Mughals

• Babur (Zahiruddin Muhammad) was the founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
• Babur was related to Timur from his father’s side and to Chengiz Khan through his mother.

• Babur succeeded his father Umar Shaikh Mirza as the ruler of Farghana, but was soon defeated by
his distant relative and as a result lost his kingdom.
• He became a wanderer for sometime till he captured Kabul from one of his uncles.
• Then, Babur took interest in conquering India and launched three expeditions between 1519 and
1523.
• The opportunity to fullfil his ambition came to Babur when he was invited to India by discontented
party, Daulat Khan Lodhi the most powerful noble of the Punjab and Alam Khan an uncle of Ibrahim
Khan Lodhi sought Babur to help to fight against Ibrahim Lodhi.
• India was then distracted by ambitions, rivalries and disaffection of nobles and the Delhi sultanate
existed only in name.

• Babur, a man of adventurous spirit at once responded to the call which presented him an excellent

opportunity for giving effect to his long cherished ambition.

• This was his fourth expedition in which he occupied Lahore in 1524 and such occupation was not

what Daulat Khan desired.

• He had hoped that Babur would retire after a raid leaving the field clear for him and so he turned

against him and Alam Khan also joined hands with him.

• Babur had to retire to Kabul to collect re-enforcements.

• Babur soon re-occupied the Punjab in 1525 and Daulat Khan Lodhi submitted to Babur.

• On the eve of Babur’s invasion of India, there were five prominent Muslim rulers – the Sultans of

Delhi, Gujarat, Malwa, Bengal and the Deccan – and two prominent Hindu rulers – Rana Sangha of

Mewar and the Vijayanagar Empire.

• Most of the soldiers and officers of Daulat Khan Lodhi joined the ranks of Babur.

• Babur got rid of all the self seeking Afghan nobles of the Punjab.

• He received messages of support from disaffected and opportunists nobles of Ibrahim’s court and

Rana Sangha of Mewar is also said to have sent him an invitation for a joint invasion of Delhi.

Military Conquests
• On 21st April 1526 the first Battle of Panipat took place between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi,
who was killed in the battle.
• One of the causes of Babur’s success in the battle was that Babur was seasoned General whereas
Ibrahim was a head strong, inexperienced youth. As Babur remarks he was ‘an inexperienced man,
careless in his movements, who marched without order, halted or retired without method and
engaged without foresight.’
• Babur was the master of a highly evolved system of warfare which was the result of a scientific
synthesis of the tactics of the several Central Asian people. While Ibrahim fought according to the old
system then in existence in the country.

• Babur had a park of artillery consisting of big guns and small muskets while
Ibrahim’s soldiers were absolutely ignorant of its use.
• Also, Ibrahim did not get the backing of his people which weakened his power.
• Moreover his army was organised on clannish basis.
Mughals

• The troops lacked the qualities of trained and skilful soldiers.

• Babur was right when he recorded in his diary that the Indian soldiers knew how to die and not how
to fight.
• On the other hand Babur’s army was well trained and disciplined and shared the ambition of
conquering rich Hindustan. • Babur occupied Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra.
• Babur proclaimed himself as “Emperor of Hindustan”.
• His subsequent victories over Rana Sangha of Mewar and the Afghans secured his position as the
ruler of India. He marched against Babur and in the Battle of Khanua (near Agra) held in 1527 Babur
won a decisive victory over him. Babur assumed the title Ghazi.
• This battle supplemented Babur’s work at Panipat and it was certainly more decisive in its results.
• The defeat of the Rajputs deprived them of the opportunity to regain political ascendancy in the
country for ever and facilitated Babur’s task in India and made possible the foundation of a new
foreign rule.
• In 1528, Babur captured Chanderi from another Rajput ruler Medini Rai.

• In 1529, Babur defeated the Afghans in the Battle of Gogra in Bihar.

• By these victories, Babur consolidated his power in India.

• Babur died at Agra in 1530 at the age of forty seven.

Estimate of Babur

• Babur was a great statesman and a man of solid achievements.

• He was also a great scholar in Arabic and Persian languages.

• Turki was his mother tongue and he wrote his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turki language. It

provides a vivid account of India.

• He frankly confesses his own failures without suppressing any facts.

• He was also a naturalist and described the flora and fauna of India.

Humayun

• Humayun succeeded Babar in December 1530 at the young age of 23 and the newly conquered

territories and administration was not yet consolidated.

• Unlike Babur, Humayun did not command the respect and esteem of Mughal nobility.

• The Chaghatai nobles were not favourably inclined towards him and the Indian nobles, who had

joined Babur’s service, deserted the Mughals at Humayun’s accession.

• He also confronted the hostility of the Afghans mainly Sher Khan in Bihar on the one hand and

Bahadurshah, the ruler of Gujarat, on the other.

• As per the Timurid tradition Humayun had to share power with his brothers.
• The newly established Mughal empire had two centres of power; Humayun was in control of Delhi,
Agra and Central India, while his brother Kamran had Kabul and Qandhar and by subsequently
annexing the Punjab, had deprived him of the main recruiting ground of his army.
• However, the granting of the Punjab and Multan had the advantage that Humayun was free to
devote his attention to the eastern part without having to bother about his western frontier.
Mughals

• In A.D. 1532, Humayun first turned his arms against the Afghans, who under Sultan Mahmud Lodi
threatened his position in the east and defeated the Afghan forces which had conquered Bihar and
overrun Jaunpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh at a place called Daurah near Lucknow.

• After this success Humayun besieged Chunar then held by

the able Afghan chief named Sher Khan.
• Sher Khan showed a submission and Humayun made a fatal mistake in allowing Sher Khan to retain
possession of Chunar.
• Humayun was anxious to return to Agra as he had to face the growing power of Bahadur Shah of
Gujarat.
• The attitude of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was hostile to Humayun from the very beginning. Humayun
defeated Bahadur Shah but could not retain his conquest as he was soon recalled to the east to meet
the revolt of Sher Khan.

• Humayun marched into Bengal but Sher Khan did nothing to oppose him as his object
was to lure Humayun into the interior and then to cut off his communication.
• In the Battle of Chausa (A.D. 1539) Humayun was completely defeated by Sher Khan.
• In 1540 Humayun had one more encounter with Sher Shah at Bilgram near Kannauj but again met
with a crushing defeat and was compelled to leave Hindustan.
• The battle of Kannauj (A.D. 1540) was bitterly contested and it decided the issue between Sher
Khan and the Mughals.

• Humayun now became a prince without a kingdom; Kabul and Qandhar remaining
under Kamran.
• Wandering Humayun found temporary refuge at Amarkot from where he made his way to Persia.
• The Persian king Shah Tahmasp, agreed to help him on condition that Humayun should conform to
the Shia creed.
• Humayun yielded to the necessity and conquered Kabul and Qandhar from his brother Kamran, with
the help of Persian troops.
• Freed from his brother’s opposition Humayun was now in a position to attempt the reconquest of
India.

• He had secured the services of an able officer named Bairam Khan and the time was also
favourable to him.
• Humayun defeated the Afghan forces of Sikandar Sur and occupied Agra and Delhi (A.D. 1555).
• It is clear that the major causes of Humayun’s failure against Sher Khan was his inability to
understand the nature of the Afghan power.

• Due to existence of large numbers of Afghan tribes scattered over north India, the Afghans

could always unite under a capable leader and pose a challenge.

• In 1556, Humayun died after tumbling down from the staires of his library.

• His peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative methods of speech earned him the title of

Insan-i-Kamil (Perfect Man), among the Mughals.

Sher Shah (The Second Afghan Empire)

Mughals

• The first Afghan kingdom under the Lodis was replaced by the Mughals under Babur in 1526.

• After a gap of 14 years Sher Shah succeeded in establishing the Afghan rule again in India in 1540.

• Sher Shah and his successors ruled for 15 years and this period is known as the period of second

Afghan Empire.

• The founder of the Sur dynasty was Sher Shah, whose original name was Farid.

• He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar.

• Later, Farid served under the Afghan ruler of Bihar, who gave him the title Sher Khan for his

bravery. • He defeated Humayun at the Battle of Chausa and became the ruler of Delhi in 1540.

• Sher Khan was a great tactician and able military commander.

• Sher Shah waged extensive wars with the Rajputs and expanded his empire.

• His conquests include Punjab, Malwa, Sind, Multan and Bundelkhand.

• His empire consisted of the whole of North India except Assam, Nepal, Kashmir and Gujarat.

• Sher Shah after his death in 1553 was succeeded by his son Islam Shah.

• The Afghan empire was substantially weakened. Humayun saw an opportunity and moved towards

India who again captured his lost kingdom by 1555 and ended the second Afghan Empire.
• Islam Shah had to face a number of conflicts with his brother Adil Khan and many Afghan nobles.

Sher Shah’s Administration

• Although Sher Shah’s rule lasted for five years, he organized a brilliant administrative system.

• The central government consisted of several departments. The king was assisted by four important

ministers:

1. Diwan –i- Wizarat – also called as Wazir – in charge of Revenue and Finance.

2. Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army.

3. Diwan-i-Rasalat – Foreign Minister.

4. Diwan-i-Insha – Minister for Communications.

• Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty seven sarkars.

• Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif (judge) were the two officers in charge of the

administration in each sarkar.

• Each sarkar was divided into several parganas. Shiqdar (military officer), Amin (land revenue),

Fotedar (treasurer) Karkuns (accountants) were in charge of the administration of each pargana.

• There were also many administrative units called iqtas.

Land Revenue System

• Sher Shah’s most striking contribution was made in the field of revenue.

• Sher Shah, however, as the only sovereign who is known to have gained a practical experience in

managing a small body of peasants before rising to the throne came with his scheme of revenue
Mughals

settlement readymade and successfully tested by experiment. It was but an extension of the system

introductioned by him at Sasaram.

• In order to ensure the accuracy of measurement and honestry of collection he fixed the
wages of the measurers and the collectors.
• The uniform system of measurement in spite of strong opposition from some quarters, was enforced
all over the empire, with the exception of Multan where political turmoil could endanger the security of
the State.
• But in Multan too, a record was kept of the settlement made between the government and the
cultivator, and the latter was given a title deed (Patta) in which conditions of the settlement were
specifically stated.
• According to the schedule of Sher Shah’s assessment rates the revenue on perishable articles was
fixed in cash rates, but for all the principal staple crops, the land was classified into three classes-
good, middling and bad.

• After the average produce of the three was added, one-third of the total was taken
as the average produce of each bigha for revenue purposes.
• Of this, one-third was demanded as the share of the government. It could be paid in cash or in kind
though the former mode was preferred. In case of cash payments, the state demand was fixed
according to the prices prevalent in the near markets and a schedule of crop of crop rates was
preserved indicating the method and the rates of assessment.

• The state gave a patta to each cultivator, which specified the state demand. The cultivator

was also obliged to sign a qabuliat (deed of agreement) promising to honour the revenue due from

him. Both the documents contained information on the size of the plot.

• Sher Shah’s revenue settlement has been unanimously acclaimed. And it has been contended hat it

provided the basis for Todar Mal’s bandobust in Akbar’s reign, as also for the Ryotwari system in

British India.

• Notwithstanding its obvious strengths it would be unrealistic to describe his revenue settlement as a

master-piece; for the system was not without defects.

• Sher Shah was the first ruler who considered the welfare of the people as essential for the interests

of the state.

• He was benign in times of drought and famine. The state, under such circumstances, would lend

money and material to the cultivators. • He instructed the army not to damage any crops and in any

damage, to adquately compensate.

Other Reforms

• He removed the currency which had debased under the later Turko-Afghan regimes and instead

issued well executed coins of gold, Silver and Copper of a uniform standard.
Mughals

• His silver rupee which weighed 180 grams and contained 175 grains of silver was retained

throughout the Mughal period as also by the British East India Company, till 1885.
• Besides the coins of smaller fractions of a rupee, the copper coins too had fractions of half quarter,
eighth and sixteenth.
• Sher Shah gave every possible encouragement to the trade and commerce and took a number of
measures for this purpose.
• He did away with all the internal custom duties with the exception of the two. These two duties were
charged at the time of entry of the goods in the kingdom and at the time of the actual sale.

• Foreign goods were permitted to enter Bengal duty free.

• Sher Shah paid special attention to the safety and convenience of the merchants and had issued
specific instructions to his officers in this regards.
• Sher Shah not only took necessary measures to ameliorate the condition of the people but also paid
attention to the promotion of education. He gave liberal grants to both the Hindu and Muslim
educational institutions.

• The Hindus were free to regulate their educational institutions and Sher Shah did not

interfere in their working.

• Similarly, the Muslim educational institution were mainly attached with mosques and imparted

elementary education to the children.

• To help the poor and brilliant students he awarded liberal scholarships.

• Sher Shah also made liberal provisions for the support of blind, the old, the weak, widows etc.

• Sher Shah had also improved the communications by laying four important highways. They were:

1. Sonargaon to Sind

2. Agra to Burhampur

3. Jodhpur to Chittor

4. Lahore to Multan.

• Primarily planned for military purposes, these highways proved equally effective for the growth of

trade ans commerce.

• Primarily planned for military purposes, these highways proved equally effective for the growth of

trade ans commerce.

• Along both sides of these roads, Sher Shah ordered the planting of fruit trees and the sinking of

fresh wells.

• Another important feature of the public works comprised the building of the Serais (Rest-houses).

• The Serais were fully furnished, with well equipped kitchens and cooks for both the Hindus and the

Muslims.

• Sher Shah also repaired about 1,700 Caravan Serais for the efficiency of the royal posts.
Mughals

• Soon, the Serais functioned as post offices and marketing centres and Sher Shah posted news-

readers in the various Serais to keep abreast of the local gossip.

• Rest-houses were built on the highways for the convenience of the travelers.
• Police was efficiently reorganized and crime was less during his regime.
• The Shiqdars and the Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran were responsible for the maintenance of law and order in
Parganas and Sarkars.
• The village headmen were obliged to look after their areas.
• The largest responsibility rested with the Muqaddams and Chowdharies, who were severely
punished, in case they failed to detect the crimes.
• The military administration was also efficiently reorganized and Sher Shah borrowed many ideas like
the branding of horses from Alauddin Khalji.
Estimate of Sher Shah
• Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other religions. He employed
Hindus in important offices.

• Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other religions. He

employed Hindus in important offices.

• He was also a patron of art and architecture. He built a new city on the banks of the river Yamuna

near Delhi. Now the old fort called Purana Qila and its mosque is alone surviving.

• He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the master pieces of Indian

architecture.

• Sher Shah also patronized the learned men.

• Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign.

• After Sher Shah’s death in 1545 his successors ruled till 1555 when Humayun reconquered India.

Fall of the Sur Dynasty

• After the death of Sher Shah his son Islam Shah came to the throne in I545. Though he did not

inherit the Qualities of his father yet he kept his heritage intact for 8 years. After his death, in October

1553 the Sur dynasty began to disintegrate.

• The Afghan empire was partitioned and was ruled by three independent Nobles namely Ibrahim

Khan Sur in Delhi and Agra, Muhammad adil Shah In the East and the Punjab under Sikander Shah.

• The various provinces of Malwa, Rajputana, Bengal and Bundelkhand proclaimed independence.

• The ongoing political chaos provided Humayun with the needful opportunity to stage a come back in

India.

• He defeated Sikander Sur in a battle near Sirhind in 1555 and occupied Delhi and Agra.

• The Second Afghan Empire like the first one once again fell to the tribal concepts and political

intrigues of the Afghan nobility.

• The field was left to the Mughals and Akbar used every opportunity to retrieve the Mughal prestige

and power.
 Mughals

Humayu (1530 – 1540)

 Eldest son of Babur; means fortunate but was most unfortunate ruler of
Mughal empire
 Gave Kabul & Kandhar to Kamran; Sambhal to Aksari & Alwar to Hindal
(All 3 his brothers)
 Humayun → Busy fighting with Afgans (Sher khan / Sher shah) in east,
got the news that Bahadur shah of Gujrat was advancing towards
Delhi → Hence made treaty with Sher shah
 Humayu captured Gujrat from Bahadur shah & made Aksari its governor,
but soon Bahadur shah recovered it from Aksari who fled from their
Battle of Chausa (1539)

 Between Humayu & Sher Shah

 Sher Shah destroyed Mughal army
 Humayu fled from there

Battle of Kannauj or Bilgram (1540)

 Between Humayu & Sher Shah

 Brothers’ dint supported Humayu, hence he fought alone
 Humayu was thoroughly defeated by Sher shah
 Result → Humayu became exile for next 15 years

Sur interregnum (1540 – 1555)

 Founded by Sher Shah; became ruler of Delhi in 1540
 Formed 4 ministries for central administration viz.

 Diwan – i – Wazirat → Headed by Wazir (Incharge of finance & revenue)

 Diwan – i – Ariz → Headed by Military Incharge
 Diwan – i – Rasalat → Headed by Foreign minister
 Diwan – i – Insha → Headed by Communication minister

Administration

 Sher Shah empire was divided in 47 Sarkars with

 Chief Shiqdar to maintain law & order in each sarkar

 Chief Munsif as Judge in each Sarkar
 Mughals

 Each Sarkar was divided into Parganas with each pargana consisted of

 Shiqdars → Military officer

 Amin → Land revenue officer
 Fotedar → Treasurer
 Karkuns → Accountant

Amin → Land revenue officer

Fotedar → Treasurer

Karkuns → Accountant

• Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty seven sarkars.

• Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif (judge) were the two officers in charge of the

administration in each sarkar.

• Each sarkar was divided into several parganas. Shiqdar (military officer), Amin (land revenue),

Fotedar (treasurer) Karkuns (accountants) were in charge of the administration of each pargana.

• There were also many administrative units called iqtas.

Land Revenue System

• Sher Shah’s most striking contribution was made in the field of revenue.

• Sher Shah, however, as the only sovereign who is known to have gained a practical experience in

managing a small body of peasants before rising to the throne came with his scheme of revenue

settlement readymade and successfully tested by experiment. It was but an extension of the system

introductioned by him at Sasaram.

• As a monarch, he unilatereally decided that the best system of assessment must be based on actual
measurement. According, the empire was surveyed.
• In order to ensure the accuracy of measurement and honestry of collection he fixed the wages of the
measurers and the collectors.
• The uniform system of measurement in spite of strong opposition from some quarters, was enforced
all over the empire, with the exception of Multan where political turmoil could endanger the security of
the State.
Mughals

• But in Multan too, a record was kept of the settlement made between the government and the
cultivator, and the latter was given a title deed (Patta) in which conditions of the settlement were
specifically stated.
• According to the schedule of Sher Shah’s assessment rates the revenue on perishable articles was
fixed in cash rates, but for all the principal staple crops, the land was classified into three classes-
good, middling and bad.

• After the average produce of the three was added, one-third of the total was taken as the average
produce of each bigha for revenue purposes.
• Of this, one-third was demanded as the share of the government. It could be paid in cash or in kind
though the former mode was preferred. In case of cash payments, the state demand was fixed
according to the prices prevalent in the near markets and a schedule of crop of crop rates was
preserved indicating the method and the rates of assessment.
• The state gave a patta to each cultivator, which specified the state demand. The cultivator was also
obliged to sign a qabuliat (deed of agreement) promising to honour the revenue due from him. Both
the docu

ments contained information on the size of the plot. • Sher Shah’s revenue settlement has been

unanimously acclaimed. And it has been contended hat it provided the basis for Todar Mal’s bandobust

in Akbar’s reign, as also for the Ryotwari system in British India.

• Notwithstanding its obvious strengths it would be unrealistic to describe his revenue settlement as a

master-piece; for the system was not without defects.

• Sher Shah was the first ruler who considered the welfare of the people as essential for the interests

of the state.

• He was benign in times of drought and famine. The state, under such circumstances, would lend

money and material to the cultivators.

• He instructed the army not to damage any crops and in any damage, to adquately compensate.

Other Reforms
Mughals

• He removed the currency which had debased under the later Turko-Afghan regimes and instead
issued well executed coins of gold, Silver and Copper of a uniform standard.
• His silver rupee which weighed 180 grams and contained 175 grains of silver was retained
throughout the Mughal period as also by the British East India Company, till 1885.
• Besides the coins of smaller fractions of a rupee, the copper coins too had fractions of half quarter,
eighth and sixteenth.
• Sher Shah gave every possible encouragement to the trade and commerce and took a number of
measures for this purpose.
• He did away with all the internal custom duties with the exception of the two. These two duties were
charged at the time of entry of the goods in the kingdom and at the time of the actual sale.

• Foreign goods were permitted to enter Bengal duty free.

• Sher Shah paid special attention to the safety and convenience of the merchants and had issued

specific instructions to his officers in this regards.

• Sher Shah not only took necessary measures to ameliorate the condition of the people but also paid

attention to the promotion of education. He gave liberal grants to both the Hindu and Muslim

educational institutions.

• The Hindus were free to regulate their educational institutions and Sher Shah did not interfere in

their working.

• Similarly, the Muslim educational institution were mainly attached with mosques and imparted

elementary education to the children.

• To help the poor and brilliant students he awarded liberal scholarships.

• Sher Shah also made liberal provisions for the support of blind, the old, the weak, widows etc.

• Sher Shah had also improved the communications by laying four important highways. They were:

1. Sonargaon to Sind

2. Agra to Burhampur

3. Jodhpur to Chittor

4. Lahore to Multan.

• Primarily planned for military purposes, these highways proved equally effective for the growth of

trade ans commerce.

• Along both sides of these roads, Sher Shah ordered the planting of fruit trees and the sinking of

fresh wells.

• Another important feature of the public works comprised the building of the Serais (Rest-houses).

• The Serais were fully furnished, with well equipped kitchens and cooks for both the Hindus and the

Muslims.

• Sher Shah also repaired about 1,700 Caravan Serais for the efficiency of the royal posts.

• Soon, the Serais functioned as post offices and marketing centres and Sher Shah posted news-

readers in the various Serais to keep abreast of the local gossip.

 Mughals

• Rest-houses were built on the highways for the convenience of the travelers.
• Police was efficiently reorganized and crime was less during his regime.
• The Shiqdars and the Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran were responsible for the maintenance of law and order in
Parganas and Sarkars.
• The village headmen were obliged to look after their areas.
• The largest responsibility rested with the Muqaddams and Chowdharies, who were severely
punished, in case they failed to detect the crimes.
• The military administration was also efficiently reorganized and Sher Shah borrowed many ideas like
the branding of horses from Alauddin Khalji.

Estimate of Sher Shah

• Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other religions. He employed

Hindus in important offices.

• He was also a patron of art and architecture. He built a new city on the banks of the river Yamuna

near Delhi. Now the old fort called Purana Qila and its mosque is alone surviving.

• He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the master pieces of Indian

architecture.

• Sher Shah also patronized the learned men.

• Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign.

• After Sher Shah’s death in 1545 his successors ruled till 1555 when Humayun reconquered India.

Fall of the Sur Dynasty

• After the death of Sher Shah his son Islam Shah came to the throne in I545. Though he did not
inherit the Qualities of his father yet he kept his heritage intact for 8 years. After his death, in October
1553 the Sur dynasty began to disintegrate.
• The Afghan empire was partitioned and was ruled by three independent Nobles namely Ibrahim
Khan Sur in Delhi and Agra, Muhammad adil Shah In the East and the Punjab under Sikander Shah.

• The various provinces of Malwa, Rajputana, Bengal and Bundelkhand proclaimed

independence.
• The ongoing political chaos provided Humayun with the needful opportunity to stage a
come back in India.
• He defeated Sikander Sur in a battle near Sirhind in 1555 and occupied Delhi and Agra.
• The Second Afghan Empire like the first one once again fell to the tribal concepts and
political intrigues of the Afghan nobility.
• The field was left to the Mughals and Akbar used every opportunity to retrieve the Mughal
prestige and power. Akbar (1556 – 1605)
 During 1 five years of Akbars reign, Bairam khan acted as his regent &
st

consolidated Mughal empire

 2 battle of Panipat
nd
 Mughals

 Between Akbar & Hemu (Commander of Afgans)

 Akbar emerged victorious with the help of Bairam Khan

 Akbar married Rajput princess Jodha, daughter of Raja Bhairomal of

Amber
 This marriage became a turning point in the history of Mughals, as Rajputs
supported them now
 Many Rajputs like Raja Man singh & Raja Bhagwan Das were given senior
position in Akbar’s court
 Battle of Haldighati, 1576

 Between Akbar and Maharana Pratap of Mewar

 Mughals under the leadership of Raja Man singh defeated Rana Pratap of
Mewar

 Akbar was very tolerant towards religious policies → abolished pilgrim tax
& later Jiziya
 He formed a strong alliance b/w Mughals & Rajputs which ensured peace
in Rajasthan & Northern India

Akbars’ Religious Touch

 Early contact with Sufi saints

 Teachings from his teacher Abdul Latif
 His marriage with Rajput princess
 His association with intellectual giant like Shaikh Mubarak & his 2 sons – Abul Faizi & Abul
Fazal
 After marrying Jodha Bai, he abolished pilgrimage tax & Jiziga
 Allowed his Hindu wife to worship her own God
 He was a pious Muslim in his early life but later became a skeptic one
 Constructed Ibadat khana (house of worship where scholars from all religion meet to discuss
religious policies) at his new capital Fatehpur sikri
 Invited learned scholars from all religions to discuss religious policies
 Disliked the interference of Muslim Ulemas in political matters
 In 1579, He issued infallibility decree & asserted his religious powers
 In 1582, he promulgated a new religion “Din – i – Ilahi” or divine faith in
one god
 Mughals

 Din – i – Ilahi contained good points of all the religions & uphold no dogma
 Din – i – Ilahi mainly aimed to bridge gap b/w all religions (Only 15
followers joined including Birbal)
Akbars’ Land Revenue system

 Land revenue system of Akbar was known as Zabti / Bandobast system

 Further modified by Raja Todarmal, now known as Dahsala system which
included

 Measurement of land
 Revenue fixed on average yield of last 10 years
 Land divided into four categories viz.

Polaj Cultivated every year

Parauti Cultivated every 2 years

Chachar Cultivated every 3 – 4 years

Banjar Cultivated every 5 years

Mansabdari system of Akbar

 Under this system, every officer was assigned a Rank (Mansab)

 Lowest officer got 10 coins & highest officers (Nobles) got 5000 coins for
their services
 Includes all public services except Judiciary
 Ranks were divided into 2 categories, namely

 Zat → Described the personal status of a person

 Sawar → Number of cavalry man a person is required to maintain

Jahangir (1605 – 1627)

 Mughals

 Prince Salim succeeded the throne with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of
the world)
 Witness rebellions from his son Khusaro, but was defeated & imprisoned
 Beheaded 5 Sikh Guru Arjun dev
th

 In 1611, Married Mehrunnisa (Nurjaha → Light of the world)

 Wrote his Autobiography → Tuzuk – i – Jahagiri

Shahjaha (1627 – 1658)

 Married Mumtaj (Banu Begum)
 Conquered Deccan (Bijapur & Golkunda and put it under the leadership of
his son Aurangzeb)
 Later, Aurangzeb killed his 3 brothers & confined Shahjaha to female
apartments in Agra fort
 Though Aurangzeb never ill-treated Shahjaha

Aurangzeb (1658 – 1707)

 Assumed the title Alamgir (or World Conqueror)
 To contain Marathas (Shivaji), he attacked Golkunda & Bijapur (Deccan
Shias)
 Though Aurangzeb defeated them but it removed the only boundary b/w
Marathas & Mughals
 According to JN Sarkar, Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangzeb

Religious Policies of Aurangzeb

 Very orthodox & staunch Muslim; tried to change India into an Islamic
state
 Created separate departments to enforce moral codes called ‘Muhtasib’

 Prohibited drinking, cultivation & use of Bhang & drugs

 Forbid music in Mughal court, Dismissed royal astrologers & astronomers
 Discontinued practice of Jharoka darshan
 Discontinued celebration of Dussehra
 Mughals

 Destroyed Hindu temples & banned construction of them

 Reimposed Jiziya & pilgrimage tax (in 1679)
 Stopped celebration of Muharram (Not tolerant towards other Muslim
sects)
 Was against Sikhs & executed 9 Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur, which resulted
th

transformation of sikhs into warring community

His religious policies turned Rajputs, Sikhs, Marathas, Jats & Satnamis against
him & hence became the sole reason for decline of Mughal Empire
Personality & Character of Aurangzeb

 Very simple in dressing & food; Very disciplined & industrious

 Earned money for personal expenses by copying Quran & selling those
copies
 Did not consume wine, learned & proficient in Arabic & Persian language
 Lover of books, strict follower of Islam
 Daily Namaz for 5 times & strictly observed Ramzan
 Overall an orthodox Muslim intolerant to other religions

“After Aurangzeb’s death Nadir shah looted Delhi & imprisoned new
Mughal emperor in 1739″

Architecture under Mughals

Emperor Monument Place

Agra fort using Red Stone Agra

Panch Mahal – build on the pattern of a Buddhist Vihara Fatehpur

Jama masjid with gateway Buland Darwaza – On Gujrat’s victory Fatehpur

Akbar Humayu Tomb – Precursor of Tajmahal Delhi

 Mughals

Shalimar Bagh Srinagar

Akbar’s Tomb Sikandar

Jahangir Itimaddaulah Tomb (Pietra dura style by Nurjaha) Agra

Red Fort Delhi

Jama Masjid using Red stone Delhi

Moti Masjid Agra

Diwan – i – am Under Re

Diwan – i – Khas Under Re

Shahjaha Nishat Bagh (By Asif khan, Brother of Nurjaha) Srinagar

Pinjore Garden Lahore

Aurangzeb Moti Masjid with white marble Delhi

Painting & Music

 Akbarnama was the main theme of Mughal paintings
 Hamznama was the most important work of Mughals time consisting 1200
paintings
 Tansen (From gwalior) was a great musician in Akbar’s court

Literature
 Abul Fazal → Ain – i – Akbari , Akbarnama (Persian Language)
 Mughals

 Abul Faizi → Converted Mahabharata into Persian language (Leading poet

of Akbar’s Court)
 Abdul Hamid Lahori → Padshah Nama (Shahjaha’s Court)
 Inayat Khan → Shahjaha Naha (Shahjaha’s Court)
 Dara Shikoh (Eldest son of Shahjaha) → Converted Bhagvat Gita &
Upanishads into Persian

Trivia

 During 17 century, two new crops “Tobacco & Maize” were added
th

 Potato & Chili came later in 18 century

th

 Ghee & oils were cheaper; Salts & sugar were more expensive

Post Comment

HISTORY | MODULE-1 | DECLINE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE

The Mughal Empire which built its political sovereignty in India by its vast territorial
strength, military might and cultural achievements showed signs of decline towards
the beginning of the eighteenth century. Mughal
rulers after Aurangzeb were weak and inefficient successors. They acted as puppets in
the hands of the powerful nobles or statesmen. While nine Mughal emperors followed
one another in quick succession in the fifty years following the death of Aurangzeb, many
adventures, Indian and foreign, carved out independent principalities for themselves.
Meanwhile invaders from the north-west repeated their incursions in search of wealth and
eventually it leads to the take-over by the British.
Mughals

LATER MUGHALS (1707-1857)

BAHADUR SHAH (1707-1712)
Prince Mauzam,Bahadur Shah ascended throne after death of Aurangzeb. Bahadur Shah
I (1707-12) was the first and the last of the later Mughal rulers to exercise real authority.
He was learned, dignified and tried to reverse some of the narrow-minded policies and
measures adopted by Aurangzeb.

RAJPUT’S:
To have better control over Marwar and Amber he forced Ajit Singh of Marwar to submit to
the Mughal authority. He made attempts to garrison Amber and replace Jai Singh with his
younger brother Vijay Singh. Both Ajit Singh and Jai Singh were later restored but
their demand for high mansabs (ranks) and offices of subahdars of important provinces
were not accepted.

MARATHAS:
Shahu, son of Shambhaji who was in Mughal captivity was released in 1707. He granted
them the sardeshmukhi of the Deccan but not the chauth. He also did not recognize
Shahu as the rightful Maratha king thus keeping the fight for supremacy going
between Tara Bai and Shahu. Marathas thus remained dissatisfied.

SIKHS:
Bahadur Shah made reconciliation with Guru Gobind Singh and granted him high mansab.
But after the death of the Guru, the Sikhs once again raised a revolt under the leadership
of Banda Bahadur. The Mughal authority defeated Banda Bahadur at Lohgarh, a fort built
by Guru Govind Singh. That was however recovered in 1712 by the Sikhs.

Bahadur Shah made peace with Chhatrasal, the Bundela chief and the Jat
chief Churaman who joined him in the campaign against Banda Bahadur. He adopted a
more tolerant attitude towards the Hindus. There was however a deterioration in the field
of administration in his reign because he lavishly granted jagirs and promotions. Khafi
Khan called him Shah-i-Bekhabar (Headless King). He died in 1712.Henceforth a new
element entered Mughal politics and the war of succession.

Previously, the contest for power was between the royal princes; the nobles had merely
backed and sided with them. Now they became direct aspirants to the throneand began
using the princes as pawns to capture authoritarian positions.

JAHANDAR SHAH (1712-1713)

Followed by the death of Bahadur shah, a War of succession erupted among the famous
sons of Bahadur Shah and the success of Jahandar due to the support given to him
by Zulfiqar Khan. He was a clever man and advocated a friendly policy towards the
Rajput’s, Marathas and the Hindu chieftains not only to strengthen his own position but
to ensure the survival of the empire. He quickly abandoned the policies
of Aurangzeb and adopted a liberal attitude towards the Hindus.

He abolished the jizyah; gave the title of Mirza Raja Sawai to Jai Singh of Amber and
appointed him the governor of Malwa. Zulfikar Khan tried to improve the finances of the
empire by checking the reckless growth of jagirs and offices and forced the mansabdars
to maintain their official quota of troops.

But he also introduced the evil practice of revenue – farming or Ijarah whereby the
government established contact with the revenue farmers and middlemen who paid the
government a fixed amount while they were free to collect whatever they could from
Mughals

the peasant. This oppressed the peasantry to a great extent. However the inglorious reign
of Jahandar Shah soon came to an end in 1713 when he was defeated by his nephew
Farrukh Siyar at Agra. Zulfikar Khan was soon executed bythe orders of the new emperor.

FARUKH SIYAR (1713-1719)

Farrukh Siyar came to power with the help of Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Hussain
Ali Khan Barha– the kingmakers. They were given the office of
the wazir and mirbakshi respectively. The two brothers soon acquired dominant control
over the affairs of the state.

Farrukh was himself incapable of ruling and was easily influenced by the others. The
Sayyid brothers were convinced that if the real authority were in their hands the empire
would be safeguarded from perishing. It was during the reign of Farrukh that Banda
Bahadur the Sikh chief was captured and killed. However the struggle for power between
the emperor and the Sayyid brothers increased and the efforts of the emperor to
overthrow the brothers failed repeatedly. Finally Farrukh was deposed and killed in 1719.

MUHAMMAD SHAH (1719-1748)

Roshan Akhtar, the son of Jahan Shah was placed on the throne under the title of
Muhammad Shah with the help of Sayyid brothers.The Sayyid brothers followed a policy of
religious tolerance. They abolished the jizyah as well as the pilgrimage tax at many
places. In order to maintain harmony, they advocated a policy of associating Hindu
chiefs and nobles with Muslim nobles. In their struggle against Farrukh Siyar, the Sayyid
brothers sided with the Rajput’s and the Marathas. Ajit Singh of Marwar and Jai Singh of
Amber were won over by giving them high positions in the administration.Alliance was
made with Churaman Jat and later placated Shahu by granting him Shivaji’s swarajya and
the right to collect the chauth and sardeshmukhi in six provinces of the Deccan. In return
Shahu promised them help in the Deccan with fifteen thousand soldiers.

The efforts made by the Sayyid brothers did not yield great results because they were
constantly faced with rival factions and conspiracies in the court. The financial position
of the empire was also dwindling as the rebellious elements refused to pay the land
tax. This led to increased indiscipline amongst the soldiers.

The hostile nobles united themselves under the leadership of Nizam-ul-Mulk of the
Deccan. Further the murder of Farrukh Siyar created a wave of
terror and repulsion against the Sayyid brothers who were looked down upon as
traitors.They were branded as anti-Islamic for their policies. The anti-Sayyid nobles were
strongly backed by Muhammad Shah who wanted to free himself from the hold of the
brothers. In 1720, Hussain Ali was killed by the rebellious nobles and Abdullah Khan died
in 1722 after he was defeated at Agra. This ended the rule of the Sayyid brothers in the
Mughal Empire.But Muhammad Shah was not a good ruler.

His first Wazir after the fall of the Sayyid brothers was Muhammad Amin Khan. After his
death Nizam-ul-Mulk was appointed the wazir in 1722. But instead of supporting Nizam,
the emperor suspected his own ministers. The attempts to reform the administration
proved futile and disgusted with the inability and fickle mindedness of the emperor the
Nizam chose to pursue his own ambitions. Muhammad Shah was the most pleasure-loving
ruler of loose morals and is therefore called Muhammad Shah ‘Rangila’.

INVASIONS IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

THE BATTLE OF KARNAL, 1739
Mughals

The already declining Mughal Empire received another severe blow when the Persian
monarch, Nadir Shah invaded India in 1738-39. Nadir Shah was attracted to India by her
fabulous wealth for which she was famous. The bankrupt Persian Empire found an easy
prey in the weak Mughal rule with loose defences on the north-westfrontier and used the
golden opportunity.

The disunity amongst the nobles too proved an added advantage for the invaders. The two
armies met at Karnal in 1739 and the Mughals suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of
Nadir Shah. Emperor Muhammad Shah was taken prisoner and Nadir Shah marched on to
Delhi.He plundered the royal treasury at his, own pleasure and carried back the immense
wealth from India. He carried away with him the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond and the
jewel studded Peacock throne of Shahjahan. Nadir Shah’s invasion inflicted a heavy
damage on the Mughal Empire and its dwindling image suffered a severe blow.

The invasion affected the imperial finances and the economic life of the people
adversely. Ahmad Shah Abdali, the successor of Nadir Shah invaded the kingdom for the
first time during Muhammad Shah’s reign in 1748. Ahmad Shah Abdali was defeated
at Manpur by Ahmad Shah, the Mughal heir-apparent and Mir Mannu, the son of the
deceased wazir Qamruddin.

AHMAD SHAH (1748-1754)

The weak defences of the northwest encouraged Ahmad Shah Abdali, to invade India
several times. When he marched upto Delhi, Ahmad Shah, with a view to buy
peace and save Delhi from devastation, ceded Punjab and Multan to Abdali. Imad ul Mulk
ousted the Wazir Safdar Jang and became the wazir. Ahmad Shah was blinded and
deposed by this new wazir.

ALAMGIR II (1754-1759)
After the dethronement of Ahmad Shah, Imad-ul-Mulk raised Azizuddin, Jahandar Shah’s
son on the throne who styled himself after Aurangzeb as Alamgir II. The military and
financial position of the empire during this period became worst to the extent that the
emperor’s household troops carried off the articles from the housesof the wazirs and
nobles and sold them into the market. Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded Delhi in 1757 and
the imperial city was plundered. The relations between Alamgir II and Wazir Imad-ul-Mulk
were not satisfactory and the latter got him murdered in 1759.

SHAH ALAM II (1759-1806)

Prince Ali Gaughar crowned himself as ‘Shah Alam II’ in Bihar but he did not enter Delhi
fearing his Wazir Imad-ul-Mulk who had killed earlier emperors.After Panipat, Abdali
nominated Shah Alam as the Emperor but power remained in hands of Abdali’s ally Najib
Khan Rohilla.Shah Alam II was defeated at Battle of Buxar (October 1764) by English.He
signed the treaty of Allahabad with English and granted them the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar
and Orissa in return; be received the territories of Kara and Allahabad and an annual
tribute of 26 Lakhs from Bengal.In 1788, the chief of the Rohillas (warlike Afghan tribes
settled in India), Ghulām Qādir, seized Delhi and, enraged at his failure to find treasure,
blinded Shah ʿĀlam. Shah ʿĀlam spent his last years under the protection of the Maratha
chief Sindhia, and, after the Second Maratha War (1803–05), of the British.

AKBAR II (1806-1837)
After the death of Shah Alam II, his son succeeded as Akbar Shah II. Akbar sent Raja Ram
Mohan Roy to England to seek a raise in pension. The presentation of Nazrs (gifts
involving sovereign status) was ended by Lord Hastings in 1813.
Mughals

BAHADUR SHAH II (1837-1862)

After the death of Akbar II, Bahadur Shah II became the Emperor. He was allowed to
retain the imperial title. He was fond of poetry and had the title of “Zafar.”

BAHADUR SHAH II AND 1857 REVOLT

One of the most important event taken place during his reign was the sepoy revolt of
1857.As the Indian rebellion of 1857 spread, Sepoy regiments seized Delhi. Seeking a
leader who could head all Indians, Hindu and Muslim alike, and the Indian regiments
accepted Bahadur Shah II as the Emperor of India. And he acted as the figurehead of 1857
revolt.

The British were militarily more powerful and stronger than their rivals and it was easy
for them to supress Indian mutiny When the victory of the British became certain, Zafar
took refuge at Humayun's Tomb, in an area that was then at the outskirts of Delhi, and hid
there. British forces led by Major Hodson surrounded the tomb and compelled his
surrender. Zafar himself was exiled to Rangoon, Burma (now Yangon, Myanmar) in 1858
along with his wife Zeenat Mahal and some of the remaining members of the family. His
departure as Emperor marked the end of more than three centuries of Mughal rule in
India.

CAUSES FOR THE DOWNFALL OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

ORTHODOX POLICIES OF AURANGZEB
The reforms brought about by Aurangzeb in the realm of religion, administration,
economic as well as political were initiated on the basis of the orthodox attitude of the
Emperor.

The liberal policies pursued by Aurangzeb’s predecessors were done away with. This
enraged the majority of the population who were Hindus. The administrative policies
implemented by Aurangzeb were discriminatory and were aimed at subjugating the non-
Muslim populace.

a) DECCAN AND RAJPUT POLICIES

The oppressive attitude of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb towards these regions and
clans alienated them completely from the central administration. The Deccan states and
the Rajput clans refused to submit to the orthodox ways and annexationist tendencies of
Aurangzeb. They rose in frequent rebellion leading to a perpetual bitterness between
them and the Mughal authority.

b) AURANGZEB’S POLICIES—AN ANALYSIS

In medieval times, unlike in present, religion and politics were not segregated. Ideals of
secularism dawned upon the world only with the coming of Reformation and became
popular only with the rise of liberalism. The entwined nature of religion and politics can
be understood by studying Akbar’s theory of kingship, where the king was
the representative of God on earth, and it was his duty to establish God’s justice. Thus,
the legitimacy to political rule came through religion; to assert political authority one had
to assert religious authority too. Destruction of temples was a means to strike fear and
awe in the hearts of the vassals and rebels.

The call for the protection of religion and jihad were often uttered when a military
campaign was to take place, in order to rally the troops behind the monarch. Aurangzeb
even tried to call the campaign against the Muslim kingdoms of Deccan as jihad, by
Mughals

highlighting their vicious un-Islamic practices, and portraying himself and his state as the
ideal one. He did not hesitate to play with the superstitions of his people during Satnami
rebellion when the rumour about Satnamis possessing supernatural power had
demoralized his army. Thus it becomes evident that military and territorial gains
motivated him much more than religion.

Economically, Aurangzeb’s were hard times, with the unending campaigns in Deccan and
continuous rebellions in the empire, some of his acts like that of banning music and
discontinuing official history writing were due to economic considerations, and religion
was merely a front used to explain them.

Another important fact is that he had to encounter innumerable difficulties which were
not so significant during times of his predecessors. There were rebellions (Jats,
Satnamis, Sikhs, Afghans), there was shortage of land grants to give to its servants, and
on the top of it there was the Deccan Ulcer. Thus there is much more to this monarch
than destruction of temples.

Aurangzeb was a despot, a politician and an imperialist who tried his best to maintain the
proper functioning of his empire. It is true that some of his policies might have conveyed
a sense of discrimination to ‘non-muslims’, but there was no great consequence of it. This
becomes clear from the Rajput’s support to Aurangzeb during the Rathor rebellion, and
also from the significant number of Marathas and Rajputs in his nobility.

CONSTANT REBELLIONS
Aurangzeb’s rule was marked by rebellions from all quarters.The oppressive policies of
the central authority led to frequent rebellions by small clans such as the Jats, Satnamis,
various provinces such as Bengal, northeast, northwest and the Deccan.The Maratha,
Sikh and Rajputs were a regular threat to the Mughal rule during the reign of Aurangzeb.

DEGENERATION OF THE MANSABDARI SYSTEM

The Mansabdari system degenerated in the time of Aurangzeb and his successors. There
was corruption and oppression on all sides. William Norris points out that "in the later
years of Aurangzeb’s reign, the treasury was empty, the wars were ceaseless, the army
was disorganised and officers were discontented and disloyal. Bernier says that "there
were great ministers and generals but the mass of the people were human sheep."

WEAK SUCCESSORS
The Empire could not be bounded by the successors of Aurangzeb. The pulls and
pressures from different regions under Aurangzeb were too many to hold an Empire
together.This was coupled with the problem of inefficient and weak successors.

FACTIONALISM
The nobility of this period too was ridden with factionalism. There were too many racial
groups such as Turanis, Afghanis and Iranis along with the Deccanis and Rajputs who
struggled to gain a prominent place in administration. The jagirdari and the mansabdari
system on one hand consolidated the Empire. However these very systems also
weakened the Empire on account of the high and low ranks associated with them. There
was constant rivalry among the nobility for high ranks in the jagirdari and mansabdari
system of administration.

INVASIONS BY NADIR SHAH AND AHMAD SHAH ABDALI

Mughals

The invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739 gave a death blow to the tottering Mughal
Empire. Besides depleting the Mughal treasury of its wealth, it exposed to the world
the military weakness of the Empire and its utter degeneration. Turbulent elements in the
country so far kept in check by the name and prestige of the Empire rose in rebellion and
circumscribed the authority of the empire. Mughal authority had so greatly shrunk that
the repeated invasions of Nadir‘s successor, Abdali who fought the battle of
Panipat in 1761 was not against the Mughal Empire but against the Marathas
who virtually controlled the whole of Northern India.

THIRD BATTLE OF PANIPAT, 1761

The Marathas, who already controlled much of western and central India from their
capital at Pune, were trying to expand their area of control. After Ahmad Shah sacked the
Mughal capital and withdrew with the booty he coveted, the Marathas filled the power
void. In 1758, within a year of Ahmad Shah's return to Kandahar, they secured possession
of the Punjab, and succeeded in ousting his son Timur Shah and his court from India.
Encouraged by appeals from rivals of marathas including Shah Waliullah, Ahmad Shah
chose to return to India and face the formidable challenge posed by the Maratha
Confederacy. He declared a jihad against the Marathas. By 1759, Ahmad Shah and his
army had reached Lahore and were poised to confront the Marathas. By 1760, the
Maratha groups had united into a great army that probably outnumbered Ahmad Shah's
forces. The third battle (Jan. 14, 1761) ended the Maratha attempt to succeed the
Mughals as rulers of India and marked the virtual end of the Mughal empire. The Maratha
army, under the Bhao Sahib, uncle of the peshwa (chief minister), was trapped and
destroyed by Aḥmad Shah Durrānī.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PANIPAT
The Maratha defeat at Panipat was a disaster for them. They lost the cream of their army
and their political prestige suffered a big blow. Most of all, their defeat gave an
opportunity to the English East India Company to consolidate its power in Bengal
and south India. Nor did the Afghans benefit from their victory. In fact; the battle did not
decide who was to rule India but rather who was not.

The way was, therefore, cleared for the rise of the British power in India. ”Panipat was
of immense strategic importance to the India of the pre modern era. It was located along
the banks of Yamuna, and near Delhi. It used to be commonly said that whoever
controlled Delhi, controlled North India. Delhi itself was located in an excellent position:
between two agriculturally prosperous regions i.e. the plains of the Indus and the plains
of the Ganges. All empire-shaking challenges in India would have been made against the
ruler who controlled Delhi, thus, giving Panipat an important role in the battle. India
faced multiple invaders from the North and especially the North-west, and Panipat
became the preferred battleground for such invaders and the Indian rulers to face each
other.

Further, Panipat fell on the Grand Trunk Road built by Shershah Suri, which made it easy
for conquerors to find their way there. Additionally, Panipat was an area with a terrain
that consisted mostly of large plains, making it suitable for war. Also, its proximity to the
capital of Delhi made it easy for the Indian rulers to transport weapons, military and food
supplies etc to the battleground, and still keep the capital insulated from the conflict at
hand.
Mughals

NEGLECTED THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NAVY

The Mughals neglected the development of the Navy and that proved suicidal for them.
The later Mughals did not pay any attention to sea power and left their coast-
line completely undefended. That was exploited by the Europeans who ultimately
established their mastery over India.

DRAINING OF THE TREASURY

The Mughal treasury was gradually getting empty with the constant military campaigns
of the state.The insecure conditions in the Mughal state during Aurangzeb did not lead to
a boost in trade activity; agriculture too was affected because of the oppressive attitude
of the administration.The revenue expenditure gradually became more than the income of
the state and led to constant drain on the treasury.The over staffing as well as high value
of jagirs and mansabs also made the state bankrupt.

The Mughal gave India a very rich culture and brilliant architecture and
great accomplishments. There were many Hindu and Muslim areas that were split all over
India until the Mughal Empire was established. Unfortunately, the Mughal Empire faced
many challenges especially after Aurangzeb to sustain their sovereignty. Due to multiple
reasons above mentioned it declined eventually. Finally the vacuum was filled up by the
British and became great territorial power through their multiple annexationist
policies and military might.

The Mughal Empire

ht
Sunday, November 29, 2009

PAINTING & MUSIC

PAINTING

The Mughals were lovers of the art of painting. Humayun is said to have patronised two masterpainters, Abdus
Samad and Mir Sayyid AlL They were ordered to paint the famous Dastan-i-Amir Hamzah. Akbar during his
reign brought about the synthesis of Indian and Persian styles. Indian themes and landscapes, and colours
gained importance. European style was introduced by Portuguese priests in Akbar's court. The most famous of
painters were Basawan, Daswanath and Haribans, Abdus Samad and Farruk Beg. Jahangir was a connoisseur
of art and a keen collector of historical paintings. Under his influence, Persian influence was eliminated and a
new style developed which was purely Indian. Jahangir had a trained eye for the niceties of the art and he
claimed that he could identify the hands of several artists in a composite picture. Portrait painting reached a
climax in his period. In his time the most famous painters were Aga Raja, Muhammad Nadir and Muhammad
Murad, Bishan Das, Manohar and Govardhan.

After his death the art of painting started declining. However, with the artists dispersing to various provincial
capitals, development of various other schools of painting took place-the Rajasthani, the Pahari, etc.
Besides the Mughal style there grew up in this age a distinct school of painting in. Rajputana. The Rajput paint-
ings were excellent masterpieces from Hindu mythology, village life and pastimes of the common people. Their
pictures are remarkable for their brilliance and decorative effect as well as for their spiritual and emotional
impact. Mughal painting had as its themes court scenes, battle scenes and hunting besides portraits.

MUSIC The Mughals appreciated music. Babur is said to have composed songs. Akbar was a lover of music.
His court was adorned by famous musicians like Tansen of Gwalior and Baz Bahadur of Malwa. Shah Jahan
was fond of vocal and instrumental music. The two great Hindu musicians of his time were Jagannath and
Janardhan Bhatta. But Aurangzeb who was a puritan dismissed singing from his court. However, ironically, the
largest number of books on classical music were written in his reign S
Mughals

View original
https://www.culturalindia.net/indian-art/paintings/mughal.html

Mughal Painting
Mughal painting reflects an exclusive combination of Indian, Persian and Islamic styles. As the name suggests,
these paintings evolved as well as developed during the rule of Mughal Emperors in India, between 16th to
19th century. The Mughal paintings of India revolved around themes, like battles, court scenes, receptions,
legendary stories, hunting scenes, wildlife, portraits, etc. The Victoria and Albert Museums of London house a
large and impressive collection of Mughal paintings.

History of Mughal Painting

Indian Mughal paintings originated during the rule of Mughal Emperor, Humayun (1530-1540). When he came
back to India from the exile, he also brought along two excellent Persian artists, Mir-Sayyid Ali and Abd-us-
samad. With time, their art got influenced by the local styles and gradually; it gave rise to the Mughal painting of
India. The earliest example of the Mughal style is the Tutinama ('Tales of a Parrot') Painting, now in the
Cleveland Museum of Art. Then, there is the 'Princess of the House of Timur', a painting redone numerous
times.

Decline of Mughal Painting

The trend that was seen during the time of Shah Jahan was also found under the rule of Aurangzeb (1658-
1707). However, the emperor did not pay too much attention on the growth of the Mughal paintings. Still, the art
form continued to survive with the support received from its other patrons. However, gradually, because of
diminishing support, a declining trend set in. The time of Muhammad Shah, (1719-1748), did experience a brief
revival of the Mughal paintings. Nonetheless, with the arrival of Shah Alam II (1759-1806), the art almost
became extinct and another school of painting, known as Rajput paintings, started evolving Indian ArtIndian
Painters
Nandlal Bose Rabindranath Tagore Raja Ravi Varma

S H Raza
Indian Paintings
Mysore Paintings Pahari Paintings Rajput Paintin

After the death of Mughal emperorAurangzeb in 1707, his three sons Bahadur Shah
I, Muhammad Azam Shah and Muhammad Kam Bakhsh were involved in a war of succession.
Though Azam Shah declared himself as the successor, he was defeated in a battle by Bahadur
Shah. Meanwhile, Kam Bakhsh had marched to Bijapur and established his own empire. Failing
to negotiate, his forces and Shah's army clashed; and subsequently Kam Bakhsh was killed
during the military confrontation.

 Prince Muzzam at Jamrud and his sons Prince Jahandar Shah with his, second son
Prince Azim-ush-Shan at Bengal, Prince Rafi-ush-Shan at Malakand Fort, Prince Jahan
Shah at Agra Fort, Muzzam Rule (Kabul Subah, Bengal Subah, and Malakand Fort)

Consort - Nizam Bai (daughter Of Raja of Amber)

Mughals

 Prince Azam Shah at Ahmednagar His sons Prince Bidar Bakht at At Gujarat, Prince
Jawan Bakht At Gujarat, Prince Sikandar Along his father, Prince Wala Jah at Belapur
Fort in Deccan Subah, Azam Rule (Gujarat, and Mirza Part of Deccan)

Consort - Sabana Begum (daughter of Persian Ruler)

 Prince Kam Bakhsh At Bijapur with his All sons And Support by Aurangzeb queen
consort Diwani Begum

Consort - Jamilat Begum (daughter of Sulan Nazir Mirza Of Bihar)

Prince Musa Khawja at Lahore with his Brothers, Prince Umar Mirza at Badakhshan, Prince
Sultan Muzzam at Deccan Half Part, Prince Akbar and Prince Nasir with his father Aurangzeb,
Khawja (Multan, Orisha, Mathura, Badakhshan, Berar, Half Deccan, Kanthkot Fort) Consort -
Najib begum (Daughter Of Wali ahd Azam shah)
Prince Hasim Mirza at Khandesh With his Only Brother Imam and Support By Nadira Begum
the chief consort Of Mughal Empire (Khandesh)
Conflict between Azam Shah and Bahadur Shah
Mughal emperor Aurangzeb died in 1707 after a 49-year reign without officially declaring a
crown prince. He left a will advising his sons to divide the empire between themselves. At the
time of Aurangzeb's death, his eldest son Bahadur Shah I was stationed at Jamrud (12 miles
west of Peshawar in present-day Pakistan). His second son, Muhammad Azam Shah, was
stationed at Ahmednagar in present-day India. With the distance between Jamrud and Agra
being 715 miles, and between Ahmednagar and Agra being 700 miles, Khafi Khan writes that
whoever would reach the capital city of Agra first would capture the Mughal throne.[1]
After failing to negotiate to divide the kingdom,[2] Azam Shah and Bahadur Shah were involved
in an armed conflict at Jajau, near Agra (current day Uttar Pradesh, India). In the battle that
followed, Azam Shah and his three sons were killed by Bahadur Shah's army on 20 June 1707.
[3] Azam Shah and other royals who died were subsequently buried in Humayun's Tomb, Delhi.
[3]
Shah's half-brother, Muhammad Kam Bakhsh, marched to Bijapur in March 1707 with his
soldiers. When the news of Aurangzeb's death spread through the city, the city's monarch, King
Sayyid Niyaz Khan surrendered the fort to him without a fight. Ascending the throne, Kam
Bakhsh made Ahsan Khan, who served in the army as the bakshi (general of the armed forces),
and made his advisor Taqarrub Khan as chief minister[4] and gave himself the title of Padshah
Kam Bakhsh-i-Dinpanah (Emperor Kam Bakhsh, Protector of Faith). He then conquered
Kulbarga and Wakinkhera.[5]
Taqarrub Khan made a conspiracy to eliminate Ahsan Khan, alleging that meetings of Ahsan
Khan, Saif Khan (Kam Bakhsh's archery teacher), Arsan Khan, Ahmad Khan, Nasir Khan and
Rustam Dil Khan (all of them Kam Bakhsh's former teachers and members of the then court) to
discuss public business were a conspiracy to assassinate Kam Bakhsh "while on his way to the
Friday prayer at the great mosque".[6] After informing Kam Bakhsh of the matter, he invited
Rustam Dil Khan for dinner; arrested en route, Rustam Dil Khan was killed by being crushed
under the feet of an elephant. Saif Khan's hands were amputated, and Arshad Khan's tongue
was cut off.[7] Ahsan Khan ignored warnings by close friends that Kam Bakhsh would arrest him,
but he was imprisoned and his property seized.[7] In April 1708, Shah's envoy Maktabar Khan
came to Kam Bakhsh's court. When Taqarrub Khan told Kam Bakhsh that Maktabar Khan
intended to dethrone him,[8] Kam Bakhsh invited the envoy and his entourage to a feast and
executed them.[8]
In May of 1708, Shah wrote a letter to Kam Bakhsh which he hoped would "be a warning"
against proclaiming himself an independent sovereign and began a journey to the Tomb of
Mughals

Aurangzeb to pay his respects to his father.[8] Kam Bakhsh thanked him in a letter, "without
either explaining or justifying [his actions]".[9]
When Shah reached Hyderabad on 28 June 1708, he learned that Kam Bakhsh had attacked
Machhlibandar to seize over three million rupees' worth of treasure hidden in its fort. The
subahdar of the province, Jan Sipar Khan, refused to hand over the money.[9] Enraged, Kam
Bakhsh confiscated his properties and ordered the recruitment of four thousand soldiers for the
attack.[10] In July, the garrison at the Kulbarga fort declared their independence and garrison
leader Daler Khan Bijapuri "reported his desertion from Kam Bakhsh". On 5 November 1708
Shah's camp reached Bidar, 67 miles (108 km) north of Hyderabad. Historian William
Irvine wrote that as his "camp drew nearer desertions from Kam Bakhsh became more and
more frequent". On 1 November, Kam Bakhsh captured Pam Naik's (zamindar, the landlord of
Wakinkhera) holdings after Naik abandoned his army.[11]
On 20 December 1708, Kam Bakhsh marched towards Talab-i-Mir Jumla, on the outskirts of
Hyderabad, with "three hundred camels, [and] twenty thousand rockets" for war with Shah. He
made his son Jahandar Shah commander of the advance guard, later replacing him with Khan
Zaman. On 12 January 1709, Shah reached Hyderabad and prepared his troops. Although Kam
Bakhsh had little money and few soldiers left, the royal astrologer had predicted that he would
"miraculously" win the battle.[12]
At sunrise the following day, Shah's army charged towards Kam Bakhsh. His 15,000 troops
were divided into two bodies: one led by Mumin Khan, assisted by Rafi-ush-Shan and Jahan
Shah, and the second under Zulfiqar Khan Nusrat Jung. Two hours later Kam Bakhsh's camp
was surrounded, and Zulfiqar Khan impatiently attacked him with his "small force".[13]
With his soldiers outnumbered and unable to resist the attack, Kam Bakhsh joined the battle
and shot two quivers of arrows at his opponents. According to Irvine, when he was "weakened
by loss of blood", Shah took him and his son Bariqullah prisoner. A dispute arose between
Mumin Khan and Zulfikar Khan Nusrat Jung over who had captured them, with Rafi-us-Shan
ruling in favor of the latter.[14] Kam Bakhsh was brought by palanquin to Shah's camp, where he
died the next morning.[15]
The Mansabdari System was introduced by Mughal emperor Akbar as new administrative machinery and revenue system.
The term mansab literally means position, status or rank, but in context of the structure of the Mughal administration it
indicated the rank of mansabdar- that is holder of mansab - in the official hierarchy.

Genesis of Mansabdari System

The origins of the Mansabdari system, however, can be traced back to Changez Khan. Changez Khan organized his army
on a decimal basis, the lowest unit of his army was ten, and the highest ten thousand (toman) whose commander was
known as ‘Khan’. Then, it was first introduced by Babur in North India. But it was Akbar, who institutionalized it in Mughal
military set up and civil administration after reforming and introduction of two new concepts namely ‘Zat’ and ‘Sawar.’

Nature of Mansabdari System

The mansabdars constituted the ruling section in the imperial structure. The Mansabdars were said to be the pillars of the
Mughal administration; the entire nobility, in fact belonged to mansabs; among them one or the other held a mansab.
Mansabdari system was nothing but a system of nobles or mansabdars under which a mansabdar or noble was granted the
rights to hold a jaguar which meant revenue assignments (not the land itself) for services rendered by them, but the authority
bestowed upon them was not unbridled but with the direct control of these nobles in the hands of the king.
Mughals

Mechanism of Mansabdari System

As above-mentioned mansabdars were paid either in cash (naqd) or in the form of assignments of areas of land (jagir) out of
which they had the entitlement to collect the land revenue and all other taxes through an authority appointed by the emperor.
The revenue that was generated through their jagir was handed over to them and the same was deducted from their salary.
The mansabdar paid the salary of cavalrymen that he maintained out of his salary. Those who received pay in cash were
known as naqdi and those paid through assignments of jagirs were called jagirdars. Thus the mansabdari system became
an integral part of the agrarian and the jagirdari system of Mughal administration under Akbar.

As institutional framework of mansabdari existed in both military organization and civil administration the mansabdars were
transferred from the civil administration to the military department and vice versa.

List of the Great Mughal Emperors of India

Structure of Mansadbdari System

The mansab or rank was designated by dual representation - one by personal rank (called zat) and the other by cavalry rank
(called sawar). Every mansabdar was given the rank of both zat and sawar and a mansabdar was paid rupees two per
horse. To elaborate it further, a mansabdar was given rupees one thousand additional allowance if he had received the rank
of five hundred sawars. Furthermore, the duties of a mansabdar were not in accordance with the mansab or position he
held. For a mansabdar, higher rank did not necessarily mean a higher post. For instance, Raja Man Singh was not a minister
and still enjoyed a higher rank than Abul Fazal who was a minister in the court of Emperor.

The emperor was the sole authority that conferred, decreased, increased and resumed the mansab. He also granted
promotions to those who displayed their prowess in military service. The officers were granted territorial commands in return
for the military service. They had to bring in some fixed number of men-at-arms, horses and elephants to the field and
accordingly were rated on the basis of the numbers which was known as Zats. So they were called Mansabdars of 10, 20,
100, and 1000 and so on.

Mughal Administration: Key Features & Structure

Classification of Mansabdari System
Broadly, there were three categories among the mansabdars .Those holding ranks below 500 zat were known as
mansabdars, those holding ranks of more than 500 zat that, but below 2,500 zat were named amirs and fall in the second
category. In the administration, the third category was of amir-i-umda or amir-i-azam or omrahs -those mansabdars who
holding the ranks of 2,500 zat and more. The lowest rank holder was provided with 10 mansabs. Mansingh,the first
Mansabdar of 7000 zats and Bhagwan Das with 5000 zats ,enjoyed the privileged positions in the Mansabdari system of the
empire.

It is noteworthy that most of the Mansabdars were foreigners or were of Central Asian, Turk, Persian and Afghan origin,
though there were also a small number of Indians who also got appointments as mansabdars. During Mughal Akbar's reign
the mansabs (ranks) ranged from 10 to 5,000 troops. Later on, the highest number of mansabs was raised from 10,000 to
12,000; thus there was no fixed number of mansabdars.

Mansabdari System under Mughal Rulers

It kept on changing from Akbar to Aurangzeb. The total number of mansabdars during the reign of Akbar was nearly about
1800; but towards the end of Aurangzeb's rule their number increased close to 14,500.The jagirs were given to mansabdar
in such a manner as not to be transferred to other’s name; hence the post of mansabdar was not hereditary in any way and
Mughals

after his death or dismissal his personal estate was confiscated by the emperor deducting what he (mansabdar) owed to the
state and returning the balance to his heir. This law or rule was known as zabti.

The son of a mansabdar, if he was granted a mansab, had to begin his tenure as mansabdar afresh as per the rules and
regulations imposed on him by the emperor. This measure was made integral to the system so that the mansabdar could
not misuse his position and exploit the masses.

Hence, the Mansabdari System of Mughal was a complex system. Its efficient functioning depended upon a number of
factors, including the proper functioning of dagh (branding) system and of the jagirdari system.

Military Organizations of the Mughals

Article shared by : <="" div="" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px;
outline: 0px; font-size: 16px; vertical-align: bottom; background: transparent; max-width: 100%;">

The Mughal rulers maintained a large and efficient army till the reign of Aurangzeb.

This was necessary to do so for they conquered several parts of the country and were
accordingly required to maintain law and order and check revolts.

(1) Mansabdari system:

Every military officer and chief was given a mansab (rank) and was expected to maintain
the required number of soldiers, horsemen, horses and elephants etc. Every mansabdar
was usually paid a salary which also included the maintenance expenditure of his army.
Recruitment was made by the Mansabdars.

(2) The ‘Ahadi’ army:

This was the army maintained by the emperor. The ‘ahadi’ soldiers received higher
salaries than other categories of soldiers. Their number was not fixed. They were
extremely loyal to the emperor. (3) ‘Dakhili’ Soldiers:

They were recruited on behalf of the emperor but were but under the charge of
mansabdars.

Permanent army:
Mughals

The permanent army of the Mughals was very large. The total army was of the order of
about forty lakhs. It included all types of armies, including the armies maintained by the
mansabdars and the feudatory chArmy units:
The army was divided into the following five units:
(1) Cavalry:
It had two types of horsemen:
iefs. (i) ‘Bargir’ were those soldiers who received horses, arms, dress etc. from the state

(ii) Siledar’ were those soldiers who brought their own horses and arms.

The Mughal cavalry mostly had ‘Turki’, ‘Tazi’, ‘Arabi’ and ‘Parsi horses.

(2) Infantry:
Infantry was organised into two units namely (i) Bandukchi’ (Riflemen) and
‘Samshirbaz’ (Swordsmen)

(3) War elephants:

The elephants were used for fighting as well as for carrying load.

(4) Artillery:
According to Dr. R.P. Tripathi, “Excepting the Turkish artillery, Akbar’s was second to
none in Asia, for in Akbar’s time, it had reached the high point of efficiency possible.”

(5) Navy:
The navy of the Mughals was very weak as compared with the Europeans.

he Ibādat Khāna(House of Worship) was a meeting house built in 1575 CE by

the Mughal Emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605) at Fatehpur Sikri to gather spiritual leaders
of different religious grounds so as to conduct a discussion on the teachings of the
respective religious leaders.[1]
Historical background

Akbar built the Ibādat Khāna as a debating house. He encouraged Hindus, Roman
Catholics, Zoroastrians, Jains and even atheists to participate. Religious leaders and
philosophers from around this diverse empire, as well as those passing through, were
invited to Akbar's Thursday evening discussions. Akbar's spiritual inclinations were
roused to a large extent by the example of Sulaiman Kirani, a past ruler of Bengal,
who was said to spend nights in the company of over a hundred ratiocinating
Mughals

spiritual men. Akbar also wanted to sharpen his theological grasp because he had
been told of the imminent arrival to his court of Mirza Sulaiman of Badakshan,
a Sufi with a predilection for spiritual debates.[2]
Faith of the Divine

By the late 1580s CE, Akbar began an attempt to reconcile the differences of all
religions by creating a new faith, the Din-i-Ilahi ("Faith of the Divine"), which
incorporated both pantheistic versions of Islamic Sufism (most notably Ibn Arabi's
doctrine of Wahdat al wajood or Unity of Existence) and bhakti or devotional
movements of Hinduism. Even some elements of Christianity (like
crosses), Zoroastrianism (fire ceremonies) and Jainismwere amalgamated in the new
religion. Akbar was greatly influenced by the teachings of Jain Acharyas Hir Vijay
Suri and Jin Chandra Suri and gave up non-vegetarian food because of their
influence. He declared Amari or non-killing of animals on the holy days of Jains
like Paryushanand Mahavir Jayanti. He rolled back the Jizya tax from Jain pilgrimage
places like Palitana.
This faith, however, was not for the masses. In fact, the only "converts" to this new
religion were the upper nobility of Akbar's court. Historians have so far been able to
identify only 18 members of this new religion.
Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem Akbar’s Dream lauds the Ibādat Khāna, ascribing
tolerance and humanity to his "Divine Faith", while implicitly criticising the
intolerance of 19th century British Protestant Christianity.[3]

A painting depicting the scenes of the Ibādat Khāna.

Discovery of Ibadat Khana

Different archaeologists and historians had different thoughts on the location of

Ibadat Khana. Saeed Ahmed Mararavi, followed by Athar Abbas Rizvi and Vincent
Flynn suggested that the mound between Jama Masjid and Jodha Bai's Mahal is the
site of Ibadat Khana. However, they had no tangible proof to support their argument.
In early 1980s, KK Muhammed working under Prof. R. C. Gaur of Aligarh Muslim
University excavated the mound and found the steps, platforms and boundary wall,
which matched the painting of Ibadat Khana from Akbar's period.