Chapter 1: Movement and Position

 Ways to measure time:

o Mechanic/digital stopwatch
o A timer-scaler
 Percentage error = reaction time / time taken x 100%
 Instruments used for accurate measurement of length:
o Vernier Calliper
o Micrometer
 Distance travelled: scalar
 Displacement: vector
 Average speed = distance travelled / time of travel
 Average velocity = displacement in a journey / time of travel
𝑠
 𝑉=𝑡
 Average acceleration = change in velocity / time
𝑣−𝑢
 𝑎= 𝑡
 Slowing down of a moving object: deceleration/retardation
 Motion time graphs
o s-t graphs
 slope = s/t = velocity
o v-t graphs
 slope = v/t = acceleration
 area = v x t = displacement of the object during the time interval
o a-t graphs

Chapter 2 & 3: Force & Shape and Force & Movement

 Newton’s 1st law: object at rest/uniform motion if net force = 0
 Newton’s 2nd law: F=ma (net force = mass x acceleration)
 Pulling force > maximum friction → object moves
 Streamlined shape → reduces air resistance
 Terminal velocity:
o Accelerate downwards because of weight (no air resistance yet). Force acting
downwards.
o Gain speed → air resistance increases → net force still downwards
o Eventually, weight = air resistance → no resultant force → terminal velocity
 Newton’s 3rd law: between forces of 2 objects every action has an equal, opposite
reaction (action-reaction pair)
 Resolving forces:
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Chapter 4: Momentum
 momentum = mass x velocity (p=mv)
 impulse = mv – mu (change in momentum) (unit: N s)


 Area under F-t graph = impulse
 Momentum is always conserved
 KE is conserved in elastic collision (ie bounce back to same height)
 Collision or disintegration of 2 objects: 𝑚𝑎 𝑢𝑎 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑢𝑏 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑣𝑎 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑣𝑏

Chapter 5: Turning Effect of Forces

 moment = force x ⊥ distance from point
 sum of clockwise moments = sum of anti-clockwise moments
 Couple: 2 forces of equal magnitudes act in opposite directions
 Broad base + low cog = more stable

Chapter 6: Astronomy
 Universe: large collection of galaxies
 Solar System held together by gravitational forces (planets,
asteroids, comets orbit around sun; moons and satellites orbit
around planets)
 Comets orbit the sun following very elliptical path
 Asteroid is rocky body; orbits Sun and most of its orbit lies
between Mars and Jupiter
 Planets are elliptical with sun, non-luminous (reflect light from
the sun)
 Artificial satellites orbit planets over equator. They complete one
orbit in the same time that Earth spins once (geostationary orbit)
 Moon (natural satellites) are non-luminous, reflect light from the
Sun, and has no atmosphere with many craters on surface

Chapter 11: Properties of Waves

 Transverse wave: vibrations are perpendicular to direction of travel of wave
 Longitudinal wave: vibrations are along the direction of travel of the wave
 Wavelength () → distance between two successive crests/compressions
 Amplitude (A) → maximum displacement measured from equilibrium position
 Period (T) → time taken to produce a complete wave [s]
 Frequency (f) → number of complete waves in one second [Hz]
 v= f
 diffraction; gap is comparable in size to wavelength → diffraction more marked
 reflection (∠i = ∠r)
 refraction; v of wave changes (deep water → bends towards normal)
Chapter 12: Using Waves

 violet: 4 x 10-7 ; red: 7 x 10-7

 speed of EM waves: 3.00 x 108 m/s
 infrared ( = 10-4 )
o Emitted by any object above absolute zero (-273ºC)
o Hotter object → more energy + higher frequency
o Thermography (measure temp), infrared viewers (see through smoke/in
darkness), infrared lamp (dry car paint), infrared remote control
 ultra-violet radiation ( = 10-8 m)
o Absorbed by ozone layer in atmosphere
o Phosphor absorb UV and release energy as visible light
o Produce vitamin D, sterilization, checking banknotes, washing powders
 radio waves ( = 0.1m – 10km ; longest in EM spectrum)
o Radio communications
 Long/medium waves: repeater stations
 Short waves: reflected by ionosphere
 Medium waves: am station (amplitude of radio waves varies)
 Vhf: fm station (frequency of radio waves varies)
o TV broadcasting (VHF/UHF → short → cannot diffract)
 microwaves ( = few cm)
o Microwave ovens (make water molecules vibrate), satellite communications
(sent to space → amplified → retransmitted), radar (transmitter send out →
reflected by object → receiver detects pulses → range and direction found)
 X-rays ( = 10-10 m)
o Produced by bombarding heavy metal target with fast-moving electrons
o Very penetrating
o Make image of bones (can pass through flesh), checking for cracks on
steel/concrete structure
 Gamma rays ( = 10-12 m)
o Carries greatest energy → most penetrating
o Sterilize food, kill cancer cells
 Digital signals: sequence of number (data of digital signal is often more easily
processed, regeneration of a digital signal produces a clean, accurate copy of the
original)
 Analogue signal: electrical voltages/currents
Chapter 13: Light Waves
 Luminous objects: emit own light
 Law of reflection:
o Incident ray, reflected ray and normal light on same plane
o ∠i = ∠r
 Properties of image on mirror
o Same size as object
o Erect but laterally inverted
o Virtual
o As far behind the mirror as the object is in front
 Less dense → dense → bend towards normal
 Refractive indexes
o Air: 1.00
o Water: 1.33
o Perspex: 1.50
o Glass: 1.52
o Diamond: 2.42
o Cool air: high refractive index
o Hot air: low refractive index
o Violet light: large refractive index
 n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2
 Light travels slower in optically denser medium
 Enter medium with larger reflective index → bend towards normal
1
 Refractive index = sinc
 Optical fibres use TIR
o Carry telephone signals, TV signals, computer data and transmit images

Chapter 14: Sound

 Vibrations disturb air → disturbance travels through air → sound
 Sound is a longitudinal wave
 Speed of sound: 331 ms-1 (temp decrease → v of sound increases) (solid is faster)
 Human audible frequency range: 20Hz – 20 000Hz
 Ultrasound: frequency > 20kHz
o Sonar systems (locate fish/investigate depth of sea), examine unborn babies
(create image of baby), detect flaws of machine, clean spectacles,
 Loudness: amplitude ; Pitch: frequency ; Quality: waveform

Chapter 19 & 20: Solids, Liquids and Gases

 mass = volume x density (m = vρ)
 force = pressure x area (F = pA)
 pressure = height x density x g (p = hρg)
 when gas is heated:
o Molecules have more kinetic energy (KE)
o Move faster
 o More collisions with the side at greater speed
o More Pressure
 0K = -273ºC
𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
 =
𝑡
1 2𝑡
 Describing how increase in temperature affects the pressure of the gas
o When the temperature becomes hotter, the temperature of the gas inside is
higher and the average speed of the gas molecules is higher.
o Since the space occupied by the gas remains unchanged, the gas molecules
hit the wall more vigorously and frequently.
o Thus, the pressure exerted on the wall increases.

Chapter 21: Magnetism and Electromagnetism

 Density of magnetic field lines represents magnitude of magnetic field (e.g. closer
lines → stronger field and vice versa)
 Magnetically hard = permanent magnets (e.g. steel); they do not lose their
magnetism
 Magnetically soft (e.g. iron) can lose their magnetism easily (useful as temporary
magnets)
 Slab/Magnadur magnet:

 Solenoid:

 Bar magnet:

 Right hand grip rule: to find the direction of current (thumb)/direction of magnetic
field (fingers)
 Looking at a solenoid: current going in anti-clockwise direction → that side is north
 Electromagnet: behaves like a permanent magnet when current passes through
 Electric bells: push button pressed → electromagnet on → spring is attracted →
hammer hits gong → sound produced → contact is broken → electromagnet off →
spring moves back to original position → contact is closed → process repeats
 Buzzers: push button pressed → electromagnet is on → metal strip hits
electromagnet → contact broken → electromagnet off → the metal strips hit the
metal contact → contact is closed → process repeats
 Telephones: varying electric current passes through the electromagnet → varying
magnetic field → metal plate vibrates → sound produced
Chapter 22: Electric Motors and Electromagnetic Induction
 Catapult Effect:

 Left hand rule (motors): when there is magnetic force, magnetic field AND current

 Magnetic force increased when:

o Current ↑
o Strength of magnetic field ↑
o Length of wire ↑
o Direction of current is ∟ to direction to magnetic field
 Turning effect of coil increases when:
o Current ↑
o Strength of magnetic field ↑
o Winding more turns of wire
o Area of coil ↑
 Increase sensitivity of galvanometer by:
o Strength of magnets ↑
o Number of turns of coil ↑
o Area of coil ↑
o Use weaker springs
 Make motor rotate faster
o Strength of magnets ↑
o Wind more turns of wire around the coil
o Current ↑
o Area of coil inside the magnet ↑
 Electromagnetic induction = changing magnetic field → current/voltage
 When a wire is moved up and down, conduction cuts through the magnetic field
lines, the conductor then experiences a changing magnetic flux and there is an
induced voltage.
 Uniform magnetic field (e.g. slab magnet) → right hand rule
 Non-uniform magnetic field (e.g. bar magnet ; like butterfly shape) → Lenz’s law
  ↑ induced voltage by:
o Move conductor/magnet faster
o Length of conductor ↑
o Magnetic field strength ↑
 Right hand rule (generators): when there is motion of conductor, direction of
magnetic field AND direction of induced current

 Lenz’s law: an induced current flows in a direction so as to oppose the change

produced
 ↑ Induced current in generators by:
o Stronger manget
o Turns of wire ↑
o Winding coil on soft iron core
o Area of coil inside magnetic field↑
o Rotating the coil at a higher speed
 A.C. generator in power stations: turbine → coils (stator) → electromagnet → rotor
→ alternating current in stator coils
 Step down transformer: no. of coils in primary coil > number of turns in secondary
coil (input V > output V)
 Step up transformer: no. of coils in primary coil < number of turns in secondary coil
(input V < output V)
 Ideal transformer: power input = power output (𝐼𝑝 × 𝑉𝑝 = 𝐼𝑠 × 𝑉𝑠 )

Chapter 23: Atoms and Radioactivity

 Alpha (): stream of helium particle (2+) [highest ionizing power] {42𝐻𝑒}
 Beta (): stream of negatively charged electrons (-1) {𝑒 − }
 Gamma (): EM wave with high frequency (and high energy) (no charge) [very little
ionizing power]
 Ionization: removing some electrons from gas molecules → ionized
 Find ionizing power: use spark counter
 See radiation: use diffusion cloud chamber
o  – strong ionizing power with thick straight lines
o  – weaker ionizing power with thin twisted tracks (small in mass & bounce
off from air molecules)
o  – track of rays can hardly be seen
 Penetrating power: use G-M Counter [ >  > ]
 Range of radiation in air:  >  > 
  stopped with sheet of paper
  stopped with 5mm aluminium
  never fully stopped but 25mm lead halves its strength
 In electric/magnetic field, mass of  >  so deflection  < 
Chapter 24: Radiation and Half-life
 Background radiation: cosmic rays from outer space/medical practice e.g. diagnostic
X-rays
 Nuclear radiation is emitted from nucleus
 Radioactive decay is random in nature
 Half-life = time for activity to fall to half

Chapter 25: Application of Radioactivity

 Radioisotopes: used in medicine, archaeology, industry and agriculture
o Radiotherapy →  rays kill cancer cells by rotating around to destroy
o Tracers → use radioisotopes with short half-lives (source) to produce brain
scan/detect leaks in pipes can be detected
o Sterilization → use gamma rays (cobalt-60)
o Archaeology → carbon-14 beta source → measure the activity of C-14 in
ancient remains
o Smoke detector → use  source + 2 charged metal plates → contains
ionization chamber →  ionizes air → attracted to plates to form current →
when fire, smoke collides with ions → ions slow down → current drops →
alarm
o Thickness gauge → use beta source and detector (G-M counter) → metal
sheet too thin → detector picks up too much radiation
o Static eliminator →  source → ionize adjacent air → air ions attract loose
electrons and reduce static charge
 Hazard of radiation:
o Ionizing effect → damage living cells → overdose leads to harmful effects
o Radioactive gas/dust can be taken into body through air, water or food →
once taken cannot be removed and causes damage deep in body
o  can be stopped by skin but hazardous when inside body
o  can penetrate tissues deep in body → most dangerous
o Background radiation should be monitored to safeguard against rises due to
unnecessary exposure
 Absorbed dose: 1Gy = 1J of energy to 1kg of material
 Equivalent dose (Sv) = absorbed dose x radiation weighting factor (→ 20; others 1)
  radiation causes most serious biological damage due to strong ionizing effect
 Sudden dose above 10Sv → death
 1-10Sv → acute radiation sickness (nausea, vomiting, extreme tiredness, hair loss)

Chapter 26: Particles

 Nuclear fission: heavy nucleus is split into lighter light nuclei → huge amount of
energy released (take place at 1000ºC)
 Chain reaction
o U-235 split → 2-3 neutrons emitted → continue splitting other U-235 nuclei
energy supplied by the reactor
 Efficiency = energy released by uranium fuel
 Nuclear waste from power stations → radioactive → should be sent to processing
plant/stored in steel cylinders and buried underground in remote areas