially the poorest of the poor. However, since there is ample
evidence to indicate that well-prepared and trained workers increase productivity,
one could argue that in the long-term the benefits of increased productivity will
lead to impact growth and employment creation (de Moura Castro & Verdisco,
2000, p. 46).

1.3 TVET within the Context of UNESCO

Originally, direct preparation for work was the main goal of TVET, and this remains
prominent in many developing nations. However, with the technological revolu-
tions and innovations in science and technology during the twentieth century, new
domains of knowledge and new disciplines have become important at all levels of
education and training. The current focus is increasingly upon preparing knowledge
workers to meet the challenges posed during the transition from the Industrial Age to
the Information Age, with its concomitant post-industrial human resource require-
ments and the constantly changing world of work. TVET systems are no longer
expected to educate and train for a stable job, but to produce individuals who are
innovative, capable of evolving and adapting to changing circumstances. There is
a shift from the concept of ‘TVET for employment’ to ‘TVET for employability’.
But within the context of UNESCO, TVET goes beyond even this concept; it is
also understood as a preparation for responsible citizenship and an instrument for
44 A. Hollander, N.Y. Mar

promoting sustainable development (compare the definition above). UNESCO sees

the role of TVET as educating the whole person, not just the worker. This implies
the adoption of a ‘holistic approach to skills development for employability and
citizenship by placing emphasis within skills training programmes on developing a
sense of values, ethics and attitudes to prepare the learner for self-reliance and re-
sponsible citizenship’ (Quisumbing & de Leo, 2005, p. v). This broad understanding
of TVET stems from the proposition formulated in the 1996 report to UNESCO by
the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century, Learning:
the treasure within, which postulates that education throughout life is built upon four
pillars: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be,
and is based on UNESCO’s overall mandate ‘to build peace in the minds of men’.
While ‘learning to do’ seems to be the pillar most closely linked to TVET, the au-
thors of the report argue that the four pillars cannot stand alone, but are ‘four paths of
knowledge [that] all form a whole’(Delors et al., 1996, p. 86). It is this holistic view
that distinguishes the work of UNESCO in TVET from those of other organizations,
as it goes beyond the demand for TVET for purely economic purposes.
The notion of TVET differs from one UNESCO Member State to another and
between communities. Each country (and community) is characterized by its own
unique socio-cultural, political-legal, technological and economic context, having
a strong impact on the educational environment. These variables in societal envi-
ronments may not compromise the educational activities of a country in the short
term, but can, and often do, affect its long-term developments (Hellriegel, Slocum
& Woddman, 1998). In addition to these societal considerations, governments, local
communities, educational suppliers, learners and trends in labour markets directly
influence the effectiveness of education and, in turn, are affected by it. These are
multiple, contextual variables that need to be considered in order to best under-
stand human intentions and interactions in different cultural settings (Sirotnik, 2000,
p. 184). And it is UNESCO’s task to make sure that its work takes these contextual
variables into account.
TVET is dealt with at several instances within UNESCO as the Organization
aims to respond to the many diverse needs of its currently 193 Member States.
All parts of UNESCO that have an involvement with TVET are jointly responsible
for the successful implementation of the global TVET Programme. The specialized
TVET Section at UNESCO Headquarters is responsible for overall strategic plan-
ning and programme design in consultation with UNESCO-UNEVOC, and other
relevant Education Sector Divisions. It functions as the TVET focal point in the
Organization for contributions to the Medium-Term Strategy and the biennial Pro-
gramme and Budget; reports to the Organization’s top management and Governing
Board; strengthens strategic alliances with other multi-lateral organizations (such as
the International Labour Organization) with a view to anticipating and addressing
emerging policy issues in TVET; co-ordinates the implementation of UNESCO’s
normative instruments regarding TVET; responds to requests from Member States
for support; generates prototype resource material; provides technical support and
backstopping for field-office activities; and participates in programme monitoring
and assessment with UNESCO-UNEVOC.
3 Towards Achieving TVET for All 45

The UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Ed-

ucation and Training is responsible for research on new trends in TVET, indepen-
dently and in co-operation with the other UNESCO education institutes; publishes
books and manuals; co-ordinates the UNEVOC Network; acts as a resource centre
for information on TVET systems; disseminates information to TVET stakeholders
worldwide; co-operates with multi-lateral partners at the research and implemen-
tation levels; implements activities in co-operation with field units and promotes
capacity-building for TVET policy-makers and practitioners in the Member States.
The various UNESCO field offices often have the closest contacts with the rel-
evant stakeholders in Member States and are therefore valuable partners for both
UNESCO Headquarters and UNESCO-UNEVOC in the implementation of activ-
ities at regional, sub-regional and national activities. In this article, however, the
focus will be on the work of the UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Tech-
nical and Vocational Education and Training.

2 The UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre

for Technical and Vocational Education and Training

The UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Edu-

cation and Training (UNESCO-UNEVOC) assists UNESCO’s Member States in
strengthening and upgrading their TVET systems. It is at once UNESCO’s special-
ized centre for TVET and the hub of a worldwide network of TVET institutions,
the so-called UNEVOC Network. It acts as part of the United Nations mandate
to promote peace, justice, equity, poverty alleviation and greater social cohesion.
The Centre assists Member States in developing policies and practices concerning
education for the world of work and skills development for employability and citi-
zenship, to achieve:
r access for all,
r high quality, relevant and effective programmes,
r learning opportunities throughout life.

The Centre aims to contribute to increased opportunities for productive work,

sustainable livelihoods, personal empowerment and socio-economic development,
especially for youth, girls, women and the disadvantaged. Its emphasis is on help-
ing to meet the needs of developing countries, countries in transition and those in a
post-conflict situation.

2.1 Background

UNESCO has been active in the field of technical and vocational education for
more than thirty years. The idea to launch a comprehensive project on technical
and vocational education dates back to 1987. In that year, UNESCO held its first
International Congress on Technical and Vocational Education in Berlin, Germany.
46 A. Hollander, N.Y. Mar

At this congress it was proposed that UNESCO should support the establishment
of an international centre for research and development in technical and vocational
education. UNESCO Member States supported this proposal and identified TVET
as a priority area within UNESCO’s range of programme activities, recognizing its
enhanced capacity to emphasize the role of technology in society, including the
vocational aspects of that role. This new understanding stresses the importance
of non-formal (or non-institution-based) TVET for young people in developing
countries and particularly the need for TVET to seek actively the participation of
marginalized population groups. As explained above, the rationale behind this is the
assumption that TVET can play an essential role in promoting economic growth and
the socio-economic development of countries, with benefits for individuals, their
families, local communities and society in general.
As a consequence, in 1991, the General Conference of UNESCO decided to
launch the International Project on Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(UNEVOC). Two years later the UNEVOC Implementation Unit became opera-
tional in Berlin.
At the second International Congress on Technical and Vocational Education held
in Seoul, Republic of Korea, in 1999, participants requested UNESCO to further
strengthen and prioritize TVET within UNESCO’s work and supported the launch
of a long-term programme on TVET. In the same year, the General Conference
of UNESCO adopted a resolution authorising the Director-General to establish an
international centre for TVET in 2000. The Government of Germany generously
offered to host such a centre in Bonn. A Host Country Agreement between Germany
and UNESCO was signed on 12 July 2000. The UNESCO-UNEVOC International
Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training started its work in
September 2000 and was officially inaugurated two years later—on 8 April 2002.

2.2 The Mission of UNESCO-UNEVOC

The UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre acts as a key component of
UNESCO’s international programme on technical and vocational education and
training. It also works to support UNESCO’s mandate for Education for All and
Education for Sustainable Development by assisting Member States to improve and
integrate TVET as part of their educational planning, and align TVET with the
tenets of sustainable development. As the hub of the global UNEVOC networks,
the Centre has an additional, specific responsibility—to develop vibrant global net-
works of TVET professionals, organizations and institutes. It is in these three key
result areas that UNESCO-UNEVOC develops and implements its activities to assist
UNESCO Member States to elaborate policies and practices concerning education
for the world of work and skills development for employability and citizenship.

2.2.1 Global UNEVOC Networks

There is significant scope of countries to share their experience in technical and voca-
tional education. There is a need for mutual co-operative assistance between all countries,
3 Towards Achieving TVET for All 47

regardless of their state of development. Provision should be made at the national, re-
gional and international levels for regular exchange, making use of contemporary infor-
mation and communication technologies, of information, documentation, and materials
(UNESCO, 2005b, pp. 49–50).

In line with this statement taken from UNESCO’s 2001 Revised Recommendation
on TVE, the UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational
Education and Training acts as the hub of the worldwide UNEVOC Network.
It can be demonstrated that networks, as a vehicle for education reform, are vital
for enriching learning environments and for facilitating members to interact. As
such, specific networks serve as opportunities for learning and socialization, and
the necessity of building a TVET community via networks has become a recurring
theme in the reform literature (Keating, 2000).
The idea behind all networking initiatives of the UNESCO-UNEVOC Interna-
tional Centre for TVET is that educational reforms that have worked in one coun-
try or setting may well also work in another country if modified appropriately to
meet local conditions. Through access to information, countries can learn from each
other’s experience, whether they are success stories or disappointments.
The Centre also creates networks with its closest partners and creates synergies
with UNESCO Headquarters, other UNESCO institutes and centres and field of-
fices. It also works in close partnership with other relevant institutions, such as
specialized agencies within and outside the United Nations system, bilateral and
multilateral donors, national institutions, non-governmental organizations and the
private sector. This is an important aspect of the work of UNESCO-UNEVOC,
since the improvement of TVET worldwide can be achieved most effectively if
several agencies make a concerted effort through working together. It is also a way
to avoid duplication of efforts, and to make best use of available human and financial
resources.

2.2.2 UNESCO-UNEVOC’s Efforts in Achieving EFA

In the past decades, UNESCO’s focus in education was mainly on achieving univer-
sal primary education (UPE). While this is an essential goal, it has been recognized
that access to primary education alone is not sufficient and that basic education for
all is not synonymous with UPE.
It has become clear in all parts of the world that basic education can no longer be limited
to primary education. Currently, education systems do not allow young people to obtain
and strengthen the complex set of competencies for life, including technical and voca-
tional education. [. . .] Lack of technical and vocational education and training, including
entrepreneurship and training for creativity, hampers employability (UNESCO-IBE, 2004,
pp. 11, 13).

Especially since the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal, in April 2000, there
has been extensive consultation and rethinking about the concept of Education for
All (EFA) and what is involved in achieving a basic education which prepares for
work and life. As more children and adults receive and complete elementary educa-
tion, it is important to offer them relevant further education and to teach them skills
48 A. Hollander, N.Y. Mar

for the world of work that enable them to work in dignity, supporting themselves and
their families, as well as being respected and effective members of a community.
TVET particularly contributes to achieving the EFA goals 3 and 6:

r Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through
equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programmes (Goal 3); and
r Improving all aspects of the quality of education, and ensuring excellence of
all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all,
especially in literacy, numeracy, and essential life skills (Goal 6).

The Dakar Framework for Action further specifies that ‘all young people and adults
must be given the opportunity to gain the knowledge and develop the values, at-
titudes and skills which will enable them to develop their capacities to work, to
participate fully in their society, to take control of their own lives, and to continue
learning.’ It continues by saying that ‘such opportunities should be both meaningful
and relevant to their environment and needs, help them become active agents in
shaping their future and develop useful work-related skills’ (UNESCO, 2000, p. 16).
TVET, or education for the world of work, is one of the providers of such learning
and life-skills programmes for young people and adults. With the change to work
patterns demanding higher skills, more technical and analytical knowledge and the
capacity to work productively in teams, young people must now have a preparation
that goes beyond basic literacy and numeracy and includes both vocational and so-
cial skills, together with values that help to build harmonious societies (UNESCO-
UNEVOC, forthcoming). TVET needs to be as dynamic as the economies and
communities it serves. Rapid changes in technology and employment patterns, in
demographic growth and social expectations, and many other factors drive the need
to reform as well as to expand TVET. Especially in countries of scarce resources,
the efficiency and effectiveness of TVET is of paramount importance.
Particularly since the 1999 second International Congress on TVE held in Seoul,
with its strong focus on TVET reform, and since the endorsement of the Re-
vised recommendation concerning technical and vocational education in 2001(see
UNESCO, 2005b), UNESCO has been assisting Member States with TVET re-
form within the framework of Education for All. Furthermore, the UNESCO-
UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training
is uniquely placed to provide technical assistance and advisory services to govern-
ments, training authorities and many TVET institutes in developing countries, coun-
tries in transition and those in post-conflict situations that are increasingly interested
in TVET reform.

2.2.3 TVET and Education for Sustainable Development

Finding approaches to development that balance economic and social progress, address cul-
tural difference, conform to global, national and local needs, and respect ecological values
and limits is the key to sustainable development (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006, p. 5).
3 Towards Achieving TVET for All 49

People in every country of the world must plan for, cope with and find solutions to
issues that threaten the sustainability of our planet. Sustainable development is not
a fixed concept; rather it is a culturally-directed search for a dynamic balance in the
relationships between social, economic and natural systems. Sustainability is a com-
plex concept and cannot simply be ‘prescribed’, but it can be taught and learned. It
is the aim of the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development
(DESD) to use education at all levels to impart the competences and knowledge that
are necessary to address the global issues for sustainability that affect communities
and nations (UNESCO, 2005a).
DESD runs from 2005 to 2014 with UNESCO requested to lead activities and de-
velop an International Implementation Scheme (IIS) for the decade. The IIS fosters
collective ownership of the decade and emphasizes the importance of partnership
amongst and between those with an interest in furthering education for sustainable
development. Within this context, the alignment of Education for Sustainable Devel-
opment (ESD) into TVET has been nominated as one of the key areas for collective
UNESCO effort, and the UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for TVET has
already assumed leadership for a number of initiatives. TVET is important in this
context as it affects attitudes towards sustainability held by future workers. The
changing nature of the world of work, especially due to globalization and techno-
logical change, demands that TVET develop a skilled, committed and motivated
workforce that understands how global changes impact upon local opportunities for
business and industry and how these changes impact upon the quality of local social,
economic and environmental conditions. The greater the exposure of trainees to sus-
tainability concepts, practices and examples, the more likely the desired workplace
culture change will take place in the future. TVET is a consumer and producer
of resources and therefore has many different concerns about sustainability, such
as over-exploitation of natural resources, ill-health and grinding poverty, which
threaten the ability of future generations to satisfy their needs and wants. TVET
needs to re-orient its curricula to imbue students and trainees with the conservation
and sustainable use of resources, social equity and appropriate development, as well
as with competencies to practise sustainable tasks at the workplace.
UNESCO’s guiding Revised Recommendations on TVE took into account the
notion of sustainable development, recommending that TVET should: (a) contribute
to the achievement of the societal goals of democratic, social and cultural develop-
ment, as well as the traditional emphasis on economic development; (b) lead to a
broad and, when necessary, critical understanding of science and technology; and
(c) empower people to contribute to environmentally sound sustainable development
through their occupations and other areas of their lives (UNESCO, 2005b, p. 9).
These three concepts are crucial to aligning TVET for sustainable development,
and they framed discussions at the International Experts Meeting on ‘Learning for
Work, Citizenship and Sustainability’ (Bonn, October 2004). The Bonn meeting,
together with the Bonn Declaration that came out of it, deliberately addressed these
forward-looking concepts. At that stage, the Decade for Sustainable Development
had not yet been launched, and the role for UNESCO in providing leadership on
educational issues was still unclear. Only eighteen months later, the concepts had
50 A. Hollander, N.Y. Mar

been adopted as a key plank in UNESCO’s 2006/07 Programme and Budget with
the request that TVET effort be directed towards assisting UNESCO Member States
align their national TVET systems to be consistent with the objectives of sustainable
development (UNESCO, 2004).

2.3 UNESCO-UNEVOC in Action

As mentioned above, UNESCO’s key functions are to act as a laboratory of ideas,

standard setter, clearing-house, human and institutional capacity-builder and cat-
alyst for international co-operation. The Organization sees itself as a forum for
intellectual co-operation that brings together experts and advises governments in
the field of education with the aim of achieving quality education for all. In line
with this, UNESCO-UNEVOC has developed a number of strategies, activities and
instruments that the Centre uses to work towards achieving progress in the three key
result areas identified above: TVET and EFA; TVET for sustainable development;
and strengthening the global UNEVOC Networks.
The Centre’s work especially focuses on:
r strengthening the policy-making capacity of Member States;
r improving the institutional capacity, especially of UNEVOC Network Members;
and
r fostering international co-operation.
The proposed activities constitute either direct support to Member States or support
of infrastructure and provision of services, and can be grouped under the following
headings:
r capacity-building and seminars;
r advisory services;
r knowledge sharing;
r research and publications; and
r global networking and promotion of partnerships.
As the UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre is the hub of the UNEVOC Net-
work, most of its activities are targeted at and for the direct benefit of its UNEVOC
Centres. Since UNESCO is an organization of Member States, the activities are
always demand-driven and tailored according to the needs of the Member States or
target groups involved.

2.3.1 Capacity-Building and Seminars

The globalization process, which affects economies and labour markets alike, in-
creasingly requires staff involved in decision-making, planning, research and the
development of TVET to be aware of worldwide developments and of solutions
that are transferable and/or adaptable. Particularly, TVET experts from develop-
ing countries, countries in transition and those in a post-conflict situation often do
3 Towards Achieving TVET for All 51

not have access to the latest developments in TVET or to the opportunity to fre-
quently up-grade their knowledge and abilities. Therefore, the UNESCO-UNEVOC
International Centre for TVET supports the development of human resources in
key positions through a range of instruments, such as national or regional policy
definition and capacity-building in planning, research and development. This sup-
port includes a range of modalities, such as workshops and seminars, small project
grants, mobile training teams, fellowships and the implementation of projects. Ex-
amples of key issues brought up by Member States include: improving the status
of TVET; HIV/AIDS and TVET; TVET for sustainable development; curriculum
reform; harnessing ICTs in support of TVET; promotion of public/private partner-
ships and labour-market orientation; reducing the drop-out rate; promoting inclusive
TVET; promoting quality assurance mechanisms for TVET; and assessing national
and regional future skill demands.
Some examples of concrete activities are described in the following text boxes.

Box 1. Learning and working: motivation campaigns for the informal

sector
In many countries, traditional forms of learning have improved in recent years.
Governments are making efforts to ameliorate the state of TVET and skills
development. Nevertheless, in many countries there are population groups
who do not have access to formal forms of training and learning opportunities
and are therefore often marginalized from economic life in their communi-
ties. These groups would benefit from developing their occupational skills.
UNESCO-UNEVOC therefore seeks to make skills development more at-
tractive and accessible through informal learning opportunities. Based on an
earlier UNESCO-UNEVOC activity pertaining to improving the status and
accessibility of TVET, and on materials developed by UNESCO as part of the
Global Action Programme on Education for All (Youth Project), UNESCO-
UNEVOC has developed the multi-media campaign package ‘Learning and
working: motivating for skills development’, to motivate young people to
acquire basic livelihood skills. Package I is a tool to facilitate the organization
and implementation of awareness and motivation campaigns for marginal-
ized groups in least-developed countries. The idea behind this campaign is
to offer a platform and produce an environment to motivate people living
in adverse economic conditions to enrol in TVET courses and/or to take up
self-employment activities in order to improve their economic situation.
The backbone of the package is a set of DVDs which show simple, tra-
ditional, but yet innovative ways to produce goods with low-cost materials
and very simple tools demonstrating that vocational skills can be acquired
and used to produce useful or marketable goods and services. The DVDs are
complemented by a series of documents that make it easy for those interested
in the running of the campaigns to have an orientation when implementing
campaigns at the local level.
52 A. Hollander, N.Y. Mar

The campaign package is in itself not a tool for skills development, but
rather an ‘eye opener’ and ‘source for ideas’. The targeted groups will be
encouraged to engage in tasks similar to those shown in the DVDs.
The package has generated a high level of interest, especially from organi-
zations from developing countries, where access to relevant learning resources
is often scarce.

Box 2. Social partnerships for TVET: Central Asia

Improved relevance and alignment of TVET with economic and employment
trends are of crucial importance for a successful TVET system. This can be
achieved, for example, through a closer involvement of social partners and
stakeholders in TVET policy, planning, administration and implementation.
Social partnerships for the development of TVET emerged as an issue of
high priority for TVET leaders from Central Asian Republics and UNESCO-
UNEVOC facilitated co-operation among UNEVOC Centres and candidate
centres in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan with partners
in Germany for a mobile training team (MTT) to address this issue. A MTT
is one of a number of instruments employed by UNESCO-UNEVOC to ad-
dress its goals with regard to capacity-building in developing countries and
countries in transition. Through the MTT, selected senior TVET specialists
from UNEVOC Centres can learn rapidly and reflect about innovative and
best practices on a given topic, while they are on a study tour in a country
offering such best practice.
In July/August 2005, four TVET specialists, one each from Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, came to Germany for a Capacity
Building International (InWEnt) training seminar on social partnerships in
TVET, with a special focus on assessment and certification. They also partic-
ipated in a number of field visits to German TVET institutions. Upon return
to their countries, the participants of the MTT organized national seminars to
share their newly acquired knowledge with other TVET specialists and social
partners, such as trade unions and employers’ organizations, and to identify
possibilities of applying the concepts in the respective national contexts.
The MTT led not only to a significant improvement of the skills and knowl-
edge of the four individual TVET experts who came to Germany but, through
the national dissemination workshops, had a much broader impact on the
countries involved. Through this activity, a foundation has been laid for the
building of social partnerships in TVET and UNESCO-UNEVOC urges the
UNEVOC Centres and their partners at the national level to take the necessary
further steps.
3 Towards Achieving TVET for All 53

2.3.2 Advisory Services

Worldwide, countries are facing the challenge of improving the capacity of their
workforce to respond to their national development needs and to the demands of a
rapidly changing global economy, and are increasingly recognizing the role TVET
can play in addressing this challenge by equipping individuals with relevant skills
and knowledge. In order to play this role, TVET systems need to be reformed to
meet the needs and expectations of their clients. However, a large number of coun-
tries not only lack the funds, but also the capacity to manage and implement the
necessary reforms. In this case, they can seek technical assistance and advisory sup-
port services from UNESCO-UNEVOC. Through its technical assistance services,
the Centre can offer assistance to UNESCO Member States in:

r fact-finding, policy definition and national development plans;

r improving the institutional capabilities of UNEVOC Centres;
r formulating or reviewing TVET educational practice;
r facilitating co-operation between donors and recipients; and
r identifying experts for consultancy services.

Box 3. Guide to donor agencies in TVET

International co-operation agencies have different approaches, methodolo-
gies, planning horizons, communication levels, financial regulations and sub-
mission and reporting procedures. As UNESCO-UNEVOC receives many
requests from TVET institutions in developing countries with regard to re-
sources for funding, the Centre developed, in 2004, the ‘Guide to donor agen-
cies’. This publication provides an overview of sources of development as-
sistance by the twenty-two Member States of the Development Assistance
Committee of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD), which are major donors in development co-operation. It focuses es-
pecially on support services for technical and vocational education and train-
ing (TVET) and skills development.
It is intended to facilitate access to information on:
r current trends in international co-operation policies;
r potential donors and their policies;
r donors’ requirements concerning project definition, project and budget
management, assessment and evaluation techniques, and of reporting reg-
ulations.
It is perhaps the most frequently requested title of the current UNEVOC pub-
lications. It can also be accessed on-line through the UNESCO-UNEVOC
website.
54 A. Hollander, N.Y. Mar

2.3.3 Knowledge Sharing

UNESCO has an important role to play in promoting and sharing best and innovative
research and practices among countries. The need for greater knowledge manage-
ment and knowledge sharing, particularly with and among developing countries,
were amongst the main reasons to set up the UNESCO-UNEVOC International Cen-
tre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training. In developing countries,
there is a great need for concrete information on best and innovative practices. Ex-
perience shows that what works well in one country has a good chance to also work
well in other countries, with adjustments made to accommodate local conditions.
Such transfer of knowledge and experiences helps to avoid the wasting of resources
and is faster and easier to achieve than individual searches for solutions. Although
the main interest is in cases of best and successful practice, disappointments can
also be of help, as they give examples of what should be avoided.
UNESCO-UNEVOC has in the past mainly, but not exclusively, worked on a
sub-regional level. Such co-operation among neighbouring countries is important,
because in many cases these countries face similar difficulties and should therefore
look jointly for appropriate solutions. Additionally, UNESCO-UNEVOC enables a
transfer of knowledge from developed to developing countries. A major part of this
exchange takes place through the UNEVOC e-Forum, where relevant messages are
exchanged between more than 600 TVET experts from over 122 countries on an
almost daily basis.
Through its clearing-house function, the Centre collects and disseminates rele-
vant documentation on TVET. The clearing-house is designed to be a resource base
for ministries, policy-makers, educational institutes, international agencies, consul-
tants and others seeking information on TVET. The information and documentation
service fulfils the following functions:
r Enquiry and reference services: responding to requests for information;
r Research services: searching, retrieving and editing information using the mate-
rials available at UNESCO-UNEVOC and other resources (including the Inter-
net) and providing responses in the requested format;
r Distribution of UNESCO-UNEVOC publications.

One means through which UNESCO-UNEVOC facilitates access to information

is the Internet. Information about all of UNESCO-UNEVOC’s work, including its
activities and publications, is available on the Centre’s website. The website has
been re-launched in 2006 to offer more interactive features and a more user-friendly
navigation: www.unevoc.unesco.org

2.3.4 Research and Publications

UNESCO-UNEVOC is concerned with contributing to the international debate on
key aspects of TVET.
The Centre publishes the results of research related to TVET through its major
publication project, the UNEVOC International Library of Technical and Vocational
3 Towards Achieving TVET for All 55

Education and Training, which is a series of publications that provides comprehen-

sive information about many ‘cutting-edge’ aspects of TVET. The library showcases
best practices and innovative approaches to skills development for employability
and seeks to create an effective bridge between research, policy and practice. Topics
covered include TVET reform, TVET in the informal sector, TVET teacher educa-
tion, etc. Discussion papers, annotated bibliographies, meeting reports and national
profiles of TVET are also produced.
While the Internet gains more and more ground in international professional ex-
change, print media still have an important role to play, particularly in countries
with limited access to modern information and communication technologies. The
Centre will apply an integrated concept for publishing and disseminating profes-
sional information; conventional forms of publishing will be harmonized with those
on CD-ROM and on the Internet.

2.3.5 Global Networking and Promoting of Partnerships

The major part of the above-mentioned activities, especially in the area of capacity-
building and advisory services, is addressing members of the UNEVOC Network.
While some UNEVOC Centres may primarily be beneficiaries of the international
exchange, others contribute actively to the development at national, regional and
sub-regional levels. In UNESCO-UNEVOC’s international activities the UNEVOC
Centres play a prominent role. Action is taken to up-grade the Network of UNEVOC
Centres through a range of means, such as the following:
r training seminars for key personnel in UNEVOC Centres;
r fostering national networks directed by UNEVOC Centres;
r increasing international co-operation between UNEVOC Centres through
regional and thematic clustering;
r increasing membership in the UNEVOC Network.
It is expected that through building networks in their own countries, a trickle-down
effect to other institutions and colleagues is taking place.

3 Conclusion

We, the participants in ‘Learning for Work, Citizenship and Sustainability’, a UNESCO
meeting of international experts on technical and vocational education and training, are
agreed that, since education is considered the key to effective development strategies, tech-
nical and vocational education and training (TVET) must be the master key that can alleviate
poverty, promote peace, conserve the environment, improve the quality of life for all and
help achieve sustainable development (Bonn Declaration—UNESCO, 2004).

This part of the Bonn Declaration, which was developed by the participants of the
international experts meeting ‘Learning for Work, Citizenship and Sustainability’,
expresses a very high level of expectation towards the role that TVET can play in
addressing and even overcoming some of the most pressing challenges the world
56 A. Hollander, N.Y. Mar

is facing today and will be facing in the future. It is the aim of the UNESCO-
UNEVOC International Centre for TVET to respond to these expectations and to
make a contribution to assist UNESCO Member States in achieving TVET of good
quality for all. Given the limited human and financial resources of the Centre, this
is an enormous challenge, which the Centre tries to tackle by concentrating on
activities that focus on a small group of persons in key positions and have a po-
tential multiplier effect. This idea is at the core of the Centre’s networking activities
and co-operation with other agencies and partners, and much of the success of the
Centre’s work in capacity-building and knowledge-sharing depends on its partners’
abilities to act as multipliers and to organize follow-up activities at the local level.
In order to take stock of the Centre’s work during its first five years of existence,
independent evaluators and TVET experts from Europe, Africa and Asia conducted
a review of the work of UNESCO-UNEVOC in 2005. As major achievements of
the Centre, the evaluators acknowledged: the networking activities of the Centre
through the UNEVOC Network and the e-Forum; the promotion of TVET reform
towards achieving the EFA goals; the contributions to the Decade of Education for
Sustainable Development; the promotion of best and innovative practices in TVET;
the high level of inter-agency co-operation; and the strong publications programme.
But the evaluation report also highlighted some challenges where further improve-
ments are necessary, for example, in the area of follow-up and outcome monitoring
and evaluation of the Centre’s activities. It is essential that UNESCO-UNEVOC in-
troduces quantitative and qualitative evaluation methods as part of its activities, oth-
erwise it is not possible to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the activities’
impact. Evaluation and monitoring should not be restricted to the actual UNEVOC
activity, but also examine the follow-up steps taken by the direct beneficiaries of
these activities.
As the Centre enters its second period of six-year planning (2008–2013), it is
timely to reflect back as well as to look forward. Successes, challenges and lessons
learnt need to be taken into account in order to strengthen UNESCO-UNEVOC’s
role as UNESCO’s major vehicle for progressing the TVET agenda and to achieve
its goal of becoming the pre-eminent global centre for TVET, in support of the
development of accessible and quality TVET all over the world.

Acknowledgments To a great extent, this article draws upon information available in a va-
riety of UNESCO-UNEVOC documents (e.g. UNESCO-UNEVOC brochures and flyers, bien-
nial reports, project documents and programme frameworks) as well as the Centre’s website
(www.unevoc.unesco.org). These documents are not explicitly referenced in this article.

References
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Delors, J. et al. 1996. Learning: the treasure within. Paris: UNESCO. (Report of the International
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“This page left intentionally blank.”
Chapter 4
TVET Glossary: Some Key Terms

Jeanne MacKenzie and Rose-Anne Polvere

1 Introduction
The glossary in this chapter has been compiled to complement the Handbook and,
although not an exhaustive list, aims to reflect the terminology found in the recent
literature of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) research, pol-
icy and practice internationally. The most common and significant terms (including
acronyms) are listed and, in some cases, national and regional variations have been
included.
In compiling the glossary, the selection of terms was aligned to the aspects of
TVET examined in the Handbook. To maintain an international perspective, other
national and international glossaries and thesauri were consulted in conjunction
with current TVET literature from around the world. These sources are listed as
references at the end of the chapter.
The glossary is organized alphabetically for ease of use. The entries contain the
term, its definition and, where definitions have been written by other organizations,
the source of that definition. Unattributed definitions were created in-house at the
National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER). For some terms,
where, for example, there are regional differences, more than one meaning has been
provided.

2 Sample Entry

Definition
Term in Transition from school or training to work providing the
English The process of transferring from school to the workforce or meaning of the
further study (Source: NCVER); May also be referred to as:
School to work transition (USA); Transition from school to
term
work (AUS)

Country National or
Origin of the where regional
information variation is variations
used

R. Maclean, D. Wilson (eds.), International Handbook of Education for the Changing 59

World of Work, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-5281-1 4,

C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
60 J. MacKenzie, R.-A. Polvere

3 Glossary

Accelerated training
A period of intensive vocational training or retraining which enables workers to
obtain the necessary qualifications in a much shorter period than usual in order
to enter an occupation at the required level. (Source: VOCED)
Access and equity
A policy or set of strategies to make vocational education and training available
to all members of the community, to increase participation and to improve out-
comes, particularly focusing on those groups that have been traditionally under-
represented. (Source: VOCED)
Access to education and training
Conditions, circumstances or requirements (for example qualification, education
level, skills or work experience) governing admittance to and participation in
educational institutions or programmes. (Source: CEDEFOP)
Accreditation
The process by which a course or training programme is officially recognized
and approved. (Source: NCVER)
Accreditation (of skills and competences) See Certification (of skills and
competences)
Accrediting authority
An organization with the authority and responsibility for accrediting courses and
training programmes. (Source: NCVER)
Accreditation of prior learning (APL) See Recognition of prior learning
Active labour-market programme
A programme designed to increase the number of people in employment or to
improve the employment prospects of a target group, e.g. by the payment of
subsidies to businesses who take on long-term unemployed people.
Adult and community education (ACE)
Education and training intended principally for adults, including general, vo-
cational, basic and community education, and recreation, leisure and personal
enrichment programmes. These are delivered by the ACE sector, which in-
cludes the organizations and providers who deliver adult and community ed-
ucation programmes, including evening and community colleges, community
adult education centres, neighbourhood houses, churches, schools, technical
education institutes, universities (continuing education) and universities of the
Third Age.
Adult education
Education of adults; educational programmes designed for adults, often incorpo-
rating approaches to education which draw on the learner’s life or work experi-
ences, involve learners in planning the learning activities, encourage learning in
groups, as well as more self-directed learning. (Source: NCVER)
4 TVET Glossary: Some Key Terms 61

Adult basic education (ABE)

Remedial or school-level education for adults, usually with emphasis on the lit-
eracy, numeracy and social skills needed to function within the community or to
gain employment. (Source: NCVER)
Adult learning
The processes by which adults learn and build on their existing knowledge and
skills. (Source: NCVER)
Adult literacy and numeracy
The ability to read, write and use numbers and numerical information, specifi-
cally in adults.
Alternated training
Education or training alternating periods in a school/training centre and in the
workplace. The alternance scheme can take place on a weekly, monthly or yearly
basis depending on the country. Participants are not contractually linked to the
employer where they do their practice, nor do they generally receive remunera-
tion (unlike apprentices). (Source: CEDEFOP)
Apprentice
A person contracted to an employer, undergoing initial training for a recognized
apprenticeable occupation during an established period. (Source: VOCED) See
also Trainee
Apprenticeable occupation
Occupation for which apprenticeship has been officially approved, usually through
legislation. (Source: VOCED)
Apprenticeship
A system of training regulated by law or custom which combines on-the-job
training and work experience while in paid employment with formal off-the-job
training. The apprentice enters into a contract of training or training agreement
with an employer which imposes mutual obligations on both parties.
Apprenticeship contract
Verbal or written agreement binding a would-be apprentice and the prospective
employer. (Source: ILO)
Articulation
The arrangements which facilitate the movement or progression of students from
one course to another, or from one education and training sector to another. See
also Credit transfer system
Assessment (of skills and competences)
The sum of methods and processes used to evaluate the attainments (knowledge,
know-how, skills and competences) of an individual, and typically leading to
certification. (Source: CEDEFOP)
Assessor
A person qualified to carry out assessment. (Source: VOCED)
 62 J. MacKenzie, R.-A. Polvere

Awarding body
A body with the authority to issue qualifications (certificates or diplomas) for-
mally recognizing the achievements of an individual, following a standard as-
sessment procedure. (Source: CEDEFOP)
Basic skill
1. A fundamental skill that is the basis of later learning or is essential for em-
ployment. (Source: NCVER)
2. The skills and competences needed to function in contemporary society,
including listening, speaking, reading, writing and mathematics. (Source:
CEDEFOP)
Benchmarking
The process of comparing an organization’s performance, practices and proce-
dures with those of leaders in the same or a different field of activity, in order to
identify areas for improvement. (Source: NCVER)
Best practice
Management practices and work processes that lead to outstanding or top-class
performance and provide examples for others. (Source: NCVER) Used for: Good
practices. (ILO)
Career and technical education (CTE) (USA) See: Technical and vocational
education and training
Career counselling See: Guidance and counselling
Career development
The continuous planning carried out to advance a person’s career based on ex-
perience and on any training undertaken to upgrade qualifications or to acquire
new ones. (Sources: ILO; VOCED)
Career education
An educational programme conducted during secondary school to give students
informed guidance, counselling and instruction enabling them to make a suitable
choice of career and to help them prepare for it. (Source: ILO; VOCED)
Career guidance See: Guidance and counselling
Certificate
An official document, issued by an awarding body, which records the achieve-
ments of an individual following a standard assessment procedure. (Source:
CEDEFOP) See also: Diploma
Certification (of skills and competences)
The formal acknowledgement of successful achievement of a defined set of
outcomes. (Source: NCVER)
Communities of practice
Networks that emerge from a desire to work more effectively or to understand
work more deeply among members of a particular specialty or work group. They
4 TVET Glossary: Some Key Terms 63

focus on learning, competence and performance, bridging the gap between or-
ganizational learning and strategy topics and generating new insights for theory
and practice.

Comparability of qualifications
The extent to which it is possible to establish equivalence between the level and
content of formal qualifications (certificates or diplomas) at sectoral, regional,
national or international levels. (Source: CEDEFOP)
Competence
The individual’s demonstrated capacity to perform, i.e. the possession of knowl-
edge, skills and personal characteristics needed to satisfy the special demands or
requirements of a particular situation. (Source: VOCED; ILO)

Competency standard
1. An industry-determined specification of performance which sets out the skills,
knowledge and attitudes required to operate effectively in employment. Com-
petency standards are made up of units of competency, which are themselves
made up of elements of competency, together with performance criteria, a
range of variables, and an evidence guide. (Source: NCVER)
2. Statement developed by industry specifying the competencies required by
workers for each sector of the workforce. (Source: VOCED; ILO)

Continuing education
Educational programmes for adults, usually at the post-secondary level in per-
sonal, academic or occupational subject areas. (Source: NCVER)

Continuing vocational education and training (CVET)

Education or training after initial education or entry into working life, aimed at
helping individuals to improve or update their knowledge and/or skills, acquire
new skills for a career move or retraining, or continue their personal and profes-
sional development. (Source: CEDEFOP)
Co-operative vocational education
A combined programme of study and practice, applying originally to the United
States, whereby legal employment is provided for secondary school or university
students together with a regular school or university curriculum, organized on
an alternating schedule of half-days, weeks or other specified periods. (Source:
VOCED; ILO)

Credit
The acknowledgement that a person has satisfied the requirements of a module
(subject) or unit of competency either through previous study (credit transfer) or
through work or life experience (recognition of prior learning); the granting of
credit exempts the student from that part of the course. May also be referred to
as: Status or Advanced standing.
64 J. MacKenzie, R.-A. Polvere

Credit transfer
The granting of status or credit by an institution or training organization to stu-
dents for modules (subjects) or units of competency completed at the same or in
another institution or training organization. (Source: NCVER)
Credit transfer system
A system which provides a way of measuring and comparing learning achieve-
ments (resulting from a course, training or a placement) and transferring them
from one institution to another, using credits validated in training programmes.
(Source: CEDEFOP) See also: Articulation
Cross-cultural training
Training in communicative, behavioural and attitudinal skills required for suc-
cessful interaction with individuals of other cultures. It is often given to personnel
about to undertake overseas assignments. (Source: ILO; VOCED)
Decent work
Sufficient, productive work in which rights are protected, which generates an
adequate income, with full access to income-earning opportunities and adequate
social protection. (Source: ILO)
Digital divide
The gap between those who can access information and communication tech-
nologies and use them effectively, and those who cannot. (Source: CEDEFOP)
Diploma
A formal document certifying the successful completion of a course of study
in the vocational education and training and higher education sectors. See also:
Certificate
Distance education
A mode of education in which students enrolled in a course do not attend the
institution, but study off-campus and may submit assignments by mail or email.
(Source: NCVER) May also be referred to as: Distance study or Distance learning.
Dropout
Withdrawal from an education or training programme before its completion.
(Source: CEDEFOP)
E-learning
Learning supported by information and communication technologies (ICTs).
(Source: CEDEFOP)
Education/industry relationship
Relationship between students, educational institutions and industry. (Source:
VOCED)
Education/work relationship
Relationship between educational programmes or courses of study and status or
opportunities in the workforce. (Source: ATED)
4 TVET Glossary: Some Key Terms 65

Emerging occupation
Occupation that is new or that consists of a new combination of existing skills
and knowledge, for which considerable demand exists or is projected. (Source:
VOCED)
Employability
1. The degree of adaptability an individual demonstrates in finding and keeping
a job, and updating occupational skills. (Source: CEDEFOP)
2. Relates to portable competencies and qualifications that enhance an individ-
ual’s capacity to make use of the education and training opportunities avail-
able in order to secure and retain decent work. (Source: ILO)

Employability skill(s)
The skills which enable people to gain, keep and progress within employment,
including skills in the clusters of work readiness and work habits, interpersonal
skills and learning, thinking and adaptability skills.

Employer-funded training (UK)

Training either institutional or work-based, involving delivery by external or in-
house training personnel and paid for by the employer; May also be referred to
as: Employer-sponsored training (USA, Canada).

Enabling course
A course designed to equip a student to take up a new subject or course by cov-
ering the gaps between the student’s existing knowledge and skills and the sub-
ject or course prerequisites and assumed knowledge. See also: Pre-vocational
course

Entry into working life See Transition from school or training to work

Entry-level skill
A skill required to commence employment in an organization or more generally,
to gain entry into the workforce. (Source: NCVER)
Entry-level training
Training undertaken to gain entry into the workforce or further vocational edu-
cation and training.

Entry-level qualification
The minimum qualification required for employment in a particular occupation.

Equivalence of certificates See Comparability of qualifications

Flexible delivery
A range of approaches to providing education and training, giving learners
greater choice of when, where and how they learn. Flexible delivery may include
distance education, mixed-mode delivery, online education, self-paced learning,
self-directed learning. (Source: NCVER)
66 J. MacKenzie, R.-A. Polvere

Flexible learning
The provision of a range of learning modes or methods, giving learners greater
choice of when, where and how they learn. (Source: NCVER)

Formal education
Education or training provided in educational institutions, such as schools, uni-
versities, colleges, or off-the-job in a workplace, usually involving direction from
a teacher or instructor. (Source: NCVER)
Further education (FE)
Post-secondary education, including higher education, adult education, and vo-
cational education and training. (Source: NCVER)

Further education and training (FET) (UK, South Africa) See Technical and
vocational education and training

Further training
1. Global term for training subsequent, and complementary to, initial training.
(Source: ILO; VOCED)
2. Short-term targeted training typically provided following initial vocational
training, and aimed at supplementing, improving or updating knowledge,
skills and/or competences acquired during previous training. (Source:
CEDEFOP)

Generic skill
A skill which is not specific to work in a particular occupation or industry, but
is important for work, education and life generally, including communication
skills, mathematical skills, organizational skills, computer literacy, interpersonal
competence and analytical skills. (Source: NCVER)

Governance
The manner in which power and authority are exercized by both public and
private bodies; covers management, legal framework, accountability and trans-
parency. (Source: ILO)
Guidance and counselling
A range of activities designed to help individuals make educational, vocational
or personal decisions and carry them out before and after they enter the labour
market. (Source: CEDEFOP) Used for: Career counselling; Career guidance; Vo-
cational guidance

High-technology industry
An industry that employs a large number of scientists and engineers, invests
heavily in research and development, and has great potential for extremely
rapid growth through the emergence of new products and processes. (Source:
ILO)
4 TVET Glossary: Some Key Terms 67

Hybrid skill
A mixture of the skills and knowledge, possibly from different disciplines, gen-
erally required in sectors applying high technology. (Source: VOCED)

Industry training council

A body established by an industry or business sector to address training issues.
(Source: NCVER) Also: Sector Skills Council (UK)

Informal economy
Part of the market economy in that it produces (legal) goods and services for sale
or other forms of remuneration, covers informal employment both in informal
enterprises (small unregistered or unincorporated enterprises) and outside infor-
mal enterprises; not recognized or protected under existing legal and regulatory
frameworks. (Source: ILO)

Informal learning
Learning resulting from daily activities related to work, family or leisure. It is
not organized or structured (in terms of objectives, time or learning support).
Informal learning is in most cases unintentional from the learner’s perspective. It
typically does not lead to certification. (Source: CEDEFOP)

Information society
A society in which information technology, computers and telecommunications
are widely used to facilitate communication nationally and internationally and to
promote access to libraries, data archives and other stores of information held by
private organizations or in the public domain. (Source: ILO)

Initial vocational education and training

1. General or vocational education carried out in the initial education system,

usually before entering working life. (Source: CEDEFOP)
2. Pre-employment training for an occupation, generally divided into two parts;
basic training followed by specialization. (Source: ILO; VOCED) See also:
Entry-level training; also:Initial training

In-service training
Training and professional development of staff, often sponsored by the employer,
and usually provided during normal working hours. (Source: NCVER) Also: In-
plant training

Information and communication technology (ICT)

Technology that provides for the electronic input, storage, retrieval, processing,
transmission and dissemination of information. (Source: CEDEFOP) Also: In-
formation technology
68 J. MacKenzie, R.-A. Polvere

Innovation
Making changes in something already existing, as by introducing new methods,
ideas, or products. (Source: Concise Oxford Dictionary)

Key competency
Any of several generic skills or competencies considered essential for people to
participate effectively in the workforce. Key competencies apply to work gen-
erally, rather than being specific to work in a particular occupation or industry.
(Source: NCVER)

Key performance measure (KPM)

One of a set of measures used to monitor or evaluate the overall efficiency or
effectiveness of a system, which may be used to demonstrate accountability and
to identify areas for improvement. (Source: NCVER)

Know-how
1. Practical knowledge or expertise. (Source: CEDEFOP; adapted from New
Oxford Dictionary of English)
2. Includes technological and managerial components. (Source: ILO; VOCED)
Knowledge economy
An economy that is driven by ideas and knowledge, rather than by material re-
sources, and in which the keys to job creation and higher standards of living
are innovation and technology embedded in services and manufactured products.
(Source: ILO)

Labour force
The economically active population, employed and unemployed. (Source: ILO;
VOCED)

Labour market
The system of relationships between the supply of people available for employ-
ment and the available jobs. (Source: ILO; VOCED)

Labour mobility
Refers to the movement of members of the labour force between areas or indus-
tries. (Source: ILO; VOCED)

Learning community
A community that promotes a culture of learning by developing effective local
partnerships between all sectors of the community, and supports and motivates
individuals and organizations to learn. (Source: CEDEFOP)

Learning organization
An organization where everyone learns and develops through the work context,
for the benefit of themselves, each other and the whole organization, with such
efforts being publicized and recognized. (Source: CEDEFOP)
4 TVET Glossary: Some Key Terms 69

Learning outcome(s)
The set of knowledge, skills and/or competences an individual has acquired
and/or is able to demonstrate after completion of a learning process. (Source:
CEDEFOP)

Learning region
A region in which all stakeholders co-operate to meet local learning needs and
devise joint solutions to local problems. (Source: CEDEFOP)

Learning society
A society in which learning is considered important or valuable, where people are
encouraged to continue to learn throughout their lives, and where the opportunity
to participate in education and training is available to all. (Source: NCVER)

Lifelong learning
All learning activity undertaken throughout life, with the aim of improving
knowledge, skills and/or qualifications for personal, social and/or professional
reasons. (Source: CEDEFOP)

Lifewide learning
Learning, either formal, non-formal or informal, that takes place across the full
range of life activities (personal, social and/or professional) and at any stage.
(Source: CEDEFOP)

Minimum competency
An essential skill for a given age, grade or level of performance. (Source:
NCVER)

Modular training
The breaking down of whole educational qualifications into useful sub-units
(modules) each of which has measurable outcomes that are assessed (and in
some cases certified) in their own right as well as contributing to a larger overall
educational outcome (primarily a qualification).

Multiskilling
Training workers in a number of skills, enabling them to perform a variety of
tasks or functions across traditional boundaries. Multiskilling may be horizontal
(broad skilling), vertical (upskilling) or diagonal (contributory skilling). (Source:
NCVER)
Mutual recognition of qualifications
The recognition by one or more countries of qualifications (certificates or diplo-
mas) awarded in one or more countries or across regions in one country. (Source:
CEDEFOP)

Non-traditional occupation
Occupations in which certain groups are under-represented; usually applies to
so-called male or female occupations. (Source: VOCED)
70 J. MacKenzie, R.-A. Polvere

Occupational qualification
The combined aptitudes and skills which permit someone to take up a job.
(Source: ILO)
Off-the-job training
Vocational training undertaken away from the normal work situation; it is usually
only part of a whole training programme in which it is combined with on-the-job
training. (Source: CEDEFOP)
Online learning
Learning via educational material that is delivered on a computer via an intranet
or the Internet.
On-the-job training
Vocational training given in the normal work situation; it may constitute the
whole training or be combined with off-the-job training. (Source: CEDEFOP)
Pathway of training
Various combinations of education, training and employment activities that in-
dividuals may undertake over time to reach a certain destination, for example a
desired qualification or type of employment. (Source: ACER)
Planning of training
Regulations and arrangements adopted by governmental or other institutions re-
sponsible for vocational training. (Source: ILO)
Post-compulsory education
Education followed by an individual after the minimum legal school-leaving age.
(Source: CEDEFOP)
Pre-vocational course
A course designed to prepare people for vocational education and training or
work, including bridging courses, basic literacy and numeracy training, or train-
ing in job skills. (Source: NCVER) See also: Enabling course

Pre-vocational training
Training arranged primarily to acquaint young people with materials, tools and
standards relating to a range of occupations, to prepare them for choosing an
occupational field or a line of training. (Source: ILO)
Prior learning
The knowledge, know-how and/or competencies acquired through previously un-
recognized training or experience. (Source: CEDEFOP) May also be referred to
as: Prior learning assessment and recognition (PLAR) (UK) See: Recognition of
prior learning
Private training provider
A non-government training organization, including commercial providers (pro-
viding courses to industry and individuals for profit), community providers
4 TVET Glossary: Some Key Terms 71

(non-profit organizations, funded by government or community sponsors), enter-

prise providers (companies or other organizations providing training mainly for
their own employees), and industry providers (organizations providing training
to enterprises across an industry). (Source: NCVER)

Qualification
1. Certification awarded to a person on successful completion of a course in
recognition of having achieved particular knowledge, skills or competencies.
(Source: NCVER)
2. The requirements for an individual to enter or progress within an occupation.
(Source: CEDEFOP)

Qualifications framework
A structure for setting out the levels at which vocational qualifications accredited
by regulatory authorities can be recognized.

Recognition of current competencies (RCC)

The assessment of a person’s current capacity to perform; it applies if an in-
dividual has previously successfully completed the requirements for a unit of
competency or a module and is now required to be reassessed to ensure that the
competence is being maintained.

Recognition of prior learning (RPL)

An assessment process that assesses the individual’s non-formal and informal
learning to determine the extent to which that individual has achieved the re-
quired learning or competency outcomes. May also be referred to as: Accredita-
tion of prior learning; Validation of informal/non formal learning.

Reentry student
An individual who returns to an education system programme or institution fol-
lowing an extended absence. (Source: VOCED)

Refresher training
Training to refresh skills and knowledge which may have been partly forgotten,
usually as a result of a temporary interruption in occupational life. (Source: ILO)

Retraining
Training to facilitate entry to a new occupation. (Source: NCVER). May also be
referred to as: Reskilling

Return on investment in training (ROI)

The measurable impact on an organization of training in terms of value adding,
productivity and profitability.

School to work transition (STW) (USA) See: Transition from school or training
to work
72 J. MacKenzie, R.-A. Polvere

Short course
A course of vocational education and training which stands alone and does not
usually lead to a full qualification. A statement of attainment may be issued on
successful completion. (Source: NCVER)

Skill
An ability to perform a particular mental or physical activity which may be de-
veloped by training or practice. (Source: NCVER)

Skill development
The development of skills or competencies which are relevant to the workforce.
(Source: VOCED)

Skill obsolescence
Acquired aptitude and knowledge for which there is little or no demand or which
is out-of-date either through technological and scientific advances made in the
equipment used, a marked change in job requirements or through the gradual
disappearance of a trade or profession. Can usually be rectified by retraining or
skill upgrading. (Source: VOCED)

Skill shortage
Shortage of a particular skill in the labour market. (Source: VOCED)

Skill upgrading
Training to provide supplementary and generally higher-grade qualifications and
knowledge within the same trade or profession to enable the trainee to better
his/her work situation and eventually to make themselves eligible for promotion.
(Source: VOCED)

Skills analysis
An identification of the skills or competencies needed for each job. (Source:
NCVER)

Skills audit
An identification of the skills required and held by the workforce. (Source:
NCVER)

Special needs education

Educational activity and support designed to address special education needs.
(Source: CEDEFOP)
Specialist training
Advanced level training to broaden specialized knowledge of a particular task,
function or aspect of an occupation. (Source: ILO)

Student placement See: Work experience

4 TVET Glossary: Some Key Terms 73

Sustainable development
Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the abil-
ity of future generations to meet their own needs. (Source: UN/ISDR)
Teacher in VET
1. A person whose function is to impart knowledge or know-how to students or
trainees in a vocational school or training centre. (Source: CEDEFOP)
2. The vocational teacher’s functions tend to overlap with those of the trainer; the
teacher usually works in a school situation and gives both related instruction
and some, if not all, of the practical training. (Source: ILO)

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET)

Post-compulsory education and training, excluding degree and higher level pro-
grammes delivered by higher education institutions, which provides people with
occupational or work-related knowledge and skills. May also be referred to
as: Career and technical education (CTE) (USA); Further education and train-
ing (FET) (UK, South Africa); Vocational and technical education and training
(VTET) (South-East Asia); Vocational education and training (VET); Vocational
and technical education (VTE) (AUS)
Trainee
A person undergoing training or education with an occupational bias. (Source:
ILO) See also: Apprentice
Trainer
Anyone who fulfils one or more activities linked to the (theoretical or practical)
training function, either in an institution for education or training or at the work-
place. (Source: CEDEFOP)

Training allowance
Stipend or other payment made by an employer or from public funds to an em-
ployee undergoing training for a certain period, usually outside the normal place
of work. (Source: ILO)
Training course planning and design
A set of consistent methodological approaches employed in designing and plan-
ning training initiatives and schemes aimed at achieving set objectives. (Source:
CEDEFOP)
Training culture
An environment in which training is seen as important and is closely linked with
business strategy, particularly in creating competitive advantage for an enterprise.
Opportunities are given to all employees to participate in training to develop their
skills and competencies. (Source: NCVER)

Training evaluation
The systematic collection and analysis of data relevant to the development and
implementation of learning activities.
74 J. MacKenzie, R.-A. Polvere

Training institution
Any body which imparts vocational training. (Source: ILO; VOCED)

Training investment
Expenditure of an organization on training for benefit; improvement factors in-
clude increased productivity, reduction of waste, improved employee retention
and improved profitability.

Training levy
Levy imposed on employers with a view to financing training activities.
(Source: ILO)

Training market
A system of competition among public and private providers in the provision of
vocational education and training.

Training of trainers
Theoretical and/or practical training for teachers or trainers. (Source: CEDEFOP)

Training policy
Combination of decisions, objectives and guidance emanating from an official
body to fix the goals and priorities for vocational training. (Source: ILO)

Training programme
1. Designed to achieve a specific vocational outcome, may include course, mod-
ule (subject) and on-the-job training. (Source: NCVER)
2. Training activities defined in terms of objectives, target population, contents
and results. (Source: ILO)
Training provider
An organization which delivers vocational education and training programmes;
may be public, private or non-governmental.

Transferability (of skills and competences)

The capacity (of skills and competences) to be transferred to and used in a new
occupational or educational environment. (Source: CEDEFOP). May also be re-
ferred to as: Transfer of training

Transferable skill
Skills that can be introduced in a different socio-cultural or technical environ-
ment, or that can be used in other occupations. (Source: ILO)
Transition from school to work (AUS) See: Transition from school or training to
work
Transition from school or training to work
The process of transferring from school to the workforce or further study.
(Source: NCVER). May also be referred to as: School to work transition (USA);
Transition from school to work (AUS); Entry into working life
4 TVET Glossary: Some Key Terms 75

Transparency of qualifications See: Comparability of qualifications

Validation of informal/non-formal learning See: Recognition of prior learning
Vocational and technical education (VTE) See: Technical and vocational educa-
tion and training
Vocational and technical education and training (VTET) See: Technical and voca-
tional education and training
Vocational education and training (VET) See: Technical and vocational education
and training

Vocational education and training in secondary school

Programmes allowing students to combine vocational studies with their general
secondary education and providing industry-specific training that gives them
credit towards a nationally recognized vocational education and training qual-
ification; the majority of programmes give students opportunities to do unpaid
work or vocational placement and, in some cases, the programmes involved paid
work. May also be referred to as: VET in Schools (AUS); tech-prep (USA);
School/industry programme.

Vocational education teacher See: Teacher in VET

Vocational guidance See: Guidance and counselling
Vocational preparation
Programmes designed to ease the transition from school to work, enhance the
employability of young people and teach them how to cope with the world of
work. (Source: ILO)

Vocational rehabilitation
Measures aimed at enabling a disabled person to secure, retain and advance in
suitable employment and thereby to further such person’s integration or reinte-
gration into society. (Source: ILO)

Vocational teacher See: Teacher in VET

Work-based training
Training provided by an organization primarily for its own employees using the
employer’s own staff or consultants. Work-based training can be conducted either
on-site or at an off-site location. (Source: NCVER)
Work experience
Unpaid work undertaken by secondary school students as part of their careers
education. May also be referred to as: Student placement (USA).

Workplace change
Changes in technology, changes in process and changes in the market and the
wider economy that affect workers, their tasks, the structure of the organization
76 J. MacKenzie, R.-A. Polvere

and/or the product/service or the technology used in the organization. May also
be referred to as: Changing world of work.

Workplace learning
The process of learning through experience at the workplace, both formally and
informally, and through different forms of working arrangements, such as teams
or one-to-one. Also the creation of a learning environment in the workplace.
(Source: VOCED)

Sources

ACER Young people’s participation in post-compulsory education and training.

Camberwell, Australia: Australian Council for Educational Research, 1991.
ATED Australian thesaurus of educational descriptors, 3rd ed. Camberwell, Australia:
Australian Council for Educational Research, 2003.
CEDEFOP Terminology of vocational training policy: a multilingual glossary for an enlarged
Europe. Brussels: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,
2004.
Concise Oxford Concise Oxford Dictionary. 10th ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Dictionary
ILO ILO Thesaurus. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Organization, 2005.
NCVER Knight, A.; Nestor, M. A glossary of Australian vocational education and train-
ing terms. Adelaide, Australia: The National Centre for Vocational Education Re-
search (NCVER), 2000.
UIE Glossary of adult learning in Europe. Hamburg, Germany: UNESCO Institute for
Education, 1999.
UN/ISDR Glossary. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction. <www.passlivelihoods.org.uk/plow/default.asp?id = 5 >
VOCED VOCED Thesaurus. Adelaide, Australia: The National Centre for Vocational Ed-
ucation Research (NCVER). <www.voced.edu.au/thesaurus/index.php>