Earthing System’s Design in Presence

of Non-uniform Soil

Angelo Campoccia, Eleonora Riva Sanseverino, Gaetano Zizzo

Department of Electrical, Electronic and Telecommunications Engineering
University of Palermo
Palermo, Italy
zizzo@diepa.unipa.it

Abstract—The Authors propose a practical approach for facing
the problem of the design of the earthing systems in two-layer
soils. The approach is based on the calculation of an equivalent
resistivity of the non-uniform soil through which the designer can
treat this one as it was uniform.
The purpose of the Authors is to provide an innovative simple
method and some easy-to-use graphs for an easy earthing
systems’ design in two-layer soils.
Keywords- Non-uniform Soil, Two-Layer Soil, Earthing, Earth
Electrodes.
I. INTRODUCTION
The soil is normally composed of different materials with
various characteristics and, in particular, it is often made of
overlapping quasi-parallel layers. Every layer generally offers
to the earth currents a resistivity that is slightly variable from
point to point. Often, on the other hand, the resistivity is very
different from layer to layer.
because of the difficulty of the calculations required to solve
the problem.
Experience demonstrates that significant errors (up to 400%
in the calculation of the earth resistance) often derive from not
considering the presence of a non-uniform soil [2].
For this reason, in this paper the Authors present a practical
approach to face the problem of the design of the earthing
systems in non-uniform soil. The purpose of the Authors is to
provide a simple method and some easy-to-use graphs for
easily designing earthing systems in two-layer soils without
having recourse to complicated mathematical approach or
expensive simulation softwares.
According to the proposed method a two-layer soil is
treated as an uniform soil with an equivalent resistivity
depending on the rate between the earth bulk resistivities of the
two layers, on the depth of the first layer and on the shape and
the dimensions of the considered earth electrode.

The layer structure of a non-uniform soil can sensibly
influence the value of the earth resistance of the earth
electrodes and the touch and step voltages’ profiles on the
soil’s surface. This is especially true when the differences
between the resistivity of the layers are large. Indeed the
resistivity of the soil can change in a very wide range of values
from the typical values of resistivity of the conductors to the
typical values of the insulating materials. Table I reports these
values for the different types of soil [1].
Nevertheless, the earthing system’s designer often,
thoughtlessly, does not take into consideration this aspect
The method proposed is based on an application of the
Maxwell’s images method but allows the designer to not
having directly recourse to this last, obtaining, in this way, a
significant simplification in the mathematical formulation of
the design problem.
In the following, after having briefly described the
Maxwell’s image method, the Authors present their approach
to the problem and reports some useful graphs for the
calculation of the earth resistance of some typical MV/LV
substation’s earth electrodes.
 TABLE I. EARTH RESISTIVITY
⎡ ∞
⎤
U E = I j ⋅ ⎢ R ojj,0 + R 'jj,0 + ∑ ν k ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ R ''jj,k + R '''jj,k + R ''''jj,k ) ⎥ +
Type of soil Average resistivity (Ω·m) ⎣ k =1 ⎦
Wet organic soil 10
⎡ o
)⎤⎥
∞
+ ∑ ν k ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ R ij,k
N
+ ∑ Ii ⋅ ⎢ R ij,0 + R ij,0
' ''
+ R ij,k
'''
+ R ij,k
''''
Moist soil 100 i =1 ⎣ k =1 ⎦
i≠ j
Dry soil 1000

Bedrock 10000
..... (1)

⎡ ∞
⎤
U E = I N ⋅ ⎢ R oNN,0 + R 'NN,0 + ∑ ν k ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ R ''NN,k + R '''NN,k + R ''''NN,k ) ⎥ +
⎣ k =1 ⎦
II. THE MAXWELL’S METHOD
⎡ o
)⎤⎥
∞
+ ∑ ν k ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ R iN,k
N
The evaluation of the earth resistance of an earth electrode + ∑ Ii ⋅ ⎢ R iN,0 + R iN,0
' ''
+ R iN,k
'''
+ R iN,k
''''

in a two-layer soil is a particular application of the Maxwell’s i =1 ⎣ k =1 ⎦

i≠ N
image method.
with:
The earth electrode is divided into N parts (as higher N is as
more accurate is the calculation) and each part injects in the ρ2 − ρ1
soil a current indicated by Ij with a potential towards the remote - ν= , being ρ1 and ρ2 the earth bulk resistivities
ρ2 + ρ1
earth equal to UE. The sum of the N currents Ij gives the total
earth current I injected in the soil by the real earth electrode. respectively, of the upper and of the lower layer;

According to the Maxwell’s method, an earth electrode in a - R ojj,0 the self-resistance of the jth part of the earth
two-layer soil is equivalent to infinite image earth electrodes electrode;
(briefly “images” in the following) disposed as represented in
Fig. 1. Each image ise divided into N parts too. - o
R ij,0 the mutual resistance of the between the ith part and
th
the j part of the real earth electrode;

a) b) - '
R ij,0 the mutual resistance of the between the ith part of the
image earth electrode distant 2h from the real earth
electrode and the jth part of the real earth electrode;
- ''
R ij,k the mutual resistance of the between the ith part of the
image earth electrode distant 2kD from the real earth
ρ1 electrode and the jth part of the real earth electrode;
air - '''
R ij,k the mutual resistance of the between the ith part of the
ρ1 earth electrode image earth electrode distant 2kD-2h from the real earth
ρ1 electrode and the jth part of the real earth electrode;
ρ2

- ''''
R ij,k the mutual resistance of the between the ith part of the
image earth electrode distant 2kD+2h from the real earth
electrode and the jth part of the real earth electrode.
Every self and mutual resistance in (1) can be calculated
through the formula:
Figure 1. a) Earth electrode in a two-layer soil; b) Images earth electrodes in
an uniform soil.
2
In Fig. 1, D and h indicate the depth of the first layer and λ ⎛ λ⎞
xo + + ⎜ x o + ⎟ + yo2 + z o2
the depth of the earth electrode, respectively. ρ1 2 ⎝ 2⎠
x
R ij,y = ⋅ ln (2)
Writing, for all the N parts of the earth electrode, the 4πλ λ ⎛ λ⎞
2
x o − + ⎜ x o − ⎟ + yo2 + z o2
expression of the earth potential UE assumed according to the 2 ⎝ 2⎠
images’ method, the following systems is obtained:
with:
⎡ o
)⎤⎥ +
∞
U E = I1 ⋅ ⎢ R11,0 + R11,0
'
+ ∑ ν k ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ R11,k
''
+ R11,k
'''
+ R11,k''''
- x = o, ', '', ''', '''' ; y = 0, k ;
⎣ k =1 ⎦
- λ the length of any of the N parts of the earth electrode;
⎡ o
)⎤⎥
∞
+ ∑ ν k ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ R i1,k
N
+ ∑ Ii ⋅ ⎢ R i1,0 + R i1,0
' ''
+ R i1,k
'''
+ R i1,k
''''

i =1 ⎣ k =1 ⎦ - xo, yo and zo the Cartesian coordinates of the middle point

i ≠1 of the jth part of the earth electrode or of the image earth
electrode, with respect to a Cartesian coordinates system
.....
 having origin in the middle point of the ith part of the earth ⎡ 1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
electrode (see Fig. 2). In particular is: R E = ρk ⋅ ⎢ + ⋅ ⎜1 + ⎟⎥ (6)
⎣ LT 20 ⋅ A ⎝ 1 + h ⋅ 20 / A ⎠ ⎦
⎧ r (radius of theelectrode) for R ij,0
o
⎪ with:
⎪ 2h for R ij,0
'
⎪
⎪ (3)
- h the depth of the earth electrode;
z o = ⎨ 2kD for R ij,k
''

⎪ - LT the total buried length of conductors;

⎪ 2kD− 2h for R ij,k
'''

⎪ - A the area occupied by the earth electrode;

⎪⎩ 2kD+ 2h for R ij,k
''''
or the Schwarz’s equations [4] in the case of earth electrodes
consisting of horizontal and vertical electrodes.
According to this method, the rate k between the earth
resistance RE of the earth electrode in the two-layer soil and the
earth resistance R 0E of the same earth electrode in the uniform
soil having resistivity equal to ρ1 is given by:

RE ρk
k= = (7)
R 0E ρ1

Figure 2. Cartesian reference axes for the calculation of self and mutual k depends on several factors:
resistannces.

By imposing: k = k ( ρ1 , ρ2 , D, L, r, h ) (8)

N
Simulations demonstrate that the values of r and h (this last
∑ Ij = I (4) generally variable from 0.5m to 1.5m) do not have significant
influence on the value of k.
j=1
For this reason (8) can be written as:
and solving (1), the potential UE is found.
Calculating the rate between UE and the total earth current k ≅ k ( ρ2 / ρ1 , D / L ) (9)
I, the earth resistance of the earth electrode is found:
Using a specific software created by the Authors and based
R E = UE / I (5) on the Maxwell’s method, the rate k has been calculated for the
four typical earth electrodes for MV/LV substations
represented in Fig. 3.
III. THE PROPOSED METHOD
The earth resistance of an earth electrode in an uniform soil
is function of the earth bulk resistivity and of the dimensions a) b)
and of the depth of the earth electrode.
The earth resistance of the same earth electrode in a two-
layer soil is function of the earth bulk resistivities of the two
layers, of the dimensions and of the depth of the earth electrode
and of the depth of the upper layer.
The proposed method suggests to consider any earth c) d)
electrode buried in a two-layer soil as if it was buried in an
uniform soil having an equivalent earth bulk resistivity
indicated with ρk and suitably calculated.
In this way the earth resistance of the earth electrode can be
easily calculated using the formula related to the specific earth
Figure 3. Typical MV/LV substations’ earth electrodes.
electrode in the uniform soil with resistivity ρk , or,
alternatively, for a calculation on the side of safety, the Sverak In Fig. 4 to 7 is diagrammed the coefficient k for the four
formula [3]: earth electrode’ shapes considered in Fig. 3.
 k k
3.5 3.0

3.0 a) ρ2/ρ1=0.1 ρ2/ρ1=0.1

2.5
ρ2/ρ1=0.5 c) ρ2/ρ1=0.5
ρ2/ρ1=2 ρ2/ρ1=2
2.5 ρ2/ρ1=5 ρ2/ρ1=5
ρ2/ρ1=10 ρ2/ρ1=10
ρ2/ρ1=50 2.0 ρ2/ρ1=50
ρ2/ρ1=100 ρ2/ρ1=100
2.0

1.5
1.5

1.0
1.0

0.5 0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
D/L D/L

Figure 4. Coefficient k in funtion of D/L and ρ2/ ρ1 for a single square earth Figure 6. Coefficient k in funtion of D/L and ρ2/ ρ1 for a double square earth
electrode. electrode with diagonals.

k k
4.5 4.0

4.0
3.5
b) ρ2/ρ1=0.1 ρ2/ρ1=0.1
ρ2/ρ1=0.5 d) ρ2/ρ1=0.5
3.5
ρ2/ρ1=2 ρ2/ρ1=2
3.0
ρ2/ρ1=5 ρ2/ρ1=5
3.0 ρ2/ρ1=10 ρ2/ρ1=10
ρ2/ρ1=50 ρ2/ρ1=50
2.5
ρ2/ρ1=100 ρ2/ρ1=100
2.5

2.0
2.0

1.5
1.5

1.0 1.0

0.5
0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25
D/L 0 5 10 15 20 25
D/L

Figure 5. Coefficient k in funtion of D/L and ρ2/ ρ1 for a single square earth Figure 7. Coefficient k in funtion of D/L and ρ2/ ρ1 for a single square earth
electrode with four rods. electrode with diagonals.
 Using the data reported in Fig. 4 to 7, the resistivity ρk is The calculated value is about 18% above the value obtained
obtained as: applying the Maxwell’s method (RE=31.54 Ω).
The error committed is quasi-entirely due to the application
ρk = k ⋅ ρ1 (10) of the approximated Sverak formula. Anyway the result
obtained is acceptable for the practical purposes of the designer
and is on the side of safety.
With the rate D/L>10, k varies from 0.9 to 1.2 depending
on the rate ρ2 / ρ1 . Therefore for D/L>10 generally it can be B. Case study 2
assumed ρk = ρ1 and the soil can be considered uniform. A system with the characteristics reported in Table III is
considered.
In any case, with the rate D/L<10, the recourse to the
diagrams in Fig. 4 to 7, makes the task of the earthing system’s
designer very simple. Indeed, thanks to the diagrams of the TABLE III. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SYSTEM
coefficient k, the designer has only to know L, D, ρ1 and ρ2 Earth electrode Single square
in order to calculate the equivalent resistivity of the soil ρk . Length of the side 5m
Total buried length of
20 m
IV. APPLICATION EXAMPLES conductors
Area occupied by the
25 m2
earth electrode
A. Case study 1 Depth of the earth
0.8 m
The method is applied to the system with the characteristics electrode
reported in Table II. Upper layer resistivity 100 Ω·m
Lower layer resistivity 50 Ω·m
TABLE II. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SYSTEM
Depth of the upper
10 m
Earth electrode Single square with diagonals layer

Length of the side 8m

Total buried length of For using the practical method proposed, the rates ρ2 / ρ1
54.63 m
conductors and D/L are evaluated.
Area occupied by the
64 m2
earth electrode ρ2 / ρ1 = 50 / 100 = 0.5
Depth of the earth
0.6 m
electrode D / L = 10 / 5 = 2
Upper layer resistivity 500 Ω·m
From Fig. 4 it is found:
Lower layer resistivity 4000 Ω·m
Depth of the upper k=0.94
36 m
layer
and, therefore
ρk = k ⋅ρ1 = 0.94 ⋅100 = 94 Ω ⋅ m
For using the practical method proposed, the rates ρ2 / ρ1
and D/L are evaluated ⎡ 1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
R E = ρk ⋅ ⎢ + ⋅ ⎜1 + ⎟⎥ =
ρ2 / ρ1 = 4000 / 500 = 8 ⎣ LT 20 ⋅ A ⎝ 1 + h ⋅ 20 / A ⎠ ⎦
D / L = 36 / 8 = 4.5 ⎡1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
= 94 ⋅ ⎢ + ⋅ ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎥ = 11.35 Ω
Considering the curves corresponding to ρ2 / ρ1 = 5 and ⎣ 20 20 ⋅ 25 ⎝ 1 + 0.8 ⋅ 20 / 25 ⎠ ⎦
ρ2 / ρ1 = 10 , with a linear interpolation, from Fig.7 it is found:
The error committed in this case is about 9% (RE=10.22Ω,
k=1.11 evaluated by applying the Maxwell’s method). Also in this case
the error is quasi-totally imputable to the application of the
and, therefore Sverak formula.
ρk = k ⋅ρ1 = 1.11 ⋅ 500 = 555 Ω ⋅ m
V. CONCLUSION
⎡ 1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤ The Authors have proposed a practical method for earthing
R E = ρk ⋅ ⎢ + ⋅ ⎜1 + ⎟⎥ =
⎣ LT 20 ⋅ A ⎝ 1 + h ⋅ 20 / A ⎠ ⎦ systems’ design in presence of two-layer soil.
⎡ 1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤ The designer of the earthing system, using the Sverak
= 555 ⋅ ⎢ + ⋅ ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎥ = 37.29 Ω formula, the Schwarz’s equations or other more accurate
⎣ 54.63 20 ⋅ 64 ⎝ 1 + 0.6 ⋅ 20 / 64 ⎠ ⎦ formulas, is able to calculate the earth resistance in the non-
uniform soil having recourse to the diagrams provided in the
paper.
These diagrams allow the designer to consider the lwo-
layer soil as an uniform soil whose earth bulk resistivity
depends on some precise factors easily determinable, avoiding
the recourse to complex mathematical method or expensive
simulations softwares.
The Authors are inclined to supply in the future more
accurate versions of the diagrams reported in the paper in order
to make them real working instruments for any expert in
earthing system’s design.
Moreover a future step will be the extension of the method
from two-layer soils to multi-layer soils.
Finally, even if the method has been applied to MV/LV
substations’ earth electrodes, it must be underlined that it is
perfectly applicable also to any other earth electrode.
REFERENCES
[1] IEEE Std 80-2000, IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding
[2] V. Cataliotti, and A. Campoccia, Impianti di terra, 1st ed. Edizioni TNE,
2003.
[3] J. G. Sverak, “Simplified analysis of electrical gradients above a ground
grid; Part I—How good is the present IEEE method?” IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-103, no. 1, pp.
7–25, January 1984.
[4] S. J. Schwarz, “Analytical expression for resistance of grounding
systems,” AIEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. 73,
no. 13, part III-B, pp. 1011–1016, August 1954.