CULTURE

Egyptian culture has six thousand years of recorded history. Ancient Egypt was among the
earliest civilizations and for millennia, Egypt maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture
that influenced later cultures of Europe, the Middle East and other African countries. After the
Pharaonic era, Egypt itself came under the influence of Hellenism, Christianity, and Islamic
culture. Today, many aspects of Egypt's ancient culture exist in interaction with newer elements,
including the influence of modern Western culture, itself with roots in ancient Egypt.
Ancient Egyptian culture flourished between c. 5500 BCE with the rise of technology (as
evidenced in the glass-work of faience) and 30 BCE with the death of Cleopatra VII, the last
Ptolemaic ruler of Egypt. It is famous today for the great monuments which celebrated the
triumphs of the rulers and honored the gods of the land. The culture is often misunderstood as
having been obsessed with death but, had this been so, it is unlikely it would have made the
significant impression it did on other ancient cultures such as Greece and Rome.
The Egyptian culture was, in fact, life affirming, as one scholar writes:
“Judging by the numbers of tombs and mummies that the ancient Egyptians left behind, one can
be forgiven for thinking that they were obsessed by death. However, this is not so. The Egyptians
were obsessed by life and its continuation rather than by a morbid fascination with death. The
tombs, mortuary temples and mummies that they produced were a celebration of life and a means
of continuing it for eternity…For the Egyptians, as for other cultures, death was part of the
journey of life, with death marking a transition or transformation after which life continued in
another form, the spiritual rather than the corporeal.”
This passion for life imbued in the ancient Egyptians a great love for their land as it was thought
that there could be no better place on earth in which to enjoy existence.

CULTURAL ADVANCES & DAILY LIFE

Papyrus was only one of the technological advances of the ancient Egyptian culture. The
Egyptians were also responsible for developing the ramp and lever and geometry for purposes of
construction, advances in mathematics and astronomy, improvements in irrigation and, ship
building and aerodynamics, the wheel and medicine.
Glass working, metallurgy in both bronze and gold, and furniture were other advancements of
Egyptian culture and their art and architecture are famous world-wide for precision and beauty.
Personal hygiene and appearance was valued highly and the Egyptians bathed regularly, scented
themselves with perfume and incense, and created cosmetics used by both men and women. The
practice of shaving was invented by the Egyptians as was the wig and the hairbrush. By 1600
BCE the water clock was in use in Egypt, as was the calendar.
In daily life, the Egyptians seem little different from other ancient cultures. Like the people of
Mesopotamia, India, China, and Greece, they lived, mostly, in modest homes, raised families,
and enjoyed their leisure time. A significant difference between Egyptian culture and that of
other lands, however, was that the Egyptians believed the land was intimately tied to their
personal salvation and they had a deep fear of dying beyond the borders of Egypt. Those who
served their country in the army, or those who travelled for their living, made provision for their
bodies to be returned to Egypt should they be killed. It was thought that the fertile, dark earth of
the Nile River Delta was the only area sanctified by the gods for the re-birth of the soul in the
afterlife and to be buried anywhere else was to be condemned to non-existence. Because of this
devotion to the homeland, Egyptians were not great world-travellers. Even in negotiations and
treaties with other countries, Egyptian preference for remaining in Egypt was dominant. Further,
within the confines of the country people did not travel far from their places of birth and most,
except for times of war, famine or other upheaval, lived their lives and died in the same locale.

SPORTS & LEISURE

Swimming and rowing were extremely popular among all classes. Swimming was an important
part of Egyptian culture and children were taught to swim when very young. Water sports played
a significant role in Egyptian entertainment as the Nile River was such a major aspect of their
daily lives. The sport of water-jousting, in which two small boats, each with one or two rowers
and one jouster, fought each other, seems to have been very popular. The rower (or rowers) in
the boat sought to strategically maneuver while the fighter tried to knock his opponent out of the
craft. They also enjoyed games having nothing to do with the river, however, which were
similar to modern-day games of catch and handball. Gardens and simple home adornments were
highly prized by the Egyptians. A home garden was important for sustenance but also provided
pleasure in tending to one’s own crop. The labourers in the fields never worked their own crop
and so their individual garden was a place of pride in producing something of their own, grown
from their own soil. This soil, again, would be their eternal home after they left their bodies and
so was greatly valued.

CLASS DISTINCTIONS IN EGYPTIAN CULTURE

Among the lower classes, homes were built of mud bricks baked in the sun. The more affluent a
citizen, the thicker the home; wealthier people had homes constructed of a double layer, or more,
of brick while poorer people’s houses were only one brick wide. Wood was scarce and was only
used for doorways and window sills (again, in wealthier homes) and the roof was considered
another room in the house where gatherings were routinely held as the interior of the homes were
often dimly lighted. Clothing was simple linen, un-dyed, with the men wearing a knee-length
skirt (or loincloth) and the women in light, ankle-length dresses or robes which concealed or
exposed their breasts depending on the fashion at a particular time. It would seem that a
woman’s level of undress, however, was indicative of her social status throughout much of
Egyptian history. Dancing girls, female musicians, and servants and slaves are routinely shown
as naked or nearly naked while a lady of the house is fully clothed, even during those times when
exposed breasts were a fashion statement. Even so, women were free to dress as they pleased and
there was never a prohibition, at any time in Egyptian history, on female fashion. A woman’s
exposed breasts were considered a natural, normal, fashion choice and was in no way deemed
immodest or provocative. It was understood that the goddess Isis had given equal rights to both
men and women and, therefore, men had no right to dictate how a woman, even one’s own wife,
should attire herself. Children wore little or no clothing until puberty. Marriages were not
arranged among the lower classes and there seems to have been no formal marriage ceremony. A
man would carry gifts to the house of his intended bride and, if the gifts were accepted, she
would take up residence with him. The average age of a bride was 13 and that of a groom 18-21.
A contract would be drawn up portioning a man’s assets to his wife and children and this
allotment could not be rescinded except on grounds of adultery. Egyptian women could own
land, homes, run businesses, and preside over temples and could even be pharaohs. While the
man was considered the head of the house, the woman was head of the home. She raised the
children of both sexes until, at the age or four or five, boys were taken under the care and
tutelage of their fathers to learn their profession (or attend school if the father’s profession was
that of a scribe, priest, or doctor). Girls remained under the care of their mothers, learning how to
run a household, until they were married. Women could also be scribes, priests, or doctors but
this was unusual because education was expensive and tradition held that the son should follow
the father's profession, not the daughter. Marriage was the common state of Egyptians after
puberty and a single man or woman was considered abnormal. The higher classes, or nobility,
lived in more ornate homes with greater material wealth but seem to have followed the same
precepts as those lower on the social hierarchy.
 RELIGION

Religion was an integral part of the daily life of every Egyptian. As with the people of
Mesopotamia, the Egyptians considered themselves co-labourers with the gods but with an
important distinction: whereas the Mesopotamian peoples believed they needed to work with
their gods to prevent the recurrence of the original state of chaos, the Egyptians understood their
gods to have already completed that purpose and a human’s duty was to celebrate that fact and
give thanks for it. So-called `Egyptian mythology’ was, in ancient times, as valid a belief
structure as any accepted religion in the modern day. Egyptian religion taught the people that, in
the beginning, there was nothing but chaotic swirling waters out of which rose a small hill
known as the Ben-Ben. Atop this hill stood the great god Atum who spoke creation into being by
drawing on the power of Heka, the god of magic. Heka was thought to pre-date creation and was
the energy which allowed the gods to perform their duties. Magic informed the entire civilization
and Heka was the source of this creative, sustaining, eternal power. From this original act of
creative energy came all of the known world and the universe. It was understood that human
beings were an important aspect of the creation of the gods and that each human soul was as
eternal as that of the deities they revered. Death was not an end to life but a re-joining of the
individual soul with the eternal realm from which it had come. The Egyptian concept of the soul
regarded it as being comprised of nine parts: the Khat was the physical body; the Ka one’s
double-form; the Ba a human-headed bird aspect which could speed between earth and the
heavens; Shuyet was the shadow self; Akh the immortal, transformed self, Sahu and Sechem
aspects of the Akh; Ab was the heart, the source of good and evil; Ren was one’s secret name.
An individual’s name was considered of such importance that an Egyptian’s true name was kept
secret throughout life and one was known by a nickname. Knowledge of a person’s true name
gave one magical powers over that individual and this is among the reasons why the rulers of
Egypt took another name upon ascending the throne; it was not only to link oneself symbolically
to another successful pharaoh but also a form of protection to ensure one’s safety and help
guarantee a trouble-free journey to eternity when one’s life on earth was completed. The famous
Egyptian mummy was created to preserve the individual’s physical body (Khat) without which
the soul could not achieve immortality.
 SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Egyptian society was structured like a pyramid. At the top were the gods, such as Ra, Osiris, and
Isis. Egyptians believed that the gods controlled the universe. The Egyptians also elevated some
human beings to gods. Their leaders, called pharaohs, were believed to be gods in human form.
They had absolute power over their subjects.
No single person could manage all these duties without assistance. The pharaoh appointed a
chief minister called a vizier as a supervisor. The vizier ensured that taxes were collected.
Working with the vizier were scribes who kept government records. These high-level employees
had mastered a rare skill in ancient Egypt — they could read and write.
Right below the pharaoh in status were powerful nobles and priests. Only nobles could hold
government posts; in these positions they profited from tributes paid to the pharaoh. Priests were
responsible for pleasing the gods.
Soldiers fought in wars or quelled domestic uprisings. During long periods of peace, soldiers also
supervised the peasants, farmers, and slaves who were involved in building such structures as
pyramids and palaces.
Skilled workers such as physicians and craftspersons made up the middle class. Craftspersons
made and sold jewelry, pottery, papyrus products, tools, and other useful things.
Naturally, there were people needed to buy goods from artisans and traders. These were the
merchants and storekeepers who sold these goods to the public.
At the bottom of the social structure were slaves and farmers. Slavery became the fate of those
captured as prisoners of war. In addition to being forced to work on building projects, slaves
toiled at the discretion of the pharaoh or nobles.
Social mobility was not impossible. A small number of peasants and farmers moved up the
economic ladder. Families saved money to send their sons to village schools to learn trades.
These schools were run by priests or by artisans. Boys who learned to read and write could
become scribes, then go on to gain employment in the government. It was possible for a boy
born on a farm to work his way up into the higher ranks of the government. Bureaucracy proved
lucrative.
 LABOUR

Two types of workers existed in Ancient Egypt-- unskilled workers and skilled craftsmen.
Unskilled workers were peasants who labored in large groups to accomplish large projects,
normally for the government. Often unskilled laborers worked for the government during the
flood season and then returned home to raise crops on their farms. Skilled craftsmen, on the other
hand, worked year-round on their crafts. Some examples of skilled craftsmen in Egypt were
sculptors, goldsmiths, painters, carpenters, and rock cutters.
In Ancient Egypt farming was important. In 5000 B.C., nearly 2000 years before the first
Egyptian dynasty, farmers dug trenches from the Nile and waited for the big flood so it could
irrigate the land. Most jobs in ancient Egypt you would inherit from your father. If your father
was a jewelry merchant, you would probably be a jewelry merchant. There were exceptions,
usually only for things that required great talent. An example in modern time would be playing
on a professional sports team, an artist, writer, or musician. Another exception in Egypt was to
be a scribe. To be a scribe, you would go to scribe school, where most failed the course. People
who succeeded in the course were in high demand, because in Ancient Egypt, everything was
written down. There were many lists in Ancient Egypt as there were lists for almost anything.
Some scribes could move up all the way in the scribe chain to the Pharaoh's court. The Pharaoh
was technically in charge of Egypt, but did not always do all the work. Pharaohs were from a
dynasty, a family. The dynasty would continue until the family tree ran out. Then it would go to
a different family and start a new dynasty, similar to the monarch system in Europe.
A prominent feature of the Egyptian labor system was the use of a corvee. Due to the use of a
census, the Pharaonic state had a good picture of the potential labor force available at its
disposal, and required all able men to work on state projects for a period during the inundation,
when agricultural work was not possible, and the river was at its highest, allowing for easy
transport. The men were paid for the time of service, and provided with accommodation, rations
and healthcare at their workplace. Although the corvee was a features of life throughout much of
the Pharaonic period, it appears to have reached a peak of organization during the Middle
Kingdom, where several texts refer to a Bureau of Labor Organisation. As well as supplying the
unskilled labor needed for state projects, this system also prevented starvation, ensuring rations
for many who would otherwise have no supplies of their own. Thus, the potential for discontent
was also reduced, and the state integrated more into the lives of the commoners. More so than in
other ancient societies, in Egypt the state played a significant role in the lives of individuals. It
was also possible for a man to pay another to undertake the corvee obligation on his behalf, or
provide a worker from his own estate. At the same time, many state and temple owned estates
were under special exemption decrees, which prevented workers on these estates being diverted
to other projects by other departments. Due to the use of the corvee system, slavery was not
common, and some scholars have even argued that it did not exist at all in the western sense until
the Ptolemaic period. This claim is not universally accepted, but the image of tens or hundreds of
thousands of slaves cowered under the lash whilst toiling to build the monuments of Egypt is
now rejected as wholly inaccurate by almost all Egyptologists. Forced labor was used in
quarrying and mining. Forced labor, particularly (though not universally) in quarrying and
mining was explicitly spelt out as a punishment reserved for criminals. The prospect of such
punishment eventually led to the oath “If I am lying, may I be sent to the quarries”. As well as
criminals, wartime captives could also end up in forced labor, and their roles were more varied,
including personal, agricultural and, quite often, military service. Talented men, however, were
not bound to menial roles, and a few foreigners, descendants of these captives, rose through the
ranks over time, the military being one Egyptian institution where social mobility was possible.