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Investigating the Variability of Key Coal Quality Parameters in
Continuous Mining Operations when Using Stockpiles
J Benndorf1
ABSTRACT
The delivery of in-spec coal qualities is essential for an efficient and
environmental friendly operation of modern coal-fired power plants. The
design of the mining operation and blending opportunities plays a key
role in homogenising variability and improving the prediction of key
quality parameters, such as the calorific value (CV). The presented case
study uses the technique of conditional simulation in geostatistics to
investigate the variability of the CV and its behaviour along the
extraction, transportation and blending process in a continuous mining
environment. Results of the study enable the opportunity to optimise the
operation mode and adjust it according to the customer’s requirements.
INTRODUCTION
The efficient and environmental friendly operation of modern
power plant technologies calls for strictly meeting the customer’s
specification of key coal quality parameters while maintaining a
low variability of these parameters. The daily mine production
aims to meet the customer specifications in terms of tonnage and
coal quality parameters for different products while minimising
specific costs. The key objective of complex continuous mining
systems is to achieve in-spec deliveries at the lowest cost, by
optimal blending from different faces and multiple seams with a
diverse quality distribution. The blending process typically
involves the operational mode of the excavators, the conveying
system, as well as stacking and reclaiming at stock and blending
yards. The application of conditional simulation in coal mining
operations is not very well documented, with the exception of
some simplified case studies (Hohn and McDowel, 2001; Costa,
Zingano and Koppe, 2000; others). The technique of conditional
simulation (Goovaerts, 1997) with its ability to map in-place
variability and uncertainty in the prediction of coal quality
parameters is suited to investigate the ability of the
homogenisation effect of mining systems. Case studies for grade
control, stockpiling and blending strategy optimisation in diffuse
deposits demonstrate the benefits the application of conditional
simulation can generate (eg Benndorf and Dimitrakopoulos, 2010,
in this volume).
This contribution investigates, based on conditional simulation,
the ability to homogenise coal quality parameters in the process of
digging, conveying and stocking in a continuous mining
environment. Objects of study are, in detail, the different excavator
types (bucketwheel excavator and chain excavator) as well as the
mode of operation of a strata type stockpile. A case study is
presented in a lignite mine in Eastern Europe and conclusions
follow.
DESCRIPTION OF THE CONTINUOUS MINING
SYSTEM UNDER STUDY
Figure 1 illustrates the continuous mining system considered in
this case study. The system contains two excavators, a chain and
a bucket wheel, which are positioned in different cuts at separate
belt conveyors. Both conveyors combine to join a central
stationary conveyor before the coal is loaded onto trains. There is
also the option to stack the coal in a coal stock and blending yard
with the goal being to homogenise the variability of coal quality
parameters before shipping it.
1. GAusIMM, MIBRAG MBH, Germany.
Email: JoergBenndorf@gmx.de
Advances in Orebody Modelling and Strategic Mine Planning I
1. cut
2. cut
Coal stock and
blnding yard
Train load
FIG 1 - The continuous mining system under study.
In total, the mining system can be operated in four operating
modes:
1. operating only the first cut with a bucket wheel excavator
without utilising the blending yard,
2. operating only the second cut with a chain excavator
without utilising the blending yard,
3. operating both cuts at the same time without utilising the
blending yard, and
4. operating both cuts at the same time and utilising the
blending yard.
The study investigates the accuracy or certainty in prediction
and the variability of the key quality parameter calorific value
(CV) of the shipped coal as a function of the operating mode.
The study is based on 25 realisations generated by conditional
simulation of the spatial distribution of the CV. A mining unit of
1500 t is considered, which reflects a train load.
Figure 2 compares the digging mode of the two excavator
types (chain and bucket wheel). Typically the bucket wheel
excavator is positioned on a bench and digs the coal above the
bench in a high cut mode in horizontal slices of about 5 m. This
enables a selective extraction of the typically horizontally
deposited coal strata. The selectivity is limited by a minimum
mining thickness. In a deep cut mode operation, the chain
excavator digs the face in vertical slices along the whole cutting
depths. This causes a blending effect of the horizontally
deposited coal strata while digging, and limits its ability to
selectively mine this strata. Figure 3 shows photos of a bucket
wheel and chain excavator.
To analyse the variability of the coal quality parameters, block
models were generated, which reflect the digging mode of both
excavators.
ANALYSIS OF THE ABILITY TO CONTROL COAL
QUALITY PARAMETERS WITHOUT UTILISING
THE BLENDING YARD
This section focuses on the described operation modes 1 to 3. It
is assumed that the mining equipment is successively digging the
Spectrum Series Volume 17 167
J BENNDORF

Digging mode of different excavator types

Chain excavator
Bucket wheel excavator

FIG 2 - Digging modes of the two considered excavator types (bucket wheel and chain excavators).

FIG 3 - Photos of (left) a bucketwheel excavator and (right) a chain excavator (MIBRAG, 2009).

Prediction of the CV value of coal extracted by a bucket-wheel-excavator Prediction of the CV value of coal extracted by a chain-excavator
14,0 16,0

12,0 14,0
Calorific value (CV) in MJ/kg

Calorific value (CV) in MJ/kg

10,0 12,0

8,0 10,0

6,0 8,0

4,0 6,0
1.000 6.000 11.000 16.000 21.000 26.000 31.000 36.000 1.000 6.000 11.000 16.000 21.000 26.000 31.000 36.000
Cumulated extracted tonnage Cumulated exctracted tonnage

FIG 4 - Predicted alorific value (CV) of coal delivered from the first FIG 5 - Predicted CV of coal delivered from the second cut utilising
cut utilising a bucket wheel excavator. a chain excavator.

blocks in the digging mode explained in the previous section at a operating mode 2, that is the chain excavator, in the second cut.
constant digging rate. Using the generated block models, the CV The figures show the prediction based on 25 realisations (thin
of the extracted coal is predicted. Figure 4 shows the predicted gray lines), the average of the realisations (thick line) as well as
CV for operating mode 1 that is the bucketwheel excavator in the the accuracy (certainty) in prediction by the means of the 90 per
first cut. Figure 5 shows respectively the predicted CV for cent confidence level (dashed lines).

168 Spectrum Series Volume 17 Advances in Orebody Modelling and Strategic Mine Planning I
 INVESTIGATING THE VARIABILITY OF KEY COAL QUALITY PARAMETERS IN CONTINUOUS MINING OPERATIONS

The comparison of both figures illustrates the abilities and Vorhersage des Heizwertes
Prediction of the CV of(roh)
coalbeim
whengemeinsamen Betrieb
operating both beider Geräte
excavarors

limits of both types of equipment in selectively extracting and 14,00

homogenising the in-place variability of coal quality parameters. 13,00

When operating the bucket wheel excavator, a cyclic behaviour of
12,00
the CV can be detected. The reason is the combination of a

MJ/kg
strongly vertically varying CV and the vertical digging of slices

MJ/kg
11,00

in in
per digging location (set up). Due to the strong horizontal

value (CV)
10,00

CalorificHeizwert
correlation of the CV, a very similar cycle is repeated in the next 9,00
set up of the equipment. When operating a chain excavator, the
8,00
strong varying vertical CV values are homogenised over the whole
digging depth. The resulting flow of extracted coal is characterised 7,00

by a low variation of CV. 6,00

1500 6000 10500 15000 19500 24000 28500 33000 37500
Two criteria are used herein to evaluate the homogenisation Kumulativ
Cumulatedgeförderte Tonnage
extracted tonnage

effect in the different operating modes: the accuracy or certainty in

the prediction of a unit of 1500 t (train load), measured by the
standard deviation of the 25 realisations, and the difference
between two successive extracted units as an expression of
variability. The difference in CV of successive delivered units is
typically a criterion, which is part of the customer’s specification.
Table 1 documents the results in terms of the criteria for the two
considered cases. The differences in the uncertainty of predicting
the CV between the two equipment types are due to the digging
mode, but also due to different areas of the mined deposit with
different structural behaviour. However, the bucket wheel
excavator shows significantly higher values of the uncertainty in
predicting the CV compared to the chain excavator. The reason is
the occurrence of local blocks, which are due to the exploration
level less certain in the prediction of CV. Due to the selective
extraction with the bucket wheel excavator, these blocks cannot be
blended with more certain blocks, as is possible with the chain
excavator. Considering the second criteria, the difference between
two successive extracted units, the selectivity of the bucket wheel
excavator is clearly illustrated. With an average of approximately
0.72 MJ/kg between the 1500 t units, the difference is about 80 per
cent higher compared to the chain excavator. The maximum
difference can be up to 7.95 MJ/kg.
Figure 6 shows the prediction of the CV when operating both
excavators at the same time (operating mode 3). Thereby with
3000 m3/h for the bucket wheel excavator and 1500 m3/h for the
chain excavator, the two different digging rates are taken into
account. The results in terms of the two criteria, uncertainty in
prediction of a unit of 1500 t (train load) and the difference
between two successive extracted units, are shown in Table 1. The
blending of the two material flows from both excavators shows
two effects. The uncertainty in predicting the CV of the shipped
coal decreases compared to only operating one of the two
excavators. On average, the standard deviation decreases by six
per cent compared to the chain, and 16 per cent compared to the
bucket wheel excavator. The second effect is a reduction in
variability between two successive units compared to the bucket-
FIG 6 - Predicted CV of coal delivered from both excavators
operated at the same time.
wheel excavator. On the other hand, this difference increases when
compared to only operating the chain excavator.
To generalise, an operation of multiple excavators at the same
time decreases uncertainty in predicting the coal quality
parameters of shipped units. At the same time, extreme
variability is smoothed. This homogenisation reduces differences
between two successive extracted units. With the goal of
selectively extracting coal with a certain specification, the bucket
wheel excavator should be operated separately.
ANALYSIS OF THE ABILITY TO CONTROL COAL
QUALITY PARAMETERS UTILISING THE
BLENDING YARD
The key function of a coal stock and blending yard is, besides the
buffering, the homogenisation of coal quality parameters. This
transforms the characteristics of the incoming material flow in an
outgoing material flow whose characteristics are defined by
customer specifications and may be of contractual relevance
(Figure 7). The characteristics of the incoming material flow are
a function of the geological conditions, the applied selectivity in
extracting the deposit, and the operation mode in the pit.
The following considerations concern the homogenisation
effect. The efficiency of blending and smoothing variability is
significantly dependent on constructive parameters as well as the
operation of the blending yard. Constructive factors are hereby the
type of the yard and its length and width. The following
constructive parameters are assumed in the case study: the
blending yard is of type ‘strata’ (Figure 8). The coal is stacked
layer by layer in six sub yards, which are each 120 m in length and
50 m in width. Figure 9 illustrates the mode of operation of a
‘strata’ blending yard. The coal coming from the pit (incoming

TABLE 1
Summary of the criteria for measuring uncertainty in prediction of a unit of 1500 t (train load), and the difference between two
successive extracted units for different operating modes.

Information in this table are of unit MJ/kg Bucket wheel excavator Chain excavator Operating both
(1. cut) (2. cut) excavators
Certainty of predicting Average standard deviation 0.71 0.66 0.62
the CV value of 1.500 t
Min standard deviation 0.26 0.27 0.41
Max standard deviation 1.67 1.05 1.00
Average 90 per cent confidence level 1.87 1.92 1.76
Min 90 per cent confidence level 0.74 0.83 1.29
Max 90 per cent confidence level 4.41 2.99 2.90
Differences in CV Average differences between two successive 0.72 0.40 0.60
between successive units
extracted units
Min difference between two successive units 0.00 0.00 0.00
Max difference between two successive units 7.95 1.84 3.30

Advances in Orebody Modelling and Strategic Mine Planning I Spectrum Series Volume 17 169
J BENNDORF
in-coming
material flow Blending yard
(from pit)
FIG 7 - Process of blending in a coal stock and blending yard.
Stacker
FIG 8 - Coal stock and blending yard of type strata (MIBRAG, 2009).
material flow) is stacked into layers, which are spread along the
total length of a subyard by a continuously up and down moving
stacker. The number and thickness of the several layers is variable
and can be influenced by the moving rate of the stacker dependent
on the total production rate of the mine. The yard is reclaimed in a
fan-shaped manner orthogonally to the alignment of the stacked
layers by a scraper. In this way the coal quality of the outgoing
material flow is formed as an average over the total number of
stacked layers.
The number of total layers in the yard can be varied by the
mode of operation. The effectiveness of homogenisation shall be
investigated subsequently as a function of the number of layers.
Two criteria are used to evaluate the results:
1. the effect of homogenisation, which is defined herein as the
ratio between the dispersion variance of the CV of the
incoming material flow sin and the dispersion variance of the
CV of the out coming material flow sout (Equation 1) and;
2. the expected improvement of certainty in predicting the CV
of a unit of 1500 t, which is defined herein as the ratio
between the average standard deviation in predicting units of
1500 t before stacking, and the average standard deviation in
predicting units of 1500 t after reclaiming (Equation 2).
S in
effect of homogenisation = (1)
S out
σ 2 out
improvement of certainty in prediction = (2)
σ 2 in
170 Spectrum Series Volume 17
out-going
material flow
(delivery)
Reclaimer
Description of the blending yard model and
assumptions
The model is based on the prediction of the CV of the extracted
coal while operating both excavators (operation mode 3) using
25 simulated realisations of the block model. Every single
realisation can be seen as a possible scenario of the coal quality
parameter CV of the produced material flow coming out of the
pit and being stacked into the blending yard. Figure 10 illustrates
the model of the blending yard. The idea is based on a study
shown in Benndorf (2009), and Pavloudavis and Agioutandis
(2001). The model is composed of n columns and m rows. The
number of layers in the yard is m. The single pockets are of size
of 300 t and represent a fraction of the considered units of 1500 t.
Based on the assumptions regarding the dimensions of a
subyard of 120 m by 50 m and an angle of repose of 35° of the
stacked material, the capacity of a subpile is about 50 000 t. With
a pocket size of 300 t, the pile consists of 167 pockets or cells.
Depending on the number of layers m, the number of cells in a
layer is n. The assignment of CV to each cell reflects the incoming
material flow and the up and down movement of the stacker. All
odd-numbered layers are stacked from left to right, and all
even-numbered layers are stacked from right to left. The
reclaiming process occurs column by column. Because of the
constant cross section area of the pile, the necessary length to be
reclaimed for a unit of 1500 t is constant. Depending on the length
of a cell in the pile, multiple columns can contribute to reclaim
one unit of 1500 t, or only a part of a column contributes to
reclaim one unit. The described model is implemented using VBA
for Excel and is used to investigate the homogenisation effect of
the coal stock and blending yard.
Advances in Orebody Modelling and Strategic Mine Planning I
 INVESTIGATING THE VARIABILITY OF KEY COAL QUALITY PARAMETERS IN CONTINUOUS MINING OPERATIONS

Width of the subyard

FIG 9 - Mode of operation of a blending yard of type strata.

Reclaiming

CVRmS1 CVRmS2 CVRmS... CVRmSn-1 CVRmSn

Stacking

CVRm-1S1 CVRm-1S2 CVRm-1S... CVRm-1Sn-1 CVRm-1Sn

Stacking
CVR...S1 CVR...S2 CVR...S... CVR...Sn-1 CVR...Sn
CVR2S1 CVR2S2 CVR2S... CVR2Sn-1 CVR2Sn
CVR1S1 CVR1S2 CVR1S... CVR1Sn-1 CVR1Sn
FIG 10 - Model of the coal stock and blending yard.

Analysis of the effect of homogenisation in
dependence on the number of stacked layers
The following analysis is based on the results of the prediction of
CV, when operating two excavators (operating mode 3). The
application of the 25 realisations of the CV of the incoming
material flow to the previously described model of the blending
yard results in 25 realisations of the CV of the outgoing material
flow. Figure 11 shows the incoming material flow, while Figure 12
shows the outgoing material flow for the case of 15 layers in the
pile. The figures show the predicted CV per 1500 t unit for each
realisation. In addition, the average of the realisations and a 90 per
cent confidence level is shown.
There is a clear difference between incoming and outgoing
CV, which is the effect of the homogenisation of the blending
yard. Two effects can be detected:
1. the blending yard strongly transforms the varying CV of the
incoming material flow to a very homogeneous flow and
hardly disperses the CV of the outgoing material flow, and
2. a strong improvement of the certainty of predicting the CV.

Advances in Orebody Modelling and Strategic Mine Planning I Spectrum Series Volume 17 171
J BENNDORF

Predicted coal quality (CV) of the in-coming material flow similar homogenisation effect. This has implications on the
14,00 operation mode of the blending yard. The number of stacking
13,00
passes can be reduced from 61 to 35, which cause a reduction of
operational costs and increases the safety level in the operating
12,00
area. For the improvement of predicting CV, a similar observation
11,00 can be done. The standard deviation of units of the outgoing
Calorific value (CV) in MJ/kg

material flow is about 50 per cent of the incoming material flow.

10,00
This effect can also be achieved with 35 layers. The average
9,00 absolute value of the standard deviation of predicted CV of the
8,00
outgoing 1500 t units is ± 0.30 to ± 0.35 MJ/Kg. This represents
the standard deviation of predicting a block of 50 000 t in the
7,00
deposit that means a block of the size of a subpile in the blending
6,00 yard. In general, the standard deviation of predicted CV of the
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
Extrated units of 1.500t
1500 t units in the outgoing material flow converges to the
standard deviation of the predicted CV of the whole subpile. This
FIG 11 - Predicted CV of the incoming 1500 t coal units.
observation is essential in designing subpiles and defining its size
as a function of the exploration level of the deposit and the
customer’s specifications.
Predicted coal quality (CV) of the in-coming material flow (after reclaiming)
14,00

13,00
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
12,00 The properties of the conditional simulation in geostatistics allow
11,00
for investigating the in situ variability of coal quality parameters
Calorific value (CV) in MJ/kg

and its behaviour along the extracting, conveying and blending

10,00
9,00
8,00
7,00
6,00
1 3
FIG 12 - Predicted CV of the outgoing 1500 t coal units.
The homogenisation effect of the blending yard is due to the
elimination of successive auto-correlated units. It is highly
probable that a unit of high CV is followed by another unit of a
high CV in case of the incoming material flow. This correlation
is disconnected in the outgoing material flow, which is caused by
the fan-shaped reclamation of the layered stacked coal.
To investigate the homogenisation effect, the above study is
performed on a varying number of layers in the pile. The number
takes values in an interval from one to 61, which defines the
technical limits of the blending yard under consideration. Results
in terms of the homogenisation effect and improvement of
certainty in predicting CV of shipped 1500 t units are presented
in Figure 13.
Effect of homogenisation and improvement in certainty in prediction
1,00
Improvement in prediction
process. The case study illustrated an application in a continuous
mining environment with different types of excavators and the
utilisation of a coal stock and blending yard. The results deliver
valuable insight into the effect of homogenisation and an
improvement in predicting CV values of shipped coal units as a
function of the operational mode. Different excavators cause a
5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Reclaimed units of 1500t P(train loads)
25 27 29 31 33 different behaviour of CV of the extracted coal. Bucketwheel
excavators cause substantial differences between extracted units,
which show a cyclic behaviour. Chain excavators tend to smooth
out CV and show a homogenisation effect. When operating both
excavators simultaneously, an improvement in predicting CV can
be achieved. Furthermore, the advantage of utilising a strata-type
stockpile in the conveying process was demonstrated by a
substantial improvement in predicting and homogenisation CV.
With a goal of meeting production goals with a high probability,
as well as delivering a homogeneous product, an operation of
excavators without utilising the stockpile should be avoided. The
results are a basis for optimising the operation and adjusting the
operational mode day-to-day, depending upon the customer’s
requirements and the current geological setting.
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0,80
14,0
pp 151-158 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy:
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0,60 Melbourne).
10,0
Costa, J F, Zingano, A C and Koppe, J C, 2000. Simulation – An
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FIG 13 - Homogenisation effect and improvement of certainty in
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In the case study, the dispersion between the delivered coal units for the prediction of the coal blending efficiency in longitudinal
can be reduced to a 17th of the incoming material flow by utilising stockpiles, in IMCET 2001, 17th International Mining Congress and
all 61 layers. However, 35 layers appear to be sufficient for a Exhibition of Turkey, Ankara, Turkey, 19 - 22 June.

172 Spectrum Series Volume 17 Advances in Orebody Modelling and Strategic Mine Planning I