TELEVISION PRODUCTION 
UNIT 1 - TV AS A MEDIUM 
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TOPIC 1: HISTORY OF TV 

Q1. Describe the advent of Television at global level and its journey in India.

The television is one of the most prominent inventions of the 20th Century.It has become one of the
most common ways people view the larger world beyond them, as well as being one of the best ways for
people to escape from the world.

In the 1880s a German inventor created simplistic moving images using a filtered light viewed through a
spinning disk, laying the foundations for the modern television. During the 1920s a number of scientist
began experimenting with sending still images using radio waves.

The world’s first electronic television was created by a 21 year old inventor named Philo Taylor
Farnsworth in 1927. However, it was in 1928 that General Electric first combined the idea of a device
that could show moving images with the technology to wirelessly broadcast them.

During the 30s and 40s the technology was gradually improved upon. In America the first regular
broadcasts began in 1939 though it was not until after the Second World War that the television as a
standard home appliance began to really take off. After 1945 television sales in America skyrocketed.
The first colour broadcast was made in 1954. Throughout the rest of the world, television came years
later, and it wasn’t until the late 1960s that a television was commonplace in houses throughout the
West. By the 1970s, television had become the dominant media force it is today, with 24 hour
programming, mass advertising and syndicated shows.

In the 1980s satellite television shrunk the world, making live feeds from other countries and time zones
possible. The new millennium brought the advent of digital television, which is the future of television.

 
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Television came to India on September 15, 1959 with experimental transmission from Delhi. It was a
modest beginning with a makeshift studio, a low power transmitter and only 21 community television
sets. All India Radio provided the engineering and programme professionals. A daily one-hour service
with a news bulletin was started in 1965. In 1972 television services were extended to a second
city—Mumbai. By 1975 television stations came up in Calcutta, Chennai, Srinagar, Amritsar and
Lucknow. In 1975-76 the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment brought television programmes
for people in 2400 villages in the most inaccessible of the least developed areas through a satellite lent to
India for one year.

The programmes were mainly produced by Doordarshan (DD) which was then a part of the AIR. The
telecast happened twice a day, in the mornings and evenings. Other than information related to
agriculture, health and family planning were the other important topics dealt with in these programmes.
Entertainment was also included in the form of dance, music, drama, folk and rural art forms. Television
services were separated from radio in 1976. National telecast was introduced in 1982. In the same year,
color television was introduced in the Indian market.

Indian small screen programming started off in the early 1980s. During this time, there was only one
national channel, the government-owned Doordarshan. The Ramayana and Mahabharata, both based on
the Indian epics of the same names, were the first major television series produced. They notched up
world record in viewership numbers. By the late 1980s, more people began to own television sets.
Though there was a single channel, television programming had reached satu

The television industry in India today is a wide-ranging one; which produces thousands of programs in
many of India's official languages. More than half of all Indian households own a television. As of 2016,
the country had over 857 channels of which 184 were pay channels.

 
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TOPIC 2: CHARACTERISTICS OF TV

Q2. Discuss the characteristics and importance of television as mass medium.

Support your answer with examples.
Ever since President Franklin D. Roosevelt opened the World’s Fair in New York City in 1939, and
made the first televised presidential address, television has grown into a primary medium of
communication to inform, entertain and promote. While the television offerings have become
increasingly fragmented, first with cable TV and later with Internet-based TV, the typical American
household spends several hours daily in front of the television.

Television is a great wonder of modern science. It is one of the most important invention of science,
which has absorbed millions of minds. It has broad reach and stronger influence upon people and
culture. It is most acceptable that each households watch Television and it has become a most effective
medium to reach large number of audience. It’s very hard to imagine a word without TV. It is the most
significant medium of providing information, education and entertainment.

The audio visual character of Television makes it a magic medium which allows us to watch the world
and this quality makes television images more memorable. Television has powerful visual nature which
this powerful visual nature helps television to create vivid impressions in our minds which in turn leads
to emotional involvement which makes television more memorable.

1.An audio-visual medium

TV has both sound and sight. A TV broadcast is conceived and produced and received in audio-visual
terms. As eyes absorbs and retain much more than the ear so, TV broadcasts have greater influence on
viewers than radio’s audience.For example, if there is a hurricane the impact on the viewers will be
much higher than the impact on the people who are just listening to the news on the radio.

2.Features of other media

It has borrowed movement from stage, camera from the film and the microphone from the radio and
integrate all these into a whole that makes TV uniquely new medium.

 
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3.Wide reach and high credibility

It’s a supreme medium of mass communication which has turned world into a global village. It has
turned our society into an information society. It has widen the mental horizon of man by humanizes
knowledge and make them feel as a citizen of world. Its credibility lies in the fact that seeing is
believing.

Because of its reach and believability, it becomes a powerful medium for projecting the world of
politics, sports, arts, personalities, events and ideas. For example, today television offers endless
channels with various information and knowledge that can be gained like discovery Nat Geo, Etc.

4.Live Medium

The important characteristic of television is that it is capable of being a live medium. This is
because the live. If we are watching a cricket match in a television channel, we can almost instantly see
the wicket hit by our favourite player. On the Television allows you to witness events which happen
thousands of miles away.

5.A medium of the close-up

Because of small screen, it is ideal for close up of human faces, expression, reaction and interaction
between people, for presenting an interview and discussion etc. For example, during debates and
discussions one can see close ups of the politicians or celebrities and get a closed view of their
expressions which almost makes it look like you are attending it live.

6.Domestic Medium

To watch television, we need not leave your drawing room. No need of going to the movie
theatre or buying tickets. We can watch television in the comfort of our home with our family. This is
why television is generally regarded as a domestic medium. It provides entertainment and
information right inside our homes and has become an integral part of our everyday lives. It can

 
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actually pattern our daily activities. The domestic nature of television makes it an intimate
medium. This makes the viewers experience a sense of closeness to the Television.

7.A democratizing medium

It is a democratizing medium as it is available to all the people. It democratizes information, informal
education and literature etc. by catering to all sections of society. Most of the TV programs are for the
common man. For example, channels like Door Darshan has a wide reach and is available to all.

8. A medium of Immediacy
TV is a supreme reporter and it captures the evens as they are happening. TV operates in fixed time units
which makes performers, writers of the scripts and producer to be disciplined For example, When
important news of various incidents is to be imparted new channels show such information almost
immediately to the viewers like during earthquakes.

Limitation of Television

1. Expensive Medium

There is need to large amount of machinery and expertise needed to run a television station. It requires
lots of money, machinery and experienced people. Broadcast media in general and television in
particular involves complex technology and organization.

2. Transitory Medium

Content is not on pen and paper, it stays on for only a while.

 
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TOPIC 3: FORMATS OF TV

Q3. What are the various formats of television program. Enlist with brief
description and examples.
Television has changed the way we live. Television has become the main source of Information &
entertainment for many people. It is also an important form of communication since many
people watch news shows, political shows, commercials, etc. Thus, we have two broad formats of
television programmes: Fiction and Non-fiction programs.

Non- Fictional Program:

Programs have contents that is reality based. There is no fiction or epic.

Types of non- fictional programs:

(1) News​ - It is the most common programme format in a non- fictional category. Newscasts,
newsbreaks, and headlines. Programs reporting on local, regional, national, and international events.
Such programs may include weather reports, sportscasts, community news, and other related features or
segments contained within "News Programs."

.For example., Aaj Tak, NDTV India, ABVP News, etc

(2) Talk Shows- ​ A talk show or chat show is a television programming or radio programming genre in
which one person (or group of people) discusses various topics put forth by a talk show host.

Usually, guests consist of a group of people who are learned or who have great experience in relation to
whatever issue is being discussed on the show for that episode. Other times, a single guest discusses
their work or area of expertise with a host or co-hosts.

Examples, The Oprah Winfrey Show

 
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(3)Documentary-​ They depict reality. A documentary explores a factual subject in depth. It not only
shows, but illuminates. It attempts not merely to inform, but to provoke deeper thought and
understanding than a cold presentation of facts would do. A documentary is a creative work. Sometimes
this creative responsibility rests with one individual; the producer/director. In that instance, and in the
broadest television sense, he is author; the dominant creator of the program. The documentary
producer usually undertakes a considerable amount of preliminary research, and in addition is in
close contact with his subject through the lengthy stages of filming and editing. The television
documentary is an adaptable form of nonfiction programming that has served various functions
throughout the medium's history: as a symbol of prestige for advertisers and networks, a focal
point for national attention on complex issues, a record of the human experience and the natural
world, and an instrument of artistic and social expression.

Example, Blackfish, The Art of Killing, etc

(4) Reality Shows​- Programs primarily about the world of entertainment and its people. These
programs include celebrity profiles that may use promotional footage, talk or interview shows, award
shows, galas and tributes.Two types of reality shows:

(i) Game Show- Programs featuring games of skill and chance as well as quizzes example., Kaun
Banega Crorepati., etc

(ii) Talent Hunt Show- Programs comprised primarily (i.e. more than 50%) of live or
pre-recorded performances of music and/or dance, including opera, operetta, ballet, and musicals.
Example.,Indian Idol, etc.

(5) Live Shows-​ Television channels telecast sports and some important live events. Example, cricket
matches, Independence Day Parade, etc.

(6) Variety Shows- ​These programs are mixed variety entertainment i.e., music, interview, dance, etc.
demonstrated on stage. Example, Dancing with the Stars, etc

 
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Fictional Program:

Programs based on any story, play, novel or fictional work comes under this category.

(1) Soap Opera-​ A soap opera is an ongoing drama serial on television, featuring the lives of many
characters and their emotional relationships Most common fictional program. Example, Yeh Rishta Kya
Kehlata Hai, Kasauti Zindagi Ki, etc.

The first soap opera in India was Hum Log telecasted on doordarshan in 1984.Earlier soap opera were
telecasted once or twice a week but nowdays most soap operas in India are telecasted everyday.

(2) Epic Serials-​ Serials based on epics. Example, Ramyana, Mahabharata, Radha Krishna, Mere Sai,
Siya Ke Ram, etc.

(3) Sitcom​- Situational comedy is a format where humour is created by creating amusing situations.
Example., Dekh Bhai Dekh, Tu Tu Main Main, etc

(4) Series​- The main character remains the same but the story changes after every 2-3 episodes. Usually
these type of programmes are created around professions. Example FIR, CID, etc.

(5) Countdown Shows​- Superhit film songs are one by one played according to their popularity.
Example., 9XM top9, etc

(6) Tele Films-​ Films specifically made for television. Usual duration of the film is 90 minutes.For eg.
Star Best Sellers

(7) Cartoon Shows- ​Popular among children. Example., Shinchan, Pingu, etc

 
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TOPIC 4: STAGES OF PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

There are three stages of programme production

1. Pre production

2. Production

3. Post production

PRE-PRODUCTION STAGE

As the name implies, this is the first step before the actual production. Pre-Production is the planning
and preparation stage of filmmaking. This stage includes everything you do before entering the studio or
reaching the shooting location. This is where an idea is born and conceptualise, the topic is decided, the
program format or plan of action is determine, rehearsal is done, setting goals, writing program
proposals and crew meetings, story-boarding and scripting, research, location scouting, arranging
equipment, video / audio tapes, properties, costumes, sets designing or location hunting and booking of
editing shifts, etc. are all acquired.

1. research - theme, idea, target audience

The story is a king. Regardless of what genre of television project is in development, a good story is
its foundation. Whether it is a dramatic series or news show, a sitcom or a sports special, each genre
spinsaround telling a story that is compelling and engages the viewer. Ideation is the creative process
of generating, developing, and communicating new ideas, where an idea is understood as a basic
element of thought that can be visual, concrete, or abstract. Ideation comprises all stages of a
thought cycle, from innovation, to development, to actualization. As such, it is an essential part
of the design process, both in education and practice.

This is where you develop your story, its structure, and plot points. Ideas often are drawn from
personal experiences or ripped from the headlines. Maybe it‘s a story you were told as a child, or a

 
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product of your own wild imagination. At its most basic level, a concept should be able to be
communicated in three sentences — the beginning, the middle, and the end,

during Ideation, the aim is to generate a large quantity of ideas that the team can then filter and cut down
into the best, most practical or most innovative ones in order to inspire new and better design solutions
and products.

2. scriptwriting and storyboard - A television script translates an idea into a detailed text that can
act as an outline for production. In commercial television, the script must include commercial
breaks. As your projects become more ambitious you can start to storyboard the project.
Storyboards can really smooth out the post-production process when it’s time for editing. This
will really be useful if there are multiple people working on the project.
3. Project planning - programme format, arranging of equipments. Another important step is
budgeting. TV is all about business. It is an industry driven by revenue and profit
margins, and the idea could translate into a business opportunity from which broadcasters
and clients profit.When working for a client, producer need to prepare a budget for all pre
production, production, and post production costs regardless of whether the cost is, at least
partially, absorbed by the salaries of regularly employed personnel or the normal operating
budget.
4. Briefing performers - hie actors
5. securing locations,
6. acquiring permissions -It is producersjob to protect legally every single component with
some form of permission.The legal aspect of producing is as important as the creative, technical,
or budgetary needs of any project.This involves a common sense of understanding of
entertainment law, and an awareness of the contracts, agreements, and rules that are
integral in each stage of producing the project.
7. Production and agreement of project timeline and deliverables*

PRODUCTION STAGE

 
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Production begins once the footage is recorded. Production is the actual taping of the TV show or shoot.
Cast and crew are assembled, and the director will orchestrate the taping and work to shoot as quickly as
possible. Production may take place in a studio or on location. Location shooting is almost always more
work, as production equipment needs to be brought to the location along with the cast and crew. There
are advantages to take the production out of the studio. Electronic field production allows for a
richness of scene and artistic creativity born sometimes out of necessity and sometimes out of
opportunities suggested by the location itself. Most TV shows prefer to use established sets since this
makes the production process easier.

During the production process you apply various the lighting requirements, framing and work on
composition. Some projects will also shoot B-Roll during the production process. B-Roll is
supplementary footage that can be included in the finished product.

it must be emphasized here that studio time is most precious. The produces must constantly keep an eye
on the studio clock and make a good use of the tiny production item

POST PRODUCTION

This is the stage where you get to the final shape of the programme. Post-production can occur after
production or simultaneously during production, depending on the planned approach for workflow. This
refers to editing the material shot during production, and should also include distributing the program
and promoting it to your target audience, cutting the recorded visuals into appropriate length, arranging
the visuals in a proper sequence, use of desired effects for the visuals or text / captions, commentary
recording, music/song recording, and final assembly of the entire programme.

1. assembly of footage
2. Editing video footage
3. Editing the soundtrack, adding sound effects, music, recording of voice-over, etc.
4. Adding titles and graphics
5. Colour and exposure correction
6. Adding special effects
7. rough edit

 
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8. final edit

In some cases post-production is relatively straightforward, consisting of choosing and arranging

footage in the correct sequence. In most cases however, post-production is a time-consuming job
taking longer than the actual production phase.

 
 

 
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UNIT 2 - PRE-PRODUCTION 
 

TOPIC 1: 

RESEARCH

Quantity Vs Quality:

One of the more important questions that scriptwriters have is, ―How much research is enough?‖ The
quality of research is far more important than the quantity. After all, if you were a writing a script for a
film on the First World War, you could spend a lifetime studying the subject and never meet that script
deadline. One of the more important skills of the scriptwriter is to segregate relevant information from
the irrelevant. This can be done by having detailed and on-going communication with the filmmaker at
all times. The focus of the film and the subject matter it is dealing with must be kept in mind at all times.
Any information gathered or lead followed must first be put through a ̳relevancy test‘. The scriptwriter
must ask himself: · Is this information or source of information directly related to the subject of my film?
· Is it necessary for the audience to know this information? · Will this information add to the overall
quality of the film? · Even if it is relevant and will add value, is it more relevant than all the other
information I have gathered so far? · Will I be able to incorporate this information into the script even if
it is relevant to the subject?

The ‘Strategy’

Almost every scriptwriter starts off with a research strategy. After all, it‘s extremely inconvenient to be
in the middle of writing a script when a new piece of information crops up. It‘s important to think about
and list down every approach and every source you will use to gather information needed for research.
Each scriptwriter has his own sources and approaches for gathering information and many use the same
tried and tested ways throughout their careers. A few places to start are: ·

 
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Print Research: There are millions of places to look in print: Newspapers, books, magazines, journals,
digests, reports, archives, diaries...the list is endless. The scriptwriter must decide which one will be
suitable for subject-related information gathering and then physically get hold of the required
publication. The usual places to go for finding print material are libraries, bookstores, institutions and
organizations with archives and, of course, the internet. Other places could be antique book stores,
publishing houses and academic institutions.

Field Research :Since film is a visual medium, it is integral that a scriptwriter get an accurate picture of
the visual information in the film. He could go to the various locations in which the film will be shot, or
to locations where events took place earlier or will take place in the future. He could even go to
museums, art galleries or any kind of public viewing space where he could gather information. The
field‘ exists only in relation to the subject of the film and therefore the options are endless and should be
visited upon the scriptwriter‘s discretion. Once the writer reaches a location, it is important to look out
for things which might be relevant to the script. The scriptwriter must keep a look out for all things
visual that can be incorporated as images within the script. The culture of the area should be learnt, the
people met, the details noted. Once you gather this knowledge, you must keep it aside for future
reference.

Interview Research: Nine times out of ten, a scriptwriter will be called upon to write a script about
something he knows nothing about. Factual knowledge can usually be easily obtained from print and
field research; however the scriptwriter must also gather perspective. The best way to gain perspective is
to speak to people directly and indirectly connected with the subject. Interview research, which is
basically meeting people and asking them questions, is a must for every film. The scriptwriter must first
decide whom to speak to and what to ask them. Normally, the first person or people to seek out are the
experts on the subject at hand. They can provide the scriptwriter with not only knowledge but the benefit
of their experience. If there are specific events in the film, then the scriptwriter can speak to people who
were involved with the events, directly and indirectly. These conversations should be recorded carefully
and relevant points should be kept aside. It always helps to listen to any ideas they may have about how
you can ̳treat‘ the film conceptually, irrespective of whether you incorporate their opinions into the
script or not.

 
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TOPIC 2: SCRIPTING A PROGRAMME: STORYBOARDING AND 

SCRIPT BREAKDOWN 

STORYBOARDING 

One of the most important stages of planning out your video is creating a storyboard. A
storyboard is a graphic representation of how your video will unfold, shot by shot. It’s made up of a
number of squares with illustrations or pictures representing each shot, with notes about what’s
going on in the scene and what’s being said in the script during that shot. Think of it as sort of a comic
book version of your script.

Your storyboard will should convey some of the following information:

● The characters are in the frame, and their movement

● Dialogue between the characters
● Time passed between the last frame of the storyboard and the current one.
● Camera angle and movement.

When you storyboard a video, you‘re creating a plan for production. It's tempting to just pick up a video
camera and start recording, but without a road map you‘ll waste time, money and energy.

A storyboard forces you to visualize the shots you‘ll need, the order in which they‘ll appear, and how
the visuals will interact with the script.It‘s much easier to hash out the details during pre-production than
it is on location, when the clock is ticking on an expensive production team (or worse, after everything‘s
been shot!).

With a storyboard, you can show a client or production crew exactly what you have in mind. No more
wordy explanations or charades! The storyboard will change as team members offer feedback and
the project evolves. It's an essential tool for making sure everyone involved is on the same page.

A good storyboard offers immediate clues to certain production requirements, such as general location,
camera position, approximate focal length of the lens, method of audio pickup, cutaways, amount

 
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and type of post-production, talent actions, set design and hand props. A storyboard is a sketch of
how to organize a story and a list of its contents.

A storyboard helps you:

● Define the parameters of a story within available resources and time

● Organize and focus a story
● Figure out what medium to use for each part of the story

How To Make a Storyboard

A storyboard doesn't have to be an elaborate work of art. Here‘s how to make one:

Step 1: Create a Template

Draw a series of rectangles on a piece of paper, as if you were creating a comic strip. Make
sure you leave room for notes or lines of script under each rectangle. Make it on computer or download
a pre-prepared storyboard from online

Step 2:Add the Script

Under each rectangle, write the line of script or dialogue that corresponds to that scene.

Step 3: Sketch out the story

simple stick figures will do the trick. You can indicate movement with an arrow. A bad
drawing is better than no drawing! If you don‘t want to sketch the shots by hand, you can use
photographs or images cut from a magazine. There are even storyboarding tools online where you
can select characters and settings, add speech bubbles and text blocks, and even record audio.

Step 4: Add Notes

Finally, add in any notes about each scene. This might include a description of what‘s happening,
camera angles or movement, and any special effects. Don‘t forget about audio like music or sound
effects

 
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SCRIPTING OF A PROGRAMME 

Preparing any script requires a story and story is an outcome of some idea. Ideas are generated on facts
collected by you or come to you out of mere fantasy and imagination. When your idea is based on real
and factual happenings it tends to be a non-fiction script based on facts of life, and when a story is
shaped on your imagination and fantasy it is called fiction. In certain cases when you turn facts
into your own imaginary format it again becomes fiction. There can be a part of factual situations
present in your script but now that you have added your own imagination to it, it becomes a piece of
fiction. And there is certainly going to be a difference in presenting facts and fiction in film script
format.

A script is a document that outlines every oral, visual, behavioral and lingual element required to tell a
story

Major stages in the scriptwriting process

1. Programme idea:​ Discuss the idea and evaluate it against media selection criteria for video
production. If it satisfies the criteria, finalize and accept the idea for possible production.
2. Programme brief outline:​ Expand the selected and tested programme idea into a programme
brief, defining the precise details in terms of: title, target audience, duration, programme
objectives (in behavioural terms), and content outline or synopsis. Programme brief is the first
written statement which forms the basis of a television/ video script.
3. Research:​ P
​ lan and cany out thorough research on the topic and your target audience. Look for
visual materials and other important, interesting information on the topic. Consult books,
encyclopaedias, journals, experts and knowledgeable people. Know your target audience well.
Get authentic information about their background, their interests, their likes and dislikes, etc.
Also keep in mind viewing conditions and the context of viewing.
4. Selection of materials:​ Select the most relevant materials, resources and ideas, which match your
programme objectives. Estimate and determine how much content should be included in the final
programme. Eliminate what is not directly relevant to your objectives. Keep your objectives and
programme length in view and estimate sufficient content for inclusion in your final programme.

 
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5. Programme design strategy/message planning:​ Message planning is the most decisive and
creative stage of programme development. Here, think about and decide on programme design
and presentation strategy. Explore and create interesting ways of dishing out your programme to
your audience. Always keep in view your viewers interests, the nature of your subject/topic,your
programme objectives and the visual possibilities that your medium can offer.

Give a serious thought to such considerations as: presentation format or a combination of

formats, programme style, pace and approach, information- size and emphasis, media
possibilities, visual analogies and examples, attention-getting devices, humour, repetition of key
ideas, use of graphics, animation and other production resourceslgimmicks.

6. Programme structure and visual treatment: ​The stage where the programme begins to unfold its
structure or shape. It is concerned with the creative process of giving the programme a clear
shape and a form. Here, give some thought to such questions as: which sequences will form the
middle (body) of the programme? Think of a good beginning for your programme because it is
the opening sequence of a programme, which holds the attention of the audience, and it can
certainly make or mar the whole show. Also think of a good and realistic ending.

Work out detailed visual treatment for the middle parts or sequences of your programme. Think
of visual representations visual analogies for abstract ideas and key concepts. Give a logical and
natural order to your programme segments, so that they appear to be evolving from one sequence
to the other.

Draw a time-line showing how much time should be devoted to each sequence keeping in view
the coverage of the content and weightage or emphasis on programme objectives and key
teaching points. The treatment should give a full description of what the viewers will see, hear,
think, and feel.

7. Storyboard making:​ Storyboard means a detailed, shot-by-shot description of the programme on

a sheet of paper divided into two vertical columns. The rectangular boxes (3:4) in the left hand
column are used for drawing pictureslsketches with shot-size described on each and the
right-hand column is used for writing supporting words, sound effects and music, as shown here.

 
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Shooting Script: A shooting script is the version of a screenplay used during the
production of a motion picture. Shooting scripts are distinct from spec scripts in that they make
use of scene numbers (along with certain other formatting conventions described below),
and they follow a well defined set of procedures specifying how script revisions should
be implemented and circulated.When a screenplay is approved for production, the scenes
are assigned numbers which are included in the script alongside the scene headers. The
numbers provide a convenient way for the various production departments to reference
individual scenes. Also each individual shot within a scene is also assigned numbers. For
instance Scene 1 Shot 1, 2, 3,4,5 etc.

A shooting script rarely delves into detailed aspects of production unless integral to the story. It
is more conceptual in nature; descriptive, but leaving room for interpretation. The post-shoot
script is the final version of the shooting script. This is often a modified or re-written version of the
shooting script and is created between the shooting and editing processes of the documentary.
The post-shoot script combines conceptual elements along with audio-visual information gathered at
the production stage and may also include any new knowledge gathered along the way. It then
weaves it all together into a cinematic story, which is used by the filmmaker to edit the documentary.
The post shoot script often includes descriptions of shots and actions and is quite comprehensive.

SCRIPT BREAKDOWN

In film and television, a script breakdown is an analysis of a screenplay in which all of the
production elements are reduced into lists. Within these lists, are in essence the foundation of creating a
production board, which is fundamental in creating a production schedule and production budget
of an entire production of any film or television program in pre production. This process is a very
tedious and complex task, and is usually the responsibility of the Assistant Director or first or 1AD
within the production staff of any given production company. However, many film directors, film
producers and screenwriters have knowledge of breaking down a script.

In particular, literally breaking down the script is a very a thorough and detailed creative
analysis of dramatic action in filmmaking, highlighting the reciprocal struggle, theme, and design

 
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elements of a screenplay. Which is to code the entire cast, extras, props, special effects, stunts,
wranglers, picture cars, wardrobe, make-up and hair stylists, special equipment and or
cameras, ADR, Foley, film scores and soundtracks etc., which are all broken-down with different
colored marker highlights within a shooting script.

After which, these highlights are then organized and broken-down into strips to organize the production
schedule within the actual physical production board. This process is more easily done nowadays
utilizing a computer than done manually, with features inside Final Draft called tagger, or
utilizing tagging mode inside Movie Magic Screenwriter, another effective computer program. This
information can easily be imported over to Movie Magic Scheduling to create a digital production board,
and then easily imported over to Movie Magic Budgeting to create the entire production budget.
Most of the script and production computer software out there comes in both Microsoft and MacOS
versions, and even though there is competing software on the market, these which are listed are
considered to be an entertainment industry standard. This whole process of the script breakdown
however is not to be confused with character breakdowns utilized with casting calls, this is an
entire different process with similar names, however administered by two entirely separate
departments.

 
 

TOPIC 3: 

CONTINUITY 

The Three Types of Continuity

 
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Continuity of Action

As the actor picks up the pencil in the WS, the CU must be shot so that the rate of picking up the pencil
is the same and the same hand and pencil are used. This seems like a logical action, but even the best
directors and camera operators make action continuity mistakes. For that reason, a continuity assistant
(CA), also known as a script supervisor, is an essential member of any major production crew. The CA
watches every shot carefully and records the action on a script, or even takes digital still or instant
photos of the beginning and ending of each shot to check continuity. Because most major productions
are videotaped while being shot on film, a quick replay of the tape can answer most continuity questions.

Continuity of Direction

If the WS shows the actor facing to the left and the actor’s right hand reaches across the frame to the
left, then the CU must show the hand moving to the left. If a shot shows an actor moving to the right,
then the next shot must show the same actor still moving to the right, unless there is a change of
direction shown on camera in the shot or a cutaway is inserted between the two shots. A cutaway can
confuse the audience, however, if they remember that the actor was moving in one direction, but is then
seen moving in the opposite direction in the next shot in which he or she appears. A straight-on shot
from directly in front of or from the rear of the actor also can be used as a transition. This same rule
applies to all movement, whether it involves automobiles; airplanes; people walking, running, or falling;
or objects being thrown or dropped or moving on their own. Psychologically, movement from the left to
right is a forward movement, whereas movement from right to left is a returning movement.

Continuity of Location

Continuity of location includes lighting, background, and audio. If the establishing shot is lit in low key
with heavy shadows, then all of the CUs must be lit the same way. If one shot shows the ocean in the
background, then, unless there is a change of direction shown on camera, all shots should indicate the
ocean is the background. Audio continuity becomes an aesthetic tool, as well as a continuity rule. If the
scene is in a large, empty hall, all the audio must sound as if it were recorded in the same ambiance.
However, the ambiance of a WS in the same location sounds different from that of a tight CU of two
people talking and standing close to each other.

 
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Regular continuity problems 

• Temporal discontinuity. When the visual clues to the passing of time are inconsistent in 
successive shots; i.e. clock time, seasons, ageing. 

• Physical discontinuity. Variation in appearance or physical state between shots; clothing, action, 
items being consumed or used; e.g. wearing a raincoat in one shot, but not the next. 

• Location discontinuity. A person unexplainedly changes their location; e.g. we see them standing 
in one place… cut to a graphic… cut back to them, and they are now somewhere else. 

• Pictorial discontinuity. Where there is supposed to be continuity, an exterior should not appear 
‘day’ in one shot, and ‘night’ in the next, A series of shots should be reasonably matched in 
brightness, exposure, color quality. 

• Spatial discontinuity. Loss of any sense of direction or location during intercutting; particularly 
where backgrounds are similar (e.g. in a forest). Has A nearly caught up with B or is he still some 
distance behind? 

• Attention discontinuity. On switching, having to search around the new picture to find where the 
subject is. 

• Relationship discontinuity. Mismatched cuts, causing the subject’s position in the frame to 
change considerably on the cut, momentarily disrupting the picture flow (jump cuts, reverse cuts). 

MAKEUP 

The use of makeup is divided into three categories: 

1. Basic-designed to compensate for undesirable changes in appearance introduced by the 

television process. 
2. Corrective-designed to enhance positive attributes and downplay flaws. 
3. Character -which introduces major changes in appearance. 

 
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Like costume designers, makeup artists are storytellers. Whether the script requires actors to look 
beautiful or ragged, younger or older, or like monsters or other fantastic beings, makeup artists 
and hairstylists help audiences believe that what they see on the screen is real. TV makeup is a 
combination of art and science. It is both corrective, covering flaws and emphasizing attractive 
features, and creative, enabling actors to inhabit almost any type of character.  

Movie makeup that is used to hide pores, wrinkles, and other facial imperfections must 
withstand close scrutiny when magnified on screen. Makeup and hairstyles must look natural, but 
be durable enough to last for long hours under hot lights while actors fight, kiss, and 
sweat. Good makeup design requires research,experimentation, and sometimes inventing 
makeup products or appliances. 

Makeup artists and hairstylists do more than make actors look attractive. They work closely with 
costume designers to visualize the complete character. Like costume designers, makeup artists 
try to reflect the time period, lifestyle, and social status of the characters. Filming a movie 
typically takes many months. Scenes that are next to each other in the finished movie may have 
been shot days or even months apart. During that time, actors may catch a cold, show the 
effects of a late night, or develop a blemish. Makeup artists and hairstylists use their skills to 
make sure that no matter how much time has passed, the actors’ appearance is consistent 
from shot to shot. 

Makeup artists aren’t usually something that you consider when you’re watching a movie or a TV 
show, which just goes to show how well they are doing their jobs. Makeup artists are 
absolutely essential when it comes to TV and film as they can make the audience believe that what 
they are seeing on the screen is real. If viewers don’t believe or buy into what they are watching, 
they will usually lose interest pretty fast. Makeup artists that work in television and film help 
to communicate the personality of the characters to the viewers.  

Makeup artists need to be trained to deal with all types of briefs. They may be asked to create 
different appearances for a character, such as a black eye, wrinkles or bloody wounds. 
Makeup artists often analyse characters, do research and confer with both the director and 
actors in order to create the perfect look for a specific character. 

MAKEUP TEAM 

 
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When it comes to a TV or film set, there is usually a team of makeup artists, not just one individual. 
This team is often made up of a chief makeup artist (also known as a makeup designer), a 
makeup supervisor, a makeup artist and a makeup assistant. Who attends is usually 
dependent on the scale of the production. 

Chief Makeup artist:​ The role of the chief makeup artist is to oversee makeup and hair 
applications during the production process, provide working designs, organize pre-production 
makeup and hair and research designs for characterizations for each actor. The chief 
makeup artist is fundamentally in charge of the entire makeup department and will assign 
an individual makeup artist to apply the designs. 

Makeup Supervisor: T
​ he makeup supervisor will have the job of hiring and managing the 
hair and makeup team as required, check and order the stock, arrange makeup try outs as 
well as wig and facial hair fittings and oversee the continuity of projects. As a supervisor it 
is this makeup artist‘s job to negotiate and work within budgets and timescales. 

Makeup Artist: ​The makeup artist is the one who will undertake responsibilities as delegated by 
the supervisor. This includes preparing artists for makeup application, performing 
makeup and pastiche processes on cast members and following the departments guidelines 
to ensure continuity. 

Makeup Assistant: ​A makeup assistant will be on stand by to carry out checks and make 
adjustments. They will usually be asked to do anything from preparing artistes, applying 
and removing makeup and undertaking research. The assistant will assist the general 
running of the department, helping to take some of the strain off the makeup artist. 

SET DESIGNS 

Whether it’s Seinfeld, Game of Thrones or Wonder Woman, the set that actors perform around
plays as much of a role as they do. The environment created by scenic designers helps set the tone, the
era and the overall vibe of each scene.Without the proper backdrop, the story is incomplete.

To become a set designer takes proper education and experience, often a bachelor’s or master’s
degree of fine arts is a baseline requirement.

 
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Production designers (set designer) help create the atmosphere in a movie or play by setting up the
scene. They deal with the backdrop, the props, the painting, the flooring –every visual after
removing the actors, is under the purview of set designers.

The scenic designer is responsible for developing a complete set of design drawings that include
the following:

● basic ground plan showing all stationary set elements;

● composite ground plan showing all moving set elements, indicating both their onstage and
storage positions;
● section of the stage space incorporating all elements;
● front elevations of every scenic element, and additional elevations or sections of units as
required.

Collaboration

The set designer begins with the script, examining the details to identify various locations,
necessary props, and any actions that require specially built sets. Additionally, the set designer decides
what visual elements convey the best sense of the play, and other aspects needed to give
audiences the full illusion of real characters in real places. Next, the set designer meets with the
director and other key design professionals to collaborate on the director's vision for the show, what
equipment will be available, and what skills the others provide.

The production designer doesn‘t work in a silo, making isolated decisions about the direction of the film.
Instead, they are in constant contact with the director and work in a collaborative environment to create
the ultimate vision. Lighting technicians, wardrobe designers, carpenters, prop masters and many others
on set collaborate with the set designers to finalize each project.

Research

To be accurate in their depiction of different periods in time, a set designer must conduct
historical research. If a scene in a movie is set in a house from the 80s for example, the
production designer would research the interior and exterior of a house in the 80s and truly

 
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understand and appreciate the unique features of that era. If a production designer doesn‘t take this step,
anyone who grew up in or is familiar with that era will notice the inaccuracies and take the film less
seriously.

Sketching

Once the set designer has gathered enough research and information from the other crew members, he
will place his vision on paper. From this first meeting, the set designer creates thumbnails,
preliminary sketches of the set design, which will be refined by further collaborative meetings.

I always think of the Oscars when they give out the awards for set design, they show the original sketch
first, and then show how it was transformed into reality.

The budget needs to be kept in mind during this process. Don‘t design higher than you can afford.Some
sets will be easy to create, where only one room and some props are needed, and others might ask for a
whole construction to take place.

When the director approves of the sketches, then the build begins.Production design is a crucial part
of any movie, TV show or theater performance, showing off the creativity of the crew and the
vision of the production. The crew involved in the design and implementation of the set are often the
largest department in the film crew.

COSTUMES 

Costumes are a storytelling tool, communicating subtle details of each character’s personality and
history quickly and economically to the audience. They help actors leave their own personalities
behind and become new and believable people on screen.

Costume designers can make beautiful gowns and extravagant clothes when the script requires a
glamorous entrance, but they also must design everyday clothes when those are needed for a
scene.

COSTUME DESIGN PROCESS

 
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ANALYSIS: The costume design process begins with a careful study of the screenplay. Scripts
describe the action (what happens in the scene), time period (when the action takes place), the location
(where the action takes place), and the number and identity of the characters in each scene.
After reading the script, the costume designer meets with the director to discuss the overall
vision for the film and to consider the personal histories of each character, possible casting
choices, the overall color palette, and the mood of the film.

COSTUME RESEARCH: The costume designer then starts the research portion of the design process.
As part of that process, designers visit libraries, look at paintings, and study newspapers,
catalogs and magazines from the present or the past, depending on when the movie is set. If a scene
takes place in a modern high school, the costume designer may visit a local high school and take
pictures of staff, teachers, and individual students. The designer would study the latest trends in
jeans, handbags, and accessories and consider the socio-economic background of the school
population, including how much the students spend on their clothes. Modern films are more
difficult to costume than historical films because the audience is immediately aware if the costumes are
unrealistic for the situation, too expensive or wrong.

PRELIMINARY SKETCHING: Once enough information is obtained, Costume designers begin

by creating preliminary sketches. beginning with very quick rough sketches the Costume
designer will then go into more detailed sketches and will figure out the specific costumes and
colors for the character.

FINAL SKETCHES: Once the Costume Designer and the Director agree on the costumes and the
ideas are fully flushed out, the designer will create final sketches. These are called rendering and are
usually painted with watercolors or acrylic paints. These final sketches show what the designer wants
the character to look like and the colors of the costume.

PRODUCTION: Once the show is designed, it is necessary to plan where the items will be sourced.
There are four options. Garments can be:

● Pulled, which refers to searching through a costume shops stock

● Rented

 
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● Shopped
● Constructed, or also known as made to order.

PROPS

Props are an important part of filmmaking. Props is short for property, and refers to items owned
by or belonging to a character in a film. Often on film sets, one of the members of the film crew will fill
a position called prop master.

Prop masters on a film set are responsible for creating props or bringing them to set, and keeping them
organized on set.Props are objects or items that an actor physically touches or handles. This
department, overseen by the property master, is responsible for breaking down the script to develop a list
of props needed in each scene.

Whereas some props are basic, everyday elements like glasses, books or kitchenware, other
props may require significant research to ensure accuracy to the time period or location of the
scene. In some instances, props need to be custom made.

There is a difference between props and set dressing. If an object is ever touched by an actor, it is the
responsibility of the props department to locate, manage, maintain and return the object. If,
however the object is not touched but is part of the set dressing, it is the responsibility of the set
dresser. For example, if the script mentions that a character picks up an apple in the kitchen and begins
to slice it, the prop department is responsible for the apple and the knife. But the set dresser is
responsible for both objects if there are merely sitting on the counter top to add realism to the set.

Property Master

The property master’s primary responsibility is to comb through the script to generate a list of all the
props required in the film. Working with his team, he will then supervise the acquisition,
design, construction and/or rental of the props. Throughout the film, each prop will be cataloged
and be available for the appropriate scene.

Prop Maker

 
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The artist or technician that creates custom props. This can includes creating any type of casings, or
wiring electronics to make a functioning prop.

CATEGORIES OF PROPS

Props can be divided into several categories, which may make the realm of props less overwhelming.
Because of the diversity of traditions and practices in the hundreds of theaters that put on shows, a props
person may not be responsible for some of these categories.

Hand​ –Hand props are any props manipulated by one or more actors on stage. A book, a gun, and a
wine glass are all hand props. Hand props can be consumable or perishable prop, which means they need
to be replaced every night, such as food which is eaten or a letter which is torn up. We can also look at
costume (or personal, or ―propstume―) props like purses or belts as a subcategory. These require
special consideration with the costume department to determine who is responsible for both providing
and paying for them. manual/special effect, practical.

Set​-Set props include all the furniture on stage, and any other ―objects‖ which are a part of the set. It
also includes furniture-like objects, such as rocks which are sat on. The lines between ―set and ―props
are the most blurry in this category, as some sets have ―built-in furniture, and more abstract or
metaphorical sets have less reference points for determining what is ―prop or not

Trim​ –Trim props hang on the walls, like curtains, blinds, or pictures.

Personal​ –A personal prop is a prop an actor carries to develop their character. Sometimes these are
called for in the script, but often it is the actor who is requesting it. A pipe, a cane, or a fan can are
examples.

Greens​-Whether real or artificial, the props department is often responsible for plants, leaves, bushes
and flowers. Obviously, if the set calls for a life-sized tree to fill the stage, the props department can
defer to the scenic department for its construction.

Manual special effects​–Bursts of smoke, remote-controlled rats, artificial fires in fireplaces, or any
other manual special effect is generally the responsibility of the props department, though depending on

 
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the scope or means of achieving said effect, there may certainly be overlap with any number of other
departments. Breakaway props may also fall in this category

During Pre-Production

The types of props needed for each film varies wildly. For simple present-day dramas, the props
are mostly everyday objects that are easily acquirable but for fantasy, period or science fiction movies,
every object held by the actors must be either meticulously researched and gathered, or designed
and hand-crafted to create a realistic environment for the story.

● Once the property master receives the script, he breaks it down and creates a list of the
props mentioned in each scene.
● Label each prop with the scene in which its needed and keep a detailed list of where each prop
was obtained –this will make returns much easier at the end of the shoot.

During Production

During production, the property master must provide each prop when it is needed for a scene.

•Photograph props –For scenes in which a prop changes, for example a plate of food is partially
eaten, or the characters are assembling a motorcycle engine during the scene, the property master
must photograph and document the prop to ensure continuity from one scene to the next.

FLOOR PLAN 

Floor Plan is scaled graphic blue print of the studio. It indicates the position and the size of the studio,
the overhead view of positioning of the set, the location of various fixed technical points. For example,
cable connections, plug points, the number of the participants, position of camera etc. The main
elements to be featured in a floor plan are:

1. Stage: The type of set, the shape and the size of everything required for a set including the type of
furniture etc.

 
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2. Equipment: The lighting and audio arrangements (if boom mic is to be used), placement of the back
projection, the slide projector, monitor etc. The floor plan acts as a planning document to the lighting
engineer.

3. Camera: Camera placement including their movement.

4. Participants: Where will they be sitting or standing, what will be their movement, if any.
Demonstration of any particular equipment or chart and its position.

At a TV station some of the studio may be occupied by semi-permanent sets that remain in place for
extended periods of time. Floor plan shows the location of the scenery and the set properties relative
to a grid pattern and the available action area. Like the script, the floor plan helps you visualize
various shots and translate them into major camera positions and camera traffic patterns. It also
influences, and sometimes dictates, how you block the talent. With some practice you can do
almost all the talent blocking and camera positioning simply by looking at your floor plan.

TOPIC 4: BUDGETING

A film production budget determines how much money will be spent on the entire film project.
It involves the identification and estimation of cost items for each phase of filmmaking
(development, pre-production, production, post-production and distribution). Your budget will be

 
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your blueprint. It's the culmination of all the script and scheduling work you've done this far. The
budget will (should) dictate how you proceed with most every decision while making the project.

All films have a budget to track spending. it is the producer’s responsibility to figure out the cost of
production in different segments. He should have the knowledge of equipments cost and rents
and payment of various production personnels and the cost of transportation etc.

Budgeting for video production becomes easy when the exact requirements are known. This
helps in dividing the budget for the pre-production, production & post production. A typical
budget sheet for video production will have budget for different expenditure for different
segment like production personnel, equipments, transportation, research, fooding and other
requirements of the crew.

TOPSHEET

The topsheet is the 'cover' of the budget. It shows a total of each account in a list. A grand total at the
bottom and production information at the top.

The topsheet denotes each department or broad-stroke subject which is non-departmental. For example:

DEPARTMENTS

● Camera
● Grip
● Make-up
● Transportation

NON-DEPARTMENTAL

● Production Office
● Stages
● Scouts
● Second Unit

 
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The specific column in the budget summary will mention what amount is to be released as an
advance.While preparing the budget, it is best to be realistic. Under estimating the cost just to
win the contract will lend you in financial trouble on the other hand over budgeting, you will
lose the contract. One thumb rule is to show about 10% more than of our actual budget. While most of
the budgeting can be handled using a template, it is helpful to know that budget templates
intentionally skip numbers for line items. They are numbered consecutively, and the missing numbers
between existing items on the template are used to include unpredicted expenses while being able
to keep those expenses near similar line items.One purpose of having a budget is to prevent
overspending. The Production Accountant will be working with you throughout production, predicting
costs and tracking them. As you’re tracking costs, hold the crew accountable: make sure the
department’s report to you so they know what they are spending, and ensure their department
heads understand their budgets. The director, producer, and assistant director also need to help enforce
the budget.

Keep track of what they are promising and to whom, and attend all meetings with the location scouts for
this purpose as well.Although some people need to know the entire budget, such as the producer,
financiers, and production manager, keep in mind that this is a confidential document. Department
heads need to know the budgets for their individual departments, but not for the entire production. Not
only might you be required to sign a confidentiality agreement, but also you might find that the cost
report stops reflecting the budget as production moves forward. Keeping the budget confidential
helps prevent promises that can’t be kept as unseen expenses arise

UNIT 3 - PRODUCTION 
 

 
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TOPIC 1: STEPS INVOLVED IN PRODUCTION OF A TV 

PROGRAMME
Production is the actual taping of the TV show or shoot. Cast and crew are assembled,
and the director will orchestrate the taping and work to shoot as quickly as possible. Production
may take place in a studio or on location. Location shooting is
almost always more work, as production equipment needs to be brought to the location along with the
cast and crew. Most TV shows prefer to use established sets since this makes the production
process easier.

STEPS OF PRODUCTION: 

STEP 1: SHOOTING STAGE 

● The success of this phase of a video production is entirely dependent on how well we
have planned it. It will be director‘s responsibility to see that every piece of equipment and
human resources is well in place before the actual shooting begins.
● Although the role of each production personnel is well laid out., each one of them may
be required to pitch in as per requirement on location. Team members should know that they may
be required to play a bit beyond the role chalked out for them.
● As producer/director, it will also be our responsibility to check for all the last minute
details like transportation, video memory cards, talent, properties and even snacks. As the
captain of the production, the producer is the creative head. But it is also the producer‘s
responsibility to check that all members if the production team are well geared for the shooting
phase of the production.

STEP 2: MANAGING THE VIDEO EQUIPMENT 

Irrespective of whether we are travelling by public transport (train, flight, or even state
transport buses) or by hired taxi, it is safe to insure the equipment we are carrying.
The producer/director is ultimately respnsible for every frame and every

 
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bit of audio that goes into the programme. Viewers are not interested in empathasising
with our production-related problems. All they want to see is a good video. And to
produce a good appreciable video, it is important that all eqiupment are taken good care of.

TOPIC 2: PRODUCTION PERSONNEL ROLES AND 

RESPONSIBILITIES 

There are two types of production personnel:

​ ll those involved in non-technical activitiesor the most creative

a)above the line production personnel: A
persons like producer, director, script writer, set designer, production assistant, costumedesigner,
property manager, music composer, make up artist, choreographers & production manager are
included in the above line production personnel.

b)below the line production personnel:​ All those related to technical crew, like camera person, lighting
director, sound engineer, graphic designer, electrical engineer, video editor etc are below the line
production personnel.

PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT

Executive Producer: An executive producer is usually an investor in the project or someone who
has facilitated the funding of the project. There may be multiple executive producers on a project,
depending on the financing arrangements.

Production Manager: The production manager supervises the physical aspects of the production
including personnel,technology, budget, and scheduling. It is the PM’s responsibility to make sure the
filming stays on schedule and within its budget. The PM often works under the supervision of a line
producer and directly supervises the Production Coordinator.

Production Coordinator:The production coordinator is the information nexus of the

production, responsible for organising all the logistics from hiring crew, renting equipment, and
booking talent. The PC is an integral part of film production.

 
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Director: The director is responsible for overseeing the creative aspects of a film, including controlling
the content and flow of the film's plot, directing the performances of actors, selecting the locations in
which the film will be shot, and managing technical details such as the positioning of cameras, the use of
lighting, andthe timing and content of the film's soundtrack.

Assistant Director: assists the director in the control room by readying camera shots, timing scripts, and
coordinating cues, or on the set by coordinating the extras in the scene. Becoming an AD is not a
stepping stone to becoming a director. AD’s are specifically trained to work with extras and not actors.
Several AD’s usually assist a director on TV shows that are shot on location.

Production Assistant/Production Runner: The production assistant or runner assists the first assistant
director with on-set operations. PAs also assist in the production office with general tasks.

Screenwriter: Screenwriters or scriptwriters are responsible for researching the story, developing the
narrative,writing the screenplay, and delivering it, in the required format, to the Producers. They
are almost always freelancers who either pitch original ideas to Producers in the hope that they will be
optioned or sold, or who are commissioned by a Producer to create a screenplay from a concept,
true story, existing screenwork or literary work, such as a novel or short story.

Casting Director: Works closely with the Director and Producer to understand requirements,
suggests artists for each role, as well as arranging and conducting interviews and auditions.

LOCATION DEPARTMENT

Location Manager: The location manager is responsible for finding and securing locations to be
used for the production and coordinating the logistics, permits and costs involved. They are also the
face of the production to the community.

Location Assistant: Assists the location manager and is on-set before, during, and after the filming
process. General responsibilities include arriving first at the location to allow the set dressers
onto the set; maintaining the cleanliness of the location areas during filming and fielding
complaints from neighbours.

 
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CAMERA DEPARTMENT

Director of Photography/Cinematographer: The director of photography is the head of the camera and
lighting department of the film. The DOP makes decisions on lighting and framing of scenes in
conjunction with the film's director.

Camera Operator: The camera operator operates the camera under the direction of the director of
photography, or the film director, to capture the scenes on film. Depending on the camera format being
used for filming (eg film or digital), a director of photography may not operate the camera, but
sometimes these two roles are combined.

SOUND DEPARTMENT

Production Sound Mixer (Sound Recordist): The production sound mixer is head of the sound
department on set, responsible for recording all sound during filming. This involves the choice of
microphones, operation of a sound recording device, and sometimes the mixing of audio signals in real
time.

Boom Operator (Boom Swinger): The boom operator is responsible for microphone placement and
movement during filming. The boom operator uses a boom pole to position the microphone above or
below the actors, just out of the camera's frame.

ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

Lighting Director (IBEW) - primarily responsible lighting the set on TV show. Responsible for the
design and execution of the lighting plan for a production. Unlike a director of photography or
cinematographer in film who is intimately involved in camera placement, the TV lighting director is
concerned mainly with lighting a particular set that is used repeatedly on a show, or lighting the set for a
particular production number or musical act on a show. TV lighting directors work predominately in a
studio and rarely work outdoors on location.

Gaffer: primarily responsible for handling lighting instruments, dimmers, cables, generators, and other
electrical equipment.

 
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ART DEPARTMENT

Set Designer: The set designer is the draftsman, often an architect, who realizes the structures or interior
spaces called for by the production designer.

Make-up Artist :Make-up artists work with makeup, hair, prosthetics and special effects to create the
characters look for anyone appearing on screen. Their role is to manipulate an actor’s on screen
appearance.

Hairdresser: The hair stylist is responsible for maintaining and styling the hair of anyone appearing on
screen. They work in conjunction with the makeup artist.

Costume Designer: The costume designer is responsible for all the clothing and costumes worn
by the cast. They design and plan construction of the garments down to the fabric, colours, and sizes.

POST PRODUCTION

Film Editor (Offline Editor for video productions): Assembles the various shots into a coherent film,
working closely with the director.

Assistant Editor: Assists the editor by collecting and organising all the elements needed for the edit.

Online Editor (for video productions): When the offline edit is complete, adds visual effects, titles,
and applies color correction. Also ensures that the program meets the technical delivery
specifications.

Music Director (ASCAP) - is primarily responsible for composing and/or arranging a TV show’s music.
Although the show’s theme song is usually written by another composer, a show’s music director is
primarily responsible for composing and arranging the show’s music scores and bumpers. On a talk
show such as Letterman or Leno. the music director is responsible for selecting, arranging, and
conducting the musical accompaniment for the show

Audio Technician: Primarily responsible for miking, mixing, and sweetening the audio for a program.
Unlike movies, most TV shows use the “live” audio recorded on the set. As such, miking is very

 
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important for the overall quality of a show. On talk shows, the guests usually have wireless lapel mikes
clipped to their shirts, while the host of the show uses a wireless hand-held mike to speak and gather
responses from the studio audience.

Music Supervisor: Works with the composer, mixers and editors to create and integrate the film's music.
Negotiates licensing of the necessary rights for all source music used in a film.

 
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TOPIC 3: SINGLE CAMERA SHOOT 

A producer or director on a live-action production must make two basic decisions before
production begins.

● First, He or She must decide whether one or more than one camera should be used to record or
transmit images. Using one camera is called Single –Camera Production, and using more than
one camera is referred to as Multi –Camera Production.
● Second, a decision must be made about whether the images or video or audio should be
recorded inside or outside the studio. Recording inside the studio is known as Studio Production,
whereas recording outside the studio is called Location Production in film and Remote
Production (involving cable/microwave links to the studio) or Field Production in video.

In Single –Camera Production, each separate shot is set up and recorded individually. The main artistic
advantage of Single –Camera Production is that few compromises have to be made in lighting or
microphone placement to accommodate the viewing requirements of several different cameras.
Logistically, only one camera needs to be set up or carried into the field at a time.

Single –Camera Production of dramatic fiction usually begins with the recording of a master
shot, which covers as much of the action in a scene as possible from a single camera position.
Then the same actions are repeated and recorded again with the camera placed closer to the
action. The resulting material (Edited Video) is combined during post-production editing.

Single–Camera Production techniques are used to record television drama, sitcoms, feature films,
documentaries and television commercials, as well as in news recording. The “single-camera”
sitcom has grown in popularity in the last decade. Shows like Modern Family, Silicon Valley, and The
Last Man on Earth are perfect contemporary examples. Except for live coverage of sports events,
single –Camera Production is the norm for location and remote production situation. In some production
situations, it is simply impossible to record events inside a studio, even studio production
facilities and techniques are usually more efficient and economical. Lighting and sound recording
are more easily controlled in a studio than at a remote location. Most production studios are

 
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designed to provide ideal recording conditions by insulating the recording space from outside sounds,
reducing the echo of interior sounds, and allowing easy overhead floor positioning of lights.
Location Production can give a film or television production a greater sense of realism or an illusion of
reality.

Although it’s a time consuming and tiring process, at the same time, it provides the opportunity for
maximum technical and artistic quality.In contrast, in video dramas actors may have to memorize their
lines and actions for a complete production. Lighting, audio & makeup etc.... have to work for long shots
and close ups, and a variety of different camera angles.

The best lighting is limited to one camera angle, but when people have to be lit & shot from three or four
angles at the same time, as they normally are in multiple camera video production , then the director
have to do some compromises.

In film production many takes may be necessary before director feel they have the best possible take.
Some film scenes are shot dozens of time before a director is satisfied. In films, scenes are shot from
different angle and at different distances and film editors can choose from a multi take.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Scenes don’t have to be shoot in sequence. The sequence will be done at the time of editing.
2. Cheaper production as no extra persons are needed to handle.
3. Simple: when using the multi camera technique it can be difficult to place cameras where
lighting won’t affect the shot.
4. Convenient: All shots involving specific talent/actors (starting with the highest paid)
should be shoot as close together in time as possible, apart from of script sequence.
5. All shots at a particular location should be shot at the same time.
6. Realistic : the lighting and sound can be edited in every shot it therefore makes
everything look more realistic
7. All shots requiring specific production personnel should be shot at the same time.
8. M

DISADVANTAGES:

 
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1. Actor or talent have to give the same performance with the same movement again and
again.
2. Time consuming
3. Tiring
4. Camera movement is very much.

SHOOTING TECHNIQUES

​ ne important aspect of filming with a single-camera setup is camera

Camera Placement: O
placement. Examine the set you have to work with, and find an angle that fits the mood or tone of the
scene. For example, if you are shooting a dramatic conversation, find a camera angle that can
capture the body language of the actors, as well as any important props in the scene. Place the camera
where you have a clear line of sight to the action you are filming.

Multiple Takes:​ In some instances, you may need to shoot a scene several times from different
angles. This allows you to edit different camera angles into a scene, even though you are only
using one camera. It is important for the actors to perform the scene as identical to other takes as
possible, so the final cut looks like it was filmed at the same time using multiple cameras. It is
also important that all wardrobe, makeup and lighting be identical throughout each take.

Fixed vs. Moving: ​Single-camera shoots might involve fixed cameras or moving cameras. For example,
you might follow actors with a moving camera, on wheels or hand-held, if the actors are
walking or in motion. If the actors remain in the same area for the scene, you probably want
to use a fixed camera that doesn't move. However, you can use a hand-held or moving camera
as well; it all depends on your shooting style and vision for the scene.

Other Tips: ​When shooting scenes with a single-camera setup, you will probably shoot scenes
out of the order they appear in the script. Shoot all scenes with specific actors, especially the
highest-paid actors, as close together as possible to be time-efficient. Also, shoot all scenes in a
specific location or specific set as close together as possible, so you do not have to set up and take down
the set multiple times.

 
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TOPIC 4: MULTI CAMERA SHOOT

Multi camera is a method for shooting films using many different cameras. The cameras are set up in
different places in order to gain a variety of shots, therefore cutting down the time taken to shoot. The
advantage of using multiple cameras is that there is more than one view, so there is a lot more footage to
choose from. Another advantage is that, all the shots are filmed at once from different angles so
nothing goes out of place. As opposed to single camera setup there is no need to recreate the
scene to shoot again and again.

The first major difference between a multi-camera shoot and a single-camera location shoot is the
number of people involved. In theory a single camera unit can consist of just one person fulfilling the
roles of director, camera operator, sound recordist and reporter. On a multi-camera shoot the team
consists of camera operators, sound crew, lighting crew, the vision mixer, vision control, engineers, tape
operators, the designer, set builders, costume, make up, the floor manager and assistants, the production
team and the on-air talent – the presenters.

On a single-camera shoot you can risk just turning up and hoping it will happen – or making it happen.
A multi-camera shoot always requires a high degree of planning, co-ordination, teamwork and
communication.

Generally the two outer cameras shoot close shots or crosses of the two most active characters
on the set at any given time, while the central camera or camera shooting wider shoot( master shoot)
capture the overall action & establish geography of the scene.

Apart from saving editing time, scenes may be shot for more quickly as there is no need for re-lighting
& the setup of alternate camera angle for the scene to be shot again from different angle. It also reduces
the complexity of tracking continuity issues that crop up when the scene is re shoot from
different angles. It is also vital for live television, the evening news, talk shows, sitcoms,
sporting events & rock concerts are all shot with multiple cameras that are connected to a video mixer &
mixed on a single tape & sent to television via cable or the airwaves.At events like sports or any mega
level event may have dozens of camera shots from which to choose. The production team considers

 
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every possible angle, so they can capture every movement. In the multi camera, there is less of
chance to miss any action.

Multi-camera sitcoms represent the more traditional approach to television comedy, dating back to
shows like The Dick Van Dyke Show, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, Three’s Company, Family Ties,
Seinfeld, and Friends. The contemporary multi-camera shows like The Big Bang Theory have taken the
torch from those classics.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Quick: scenes may be shot far more quickly as there is no need for re lighting and the setup of
alternate camera angles for the scene to be shot again from the different angle.
2. Efficient : this techniques saves editing time as it reduces the complexity of tracking
continuity issues.
3. Consistent: keep up consistency of soaps/ live broadcast programme.
4. Multiple shots are obtained in a single take.
5. Production is Less time consuming.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. Costly:(crew, camera, production people, equipments) a bigger production team is needed.

2. Issue with lighting: there is less optimized lighting which needs to provide a
compromise for all camera angles.
3. Lack of flexibility:it can get complicated when trying to hide equipments from the other
camera, less flexibility in putting microphones, boom, and other equipments.
4. If we talk about ENG (electronic news gathering) multi camera set up is quite difficult.

SHOOTING TECHNIQUES

Camera Placement: The very first thing you need to address with your multicam set up is the placement
of your cameras themselves. If you are shooting a scene with two actors and you have 3
cameras on them –you probably want a close up on each actor, and then a wide/medium master shot.As

 
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you might imagine. Make sure you are never doubling up on coverage, regardless of the creative
choices that are made.

Lighting: When shooting with one camera, your setup naturally only matters for the particular angle and
take that you are executing, and when you go in for coverage you can make small adjustments
to your lights (such as walking in a key or fill) as needed. With multi-camera lighting though,
everything changes. The easiest way of maintaining visual consistency is by setting up your lights much
in the same way that a stage play or a sitcom is set up.or example, lighting from above (by rigging lights
to a ceiling or grid) would be hugely preferable over lighting using traditional stands.

Matching The Cameras: Amongst the most common and problematic issue that arises on multicam
setups (particularly on low budget indie films) are mismatched cameras. In many instances,small
productions don‘t want to rent two or three identical cameras, so they mix and match various cameras
that they have access to in order to supplement their multicamera setup.In an ideal world,
you want every camera to be the exact make and model, or at the very least the same brand. For
example a Canon 5D MK II and a Canon 7D will match a lot better than a 7D and a Lumix GH4 since
Canon and Lumix use completely different firmware and color science.Even if you are shooting on
identical cameras, you still need to be extremely diligent when it comes to your settings
(camera profiles, shutter angle, white balance, etc.) as any slight difference in your camera
settings can increase effort and time in post production.

 
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UNIT 3 - POST-PRODUCTION 
 

TOPIC 1: VIDEO EDITING CONCEPT AND PROCESS 

CONCEPT
What is Video Editing?

Video editing ​is the process of manipulating and rearranging video shots to create a new work. Editing is
usually considered to be one part of the ​post production ​process — other post-production tasks include
titling, colour correction, sound mixing, etc.

Many people use the term ​editing ​to describe all their post-production work, especially in
non-professional situations. HOWEVER, we use the word ​editing t​ o mean any of the following:

• ​Rearranging, adding and/or removing sections of video clips and/or audio clips.
• ​Applying colour correction, filters and other enhancements.
• ​Creating transitions between clips.

GOALS OF EDITING

There are many reasons to edit a video and your editing approach will depend on the desired outcome.
Before you begin you must clearly define your editing goals, which could include any of the following:

1. Remove unwanted footage

This is the simplest and most common task in editing. Many videos can be dramatically improved by
simply getting rid of the flawed or unwanted bits.

2. Choose the best footage

It is common to shoot far more footage than you actually need and choose only the best material for the
final edit. Often you will shoot several versions (takes) of a shot and choose the best one when editing.

3. Create a flow

Most videos serve a purpose such as telling a story or providing information. Editing is a crucial step in
making sure the video flows in a way which achieves this goal.

 
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4. Add effects, graphics, music, etc

This is often the "wow" part of editing. You can improve most videos (and have a lot of fun) by adding
extra elements.

5. Alter the style, pace or mood of the video

A good editor will be able to create subtle mood prompts in a video. Techniques such as mood music
and visual effects can influence how the audience will react.

6. Give the video a particular "angle"

Video can be tailored to support a particular viewpoint, impart a message or serve an agenda.

TYPES OF EDITING

Tape to Tape (Linear)

Linear editing was the original method of editing electronic video tapes, before editing computers
became available in the 1990s. Although it is no longer the preferred option for most serious work, it
still has a place and remains the better option in some cases.

In linear editing, video is selectively copied from one tape to another. It requires at least two video
machines connected together — one acts as the ​source a​ nd the other is the ​recorder​. The basic
procedure is quite simple:

1. Place the video to be edited in the source machine and a blank tape in the recorder. 2. Press ​play o​ n
the source machine and ​record ​on the recorder.

The idea is to record only those parts of the source tape you want to keep. In this way desired footage is
copied in the correct order from the original tape to a new tape. The new tape becomes the edited
version.

This method of editing is called "linear" because it must be done in a linear fashion; that is, starting with
the first shot and working through to the last shot. If the editor changes their mind or notices a mistake,
it is almost impossible to go back and re-edit an earlier part of the video.

Digital/Computer (Non-linear)

In this method, video footage is recorded (captured) onto a computer hard drive and then edited using

 
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specialized software. Once the editing is complete, the finished product is recorded back to tape or
optical disk.

Non-linear editing has many significant advantages over linear editing. Most notably, it is a very flexible
method which allows you to make changes to any part of the video at any time. This is why it's called
"non-linear" — because you don't have to edit in a linear fashion. One of the most difficult aspects of
non-linear digital video is the array of hardware and software options available. There are also several
common video standards which are incompatible with each other, and setting up a robust editing system
can be a challenge.

Live Editing

In some situations multiple cameras and other video sources are routed through a central mixing console
and edited in real time. Live television coverage is an example of live editing.

Live editing is a fairly specialist topic and won't concern most people.

EDITING PROCESS

The Edit Process itself really has 5 Stages:

1. LOGGING : Logging is when editors see the footage for the first time. They log it and arrange the
clips into bins (or folders), then label those bins accordingly. since it is often out of sequence,
it makes it easier to find specific shots during the editing process.

2. FIRST ASSEMBLY : The first assembly is where you take all of that meticulously logged footage
and arrange it into a timeline consistent with the film’s storyboard. For feature-length films, this can
be quite a task, so to make it more manageable editors will often break the process up by organizing
each scene as a standalone before sequencing all of the scenes together.

3. ROUGH CUT: With the rough cut, you’ll be trimming that crazy-long first assembly down to one,
neat tidy first draft. This means going through all of the different versions of each take and picking
out the best one to keep.

Next, you’re going to turn your attention towards the structure and pacing of the film, adding in
pauses, transitions, titles, dummy narration, and anything else that’ll help capture and convey the
emotions and messages embedded in the narrative. This is usually the stage where the client
gets to review the program and get a pretty good idea of where the video is heading.
Changes at this point need to be carefully determined and discussed, as they can get quite costly

 
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after this initial approval stage.

4. Fine Cut—The fine cut is the next version of the program that has taken into account all the
changes, modifications and instructions by all parties, including the Editor, Director and
Producers, and the end client. The fine cut focuses on the details of each and every scene in the First
Cut. This the second and near finished version of the video. At this point, the editors and
producers need to receive "Picture Lock" approval which means that there are no more
substantial changes that can be made to the video. “Picture Lock” basically means it’s ready to be
shipped off to other departments for finishing touches (color corrections, special effects, etc.) and
no more changes to the timeline or TRT (total running time) can be made.

5. Final Cut—Once the fine cut has been approved by all parties and finalized, the project is
handed over to the sound department for sound effects and final audio mix. Closed captioning and
formatting of the final video happens in conjunction with the sound mix. Then the project is final
and ready for distribution.

 
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TOPIC 2: CONTINUITY EDITING

Providing smooth, seamless continuity across transitions is a very important element to keeping edits
unnoticed by the viewer. This is called continuity editing or invisible editing.

Continuity editing is the predominant style of film editing and video editing in the
post-production process of filmmaking of narrative films and television programs. The purpose of
continuity editing is to smooth over the inherent discontinuity of the editing process and to
establish a logical coherence between shots.

Continuity editingis the process, in film and video creation, of combining more-or-less related
shots, or different components cut from a single shot, into a sequence so as to direct the viewer's
attention to a pre-existing consistency of story across both time and physical location.Often used
in feature films, continuity editing, or "cutting to continuity", can be contrasted with approaches
such as montage, with which the editor aims to generate, in the mind of the viewer, new
associations among the various shots that can then be of entirely different subjects, or at least of
subjects, less closely related, than would be required for the continuity approach.

By sticking to a number of key principles, continuity editing succeeds in creating the appearance of
continuous action, manipulating your viewing expectations and emotions, and ideally positioning you
the viewer so that you become involved and engaged in the story.

The key techniques and principles used in continuity editing are:

1. Screen Direction:​ Screen direction match means matching how a character (or object) exits one
shot and enters the next shot, reappearing where the audience expects to see them.” As a
consequence “character who moves right out of the shot, must enter in the next shot which follow
his/her/its movement from the left, in order to don’t give the impression he/she/it has got back.

2. 180 Degree Rule/Axis of Action: T ​ he 180-degree rule is a cinematography guideline that states that
two characters in a scene should maintain the same left/right relationship to one another. When the
camera passes over the invisible axis connecting the two subjects, it is called crossing the line and
the shot becomes what is called a reverse angle. Reversing the angle is commonly thought to be
disorienting and can distract the audience from the intent of the scene.

3. Eyeline Match:​ Eye-line (sight line) is an imaginary line that connects a subject’s eyes to whatever
object holds his or her attention within the film world. If two people are speaking with one another,
the other person’s face or eyes are often the object of interest, so the eye-line would trace from
Character A’s eyes to Character B’s face/eyes. It could be a person looking at a clock, or a dog, or a
work of art, etc.

 
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When you cut away from the shot of the person looking off screen to the shot of his or her object of
interest, the eye-line must match. The audience must be able to trace the imaginary line from the
subject’s eyes, across the cut point, and to the object contained within the new shot. If this line does
not flow correctly, then the audience will feel like something is just not right.

4. Shot/Reverse Shot: This is a classical device which can be used in a number of ways, but most often
is seen in basic dialogue sequences. The dialogue begins with a two shot of the participants in the
scene. The cutting pattern then starts as one character is shown looking (often offscreen) at another
character, and in the next shot the second character is then shown apparently looking back at the
first.”

5. Point of view Cutting: this is a variant of the eyeline match. The structure is the same: a character
looks off screen – we then cut to the object the character is looking at. However, what distinguishes
point of view cutting is that the object is shown from the character’s optical vantage point – i.e.
directly through the character’s eyes. This particular technique is even more powerful in terms of
how effectively it places the audience in the position of the main character.

6. Match on Action: The ‘action match’: is achieved cutting a movement or a gesture in a shot and
taking it again in the next one from a different angle or with a different distance as regards the
subject.” The viewer, concentrating on the action, would be inclined to pay less attention to the cuts
and, therefore, would be less aware of the editing process

7. MATCHING ANGLES: When shooting dialogue scenes, the production team will most often shoot
what are called matching angles: coverage of each character in each shot type where the angle on
the person, her or his size in the frame, the lighting scheme, and the focus on the faces are all
consistent with one another. One person’s close-up will look very similar to the other person’s
close-up, but they will be on opposite sides of the frame. The compositions of the matching shots
mirror one another.

8. Sound: A film soundtrack has the whole of 4 sound categories: “… 1) vocal sounds (dialogue and
narration), 2) environmental sounds (ambient sound, sound effects, and Foley sound), 3) music, and
4) silence.” The soundtrack, whatever it is in the form of dialogue, voice narration, music, sound or
silence, can be employed efficaciously to connect two or more shots which, without it, might seem
not continuous or, at least, might not have the same continuity as the one they would have with the
soundtrack. Therefore, the continuity between different shots would be fostered by the presence of a
sound which starts in a shot and continues in the next one or next ones;

 
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TOPIC 4: PRETESTING AND EVALUATION

Pre-testing is such research attempts to predict the performance of specific

advertisements/TV programmes in terms of liking, motivation, etc. of audience members.
Different types of copy, length of copy types of visuals, various appeals and the various types of
approaches will work differently for different products and different target audiences. So
producers has to finalize the best possible options that are likely to produces better results than
others.Pre-testing is a kind of insurance against bad mistakes. It finds out the appropriateness of the
programme/advertisement and their individual components like headline, visuals, body copy and
layout, etc. Such test is mainly confined to the communication of the advertising messages.
Major methods of pre-testing include:

Television Pilot

A television pilot (also known as a pilot or a pilot episode and sometimes marketed as a tele-movie) is a
standalone episode of a television series that is used to sell the show to a television network.At the time
of its creation, the pilot is meant to be the testing ground to gauge whether a series will be successful,
and is therefore a test episode of an intended television series.It is an early step in the development of a
television series. In the case of a successful television series, the pilot is commonly the very first episode
that is aired of the particular series under its own name.

Test screening

A test screening is a preview screening of a movie or television show before its general release in order
to gauge audience reaction. Preview audiences are selected from a cross-section of the population, and
are usually asked to complete a questionnaire or provide feedback in some form.Harold Lloyd is
credited with inventing the concept, having used it as early as 1928.Test screenings have been
recommended even for starting filmmakers "even if a film festival is fast approaching"Feedback from a
test screening may be used to alter the movie before it is released. This may be as simple as changing the
title of the film (as in the case of the film that became Licence to Kill).or it maybe more substantial.
Cases exist of where test screenings prompted filmmakers to completely change the ending of a movie.

Online Scoring in a Test Screening

Online scoring is an apparatus technology to rate radio and TV programmes, commercials, videos,
cinema and business films, or music. Respondents use a handheld device to rate their audiovisual
perception in real time. While receiving a commercial or radio programme they rate how much they like
what they're currently watching and/or listening to; green, yellow, and red lights indicate how the source
is being assessed. The results are transferred every second to a PC and shown as curves on a graph. An

 
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assessment of the graphs provides a variety of information about the dramatic structure of the
audiovisual stimuli under investigation and how people perceive what's happening.

Storyboard tests

such test are used for TV. Before programs are shot, story -boards series of important shots drawn in
the comic strip fashion is created. These storyboards are transferred on to filmstrips and the audio part is
recorded. The selected audience is shown the synchronized version of the filmstrips and audiotape in the
slide and sound format. This way television programs can be evaluated even before they are prepared.
Storyboard testing is a cost of saving evaluation method, but it is far distanced from the actual
experience of watching TV ads. So it is not the most effective method of evaluation.

Laboratory tests-

when we watch a particular program, we react and respond in many ways like raising of eyebrows,
dilation of pupil, other eye movements, facial expressions and body movements. Special labs conditions
are created to measure such bodily responses. These conditions provide the researchers a highly
controlled environment to conduct the test. Such tests can measure attention, comprehension, and
retention of the message. A wide variety of instruments and devices are used for this purpose

Psychological in-depth interviews

In psychological in-depth interviews, the research team is able to get to the bottom of potential
customers' unconscious and hidden motivations, opinions, and feelings. The interviews also offer the
advantage that the researchers can take account of our interviewees' individual nature and respond
appropriately to them.

 
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