Teaching Vocabulary

STUART WEBB AND PAUL NATION

Teaching vocabulary effectively requires preparation and planning. Teachers need to ensure
that their students are spending time learning the words that are most useful to them.
Teachers also need to have clear goals for vocabulary learning during the course and make
their students aware of these goals. It is also important for teachers to use an approach
that will help their learners develop comprehensive knowledge of the target words, and
to measure vocabulary learning in the course. The following sections will provide a brief
discussion of these issues.

Which Words Should Be Learned?

The unknown words which have the greatest value to the students deserve attention in
the classroom. Typically these words are the highest frequency words that remain to be
learned or words which fill a special need for the learners. The most frequent words reoccur
most often in spoken and written text, so they have the greatest value for comprehension
and use. For example, Nation (2006) found that the most frequent 2,000 word families in
the British National Corpus (BNC) accounted for just over 89% of words in the Wellington
Corpus of Spoken English, and the most frequent 3,000 word families and knowledge of
the proper nouns accounted for just over 96% of the words. This finding demonstrates the
relative value of learning the high-frequency vocabulary. While low-frequency words still
have value, they are not encountered often enough to warrant attention in the classroom.
Instead teachers need to help students learn strategies to deal with low-frequency words.
Using vocabulary learning strategies effectively will increase the potential for vocabulary
learning outside of the classroom.
In the initial stages of vocabulary development, the most frequent 1,000 word families
should be learned, followed by the most frequent 1001–2000 word families. There are
several lists derived from the frequency and range of occurrence of words that are useful
resources for teachers. Michael West’s (1953) General Service List (GSL) and Nation’s (2004)
BNC word lists are perhaps the most useful. The GSL is derived from written discourse
while the BNC lists are derived from both written and spoken discourse. These lists are
freely available from Paul Nation’s home page http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/staff/
paul-nation.aspx as well as from Tom Cobb’s useful vocabulary resource the Compleat
Lexical Tutor http://www.lextutor.ca/.
Words which fill a specific need should be learned once the high-frequency vocabulary
is known. Coxhead’s (2000) Academic Word List is one example of useful vocabulary for
students who know the highest frequency words and are planning to study at university.
The list of 570 word families accounts for 8.5–10% of the words in a range of academic
texts from different disciplines. Technical words are useful for those who need to learn
about a specific topic and are encountered often within a particular content area. Chung
and Nation (2003) found that 30% of the words in an anatomy text could be classified as
technical items.
Teachers need to measure their students’ vocabulary size to determine which words
deserve attention in a course. Ideally, this should be done at the beginning of the course.

The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, Edited by Carol A. Chapelle.

© 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal1177
2 teaching vocabulary

There are several established tests which can be used, such as the Vocabulary Levels Test
(Nation, 1983, 1990; Schmitt, Schmitt, & Clapham, 2001), the Eurocentres Vocabulary Size
Test (Meara & Jones, 1990), the Productive Levels Test (Laufer & Nation, 1999), and the
Vocabulary Size Test (Nation & Beglar, 2007). The Vocabulary Levels Test is most useful
for determining the extent to which students know the highest frequency vocabulary. The
Vocabulary Size Test is also very useful because it can provide some indication of vocabu-
lary knowledge at each 1,000-word level up to the 14,000-word level, and it measures total
vocabulary size.

What Are the Vocabulary Learning Goals?

Teachers should have clear vocabulary learning goals for their students. This is particularly
important in the early stages of vocabulary development when increasing vocabulary size
will have a significant effect on the degree to which learners can use and understand
language. The goals should be dependent on the time available for vocabulary learning
inside and outside of the classroom and the methods used for learning. Explicit learning
methods are fast and efficient. For example, research on learning word pairs has shown
that learners can acquire from nine to 58 L2 vocabulary items per hour with an average
of 34 (Thorndike, 1908), to as many as 166 L2 words per hour (W.B. Webb, 1962). More
recently, Cobb and Horst (2001) found that deliberate learning with concordances for an
hour a week for two months resulted in 140–80 words learned (around 16 to 20 words
per hour). In comparison, incidental learning gains are relatively small, and are dependent
on the amount of input; words are learned gradually through repeated encounters in
context. For example, in the L1 learning context, where there is typically a large amount
of input each day, young native speakers may incidentally learn approximately 1,000 word
families each year (Nation, 2001). However, in an EFL (English as a foreign language)
context where L2 input is limited, incidental vocabulary learning may not have as much
effect on increasing vocabulary size (Cobb, 2007). Researchers tend to agree that an approach
that combines explicit and incidental learning conditions may be most effective (Nation,
1990, 2001; Laufer, 2003; Hunt & Beglar, 2005 and also http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl; Webb,
2007a).
Learners need to be aware of the vocabulary learning goals. If teachers expect a specific
number of words to be learned each week, and over the duration of a course, knowledge
of these goals may encourage learning. Moreover, learners should understand how these
goals can help them to reach certain vocabulary size thresholds which may allow them to
better understand the target language. For example, a vocabulary size of 3,000 word
families and knowledge of proper nouns might be sufficient for comprehension of television
programs (Webb & Rodgers, 2009a) and movies (Webb & Rodgers, 2009b); a vocabulary
size of 6,000–7,000 word families may be necessary for comprehension of conversation;
and a vocabulary size of 8,000–9,000 word families may be necessary to understand novels
and newspapers (Nation, 2006). Making learners aware of their vocabulary size at the start
of a course and the vocabulary learning goals within the course can help them to see the
value of working toward both the course and the threshold goals. If there is a principled
approach to vocabulary learning within the institution, it may also be possible to indicate
when learners might be able to reach certain goals such as understanding conversation
and television programs. These are goals for receptive learning. For productive use, smaller
vocabulary sizes may be sufficient. Michael West developed minimal productive vocabu-
laries for speaking and for defining words that consisted of much less than 2,000 words.
However, judgments of the quality of writing are positively affected by a richer vocabulary
and so such limited productive vocabulary sizes need to be seen as intermediate goals.
 teaching vocabulary 3

Table 1 Description of vocabulary knowledge (taken from Nation, 2001)

Spoken R What does the word sound like?

P How is the word pronounced?
Form Written R What does the word look like?
P How is the word written and spelled?
Word parts R What parts are recognizable in this word?
P What word parts are needed to express the meaning?
Form and meaning R What meaning does this word form signal?
P What word form can be used to express this meaning?
Meaning Concept and referents R What is included in the concept?
P What items can the concept refer to?
Association R What other words does this make us think of?
P What other words could we use instead of this one?
Grammatical functions R In what patterns does this word occur?
P In what patterns must we use this word?
Use Collocation R What words or types of words occur with this one?
P What words or types of words must we use with this
one?
Constraints on use R When, where, and how often would we expect to
meet this word?
P Where, when, and how often can we use this word?

Note. R = receptive knowledge, P = productive knowledge

How Will Vocabulary Be Learned in the Course?

Once the vocabulary learning goals for a course have been decided, teachers need to plan
how those words will be learned. An awareness of the different aspects of vocabulary
knowledge may help teachers to create a plan that leads to comprehensive vocabulary
development. Although tests typically equate vocabulary knowledge with successfully
linking form and meaning, knowing a word involves much more. Developing fluency with
a word involves knowing its form, meaning, and use, and being able to use and understand
the word in a native-like manner. Table 1 provides a useful description of vocabulary
knowledge.
Table 1 shows that to effectively learn words there needs to be some focus on developing
both receptive and productive knowledge, and there also needs to be emphasis on learning
the form, meaning, and use of each word. This means that if we expect our learners to fully
learn a word, completing a single activity will probably not be sufficient. Table 1 shows
what is involved in gaining depth of knowledge of a word. This knowledge is gradually
acquired and is typically not the result of one piece of teaching or learning. That is why
Nation (2001) introduced “the four strands” as a framework for planning an effective
vocabulary learning program. The notion of the four strands is that vocabulary develop-
ment will be optimal if there is a similar amount of time given to learning in each strand.
The four strands are meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, language-focused
learning, and fluency development.
4 teaching vocabulary

Meaning-focused input involves learning through listening and reading, with the primary
goal being comprehension and enjoyment. In the meaning-focused input strand the lexical
demands should be minimal and approximately 98% of the words that are encountered
should be known to learners. This is supported by research that indicates that when learners
know 98% of the words in written text, they are able to read and understand text without
assistance (Hu & Nation, 2000). Reading and listening to material that is at this level of
difficulty may allow learners to focus their attention on the unknown words. Nation (2001)
suggests that knowing 98% of the words in a text provides the ideal conditions to success-
fully guess words in context. In meaning-focused input, learners make gradual gains in
vocabulary knowledge through repeated encounters with unknown words in context.
Words that teachers believe that their students know may also be enriched through encounters
in original contexts. Extensive reading and listening are most commonly associated with
meaning-focused input.
In the meaning-focused output strand, the aim is for learners to strengthen and deepen
their vocabulary knowledge by using recently encountered words in speech and writing.
One of the challenges of this strand for teachers is to design tasks that require the use of
the target vocabulary in original contexts. One way this can be achieved is by placing the
target words within the instructions and making it necessary for the students to use those
words to successfully complete the task (Nation & Newton, 2009). Through meaning-focused
output learners can increase all aspects of their productive knowledge of words.
The strand which is typically associated with vocabulary learning is language-focused
learning. In this strand the aim is to explicitly focus students on learning words and to
train learners how to effectively use vocabulary learning strategies. The highest frequency
words deserve deliberate teaching in the classroom. Teachers may wish to spend a reason-
able amount of time teaching several aspects of knowledge for important words or they
may spend less time and focus on a single aspect of knowledge (typically form and mean-
ing). Word cards, vocabulary notebooks, intensive reading, and activities that involve
linking form and meaning are some examples of language-focused learning activities.
Teaching vocabulary learning strategies is also an important part of this strand because
there are too many low-frequency words in a language to teach, and teachers need to
ensure that their students can effectively deal with low-frequency words outside of the
classroom. The strategies which have the greatest value are guessing from context, learn-
ing from word cards, using word parts, and dictionary use (see Nation, 2001, for a detailed
description of each strategy). Helping learners gain morphological awareness of inflections
and regular, productive derivational affixes can result in better knowledge of word fam-
ilies. If students can use these strategies correctly, they should be able to learn more words
because the potential for successful vocabulary learning will increase. It is important for
teachers to make time to teach each strategy over a number of classes and check to make
sure their students can successfully use them. There is plenty of evidence that deliberate
learning quickly results in stable learning (Laufer, 2005), and this learning results in the
kind of knowledge needed for normal language use. Any course that includes deliberate
learning will give better results than one that does not include this important strand.
It is important that there are spaced multiple encounters with each word. While there
is no fixed minimum number of repetitions, the general consensus is that there should be
at least somewhere between 7 and 16 meetings with each word. There is an enormous
amount of evidence that spaced learning is much more effective for long-term recall
than massed learning. Repetition is very important for learning and repetition in new con-
texts is particularly important as it enriches as well as strengthens previous knowledge
( Joe, 1995).
 teaching vocabulary 5

The aim of the fluency development strand is for known words to be used or understood
in a more native-like manner. It is one thing to know the meaning of a word and another
to be able to use it fluently. Activities that focus on fluency involve using very easy material
with familiar content that does not contain any unknown vocabulary, grammatical features,
and discourse features. There should also be some pressure to achieve a higher speed.
Activities that are commonly associated with fluency development are speed reading and
the 4/3/2 task, where a learner speaks to another learner on a topic for four minutes, then
gives exactly the same talk to another learner for three minutes, and finally to a third
learner for two minutes.
Vocabulary development will be enhanced if learning occurs in all four strands because
while each strand may help facilitate vocabulary knowledge to some extent, they are not
likely to be effective in developing comprehensive vocabulary knowledge. For example, if
words are learned incidentally through extensive reading in meaning-focused input, learners
may gain information that was provided in the contexts to some degree. However, their
knowledge will be derived solely from what could be gained from those contexts. Encounter-
ing words in context can lead to gains in all aspects of knowledge (Webb, 2007b) but the
extent to which learners may be able to successfully use those items may be limited.
Activities that build on the knowledge initially gained in one strand can strengthen
and deepen learning. For example, if learners are first given the meanings of words in a
language-focused learning task, their understanding and use of those words will be limited
to what could be gained through the meanings provided. Encountering those words again
in meaning-focused input may consolidate knowledge and has the potential to expand on
the knowledge initially gained. The meaning of words can be elaborated upon when
encountered in meaning-focused input, and learners may gain greater awareness of how
those words are used. Meaning-focused output activities can help expand productive
knowledge. Activities from the fluency strand move learners toward a more native-like
use of vocabulary. While teachers cannot be expected to micromanage the learning of each
word, they should find that if they try to incorporate a range of activities from each strand
over a course, learners develop greater knowledge of target vocabulary than if target words
were only encountered in one or two strands.

How Will Vocabulary Learning Be Assessed?

Measuring vocabulary knowledge during a course can have several benefits. First, it shows
learners the value that is placed on vocabulary learning. Vocabulary learning does not
have to play a central role in course assessment. However, a lack of assessment may indicate
to learners that vocabulary learning is a peripheral goal that is of lesser importance than
other language-learning goals. Short quizzes may be sufficient to demonstrate the need
for a continued focus on vocabulary learning. A second reason for measuring vocabulary
knowledge is that it also makes learners aware of their progress. Vocabulary tests can
clearly demonstrate to learners that they have made progress in their language learning
in a short period of time. This can provide encouragement for future learning. Third, tests
can be created to raise awareness of the different aspects of vocabulary knowledge. For
example, learners could be tested on their receptive or productive knowledge of form,
meaning, derivatives and inflections, and collocations. Tests or test items could vary between
the aspects of knowledge that are assessed. The use of tests measuring different aspects
of knowledge may also help learners to expand on their initial learning by focusing on
unknown or partially known aspects of knowledge. Finally, planned vocabulary tests can
act as a cue for further encounters with target items. Teachers can plan tests at specific
times to help learners consolidate their knowledge of words.
6 teaching vocabulary

Conclusion

As we have seen, teaching vocabulary involves important decisions regarding what vocabu-
lary learners need to focus on, how they will focus on it, and how they can take control of
their own learning. The vocabulary teacher’s main task is planning so that these decisions
are made and implemented in the most effective way.

SEE ALSO: Assessment of Vocabulary; Explicit Learning in Second Language Acquisition;

Incidental Learning in Second Language Acquisition; Teaching Language for Academic
Purposes; Vocabulary Acquisition in Second Language Acquisition; Vocabulary and
Language for Specific Purposes

References

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Suggested Readings

Boers, F., & Lindstromberg, S. (2009). Optimizing a lexical approach to instructed second language
acquisition. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan.
Folse, K. (2004). Vocabulary myths: Applying second language research to classroom teaching. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Laufer, B., & Hulstijn, J. (2001). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language: The
construct of task-induced involvement. Applied Linguistics, 22(1), 1–26.
Laufer, B., Meara, P., & Nation, I. S. P. (2005). Ten best ideas for teaching vocabulary. The
Language Teacher, 29(7), 3–6.
Nation, I. S. P. (2008). Teaching vocabulary: Strategies and techniques. Boston, MA: Heinle.
Read, J. (2000). Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Schmitt, N. (2000). Vocabulary in language teaching. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University
Press.
Schmitt, N. (2008). Review article: Instructed second language vocabulary learning. Language
Teaching Research, 12(3), 329–63.
Schmitt, N., & McCarthy, M. (Eds.). (1997). Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.