Disciplina

S.03.O.021 OPTICA VIZUALĂ SI PRODUSE OPTICE

EFECTE ALE LUMINII ASUPRA OCHIULUI.

PROTECTIA OCULARA

Dr., conf. univ. NELLU CIOBANU

Catedra fiziologia omului si biofizica
1
 Cuprins

• Marimi fotometrice

• Efecte ale lumini asupra tesuturilor oculare

• Protectia oculara

• Ochelari de protectie

2
 Fotometria

Photometry may be described as the study and measurement of light in terms of the
visual response it produces.

The eye does not respond with equal sensitivity to light of different colours:
- the sensitivity is a maximum for green light
- it decreases towards both ends of the visible spectrum.

Consequently, although they produce significant damage to the eye, IR and UV light do
not produce that much of a visual response compared to some visible light.

The sensitivity curve, sometimes referred to as the luminosity curve, gives the relative
brightness as assessed by the average eye of the different colours of the spectrum. For
the average light adapted eye at moderate intensities (photopic vision) (viziune
fotopică) the maximum visual effect is obtained with light of wavelength 555nm
(yellow-green). This maximum shifts to 500nm in scotopic vision (viziune
scotopică) (for the average dark adapted eye).
4
 Fotometria

VIZIUNE SCOTOPICĂ –Termenul științific pentru perceptia luminii scăzute(de

noapte) dirijat prin celule tip bară în ochiul uman.
VIZIUNE FOTOPICĂ –Termenul științific pentru perceptia coloristică in condiții
normale de ziuă, dirijat de celulele conice în ochiul uman.
VIZIUNE MEZOTOPICĂ –Termenul știintific pentru combinația între viziunile
fotopice si scotopice luând în considerare senzitivitatea totală a celulelor tip bară
pentru albastru cu percepția culorilor a celulelor conice.

This is known as the Purkinje shift or Purkinje effect:

The tendency for the peak luminance sensitivity of the human eye
to shift toward the blue end of the color spectrum at low illumination
levels as part of dark adaptation.

Simulated appearance of a red geranium

and foliage in normal bright-light (photopic) vision,
dusk (mesopic) vision, and night (scotopic) vision
 Fotometria

The electromagnetic spectrum covers a wide range of wavelengths. However, in

photometry we restrict ourselves to visible light ( from 360 to 830 nm).
This is done because the aim of photometry is to measure light in such a way that the
results correlate with human vision.

Occupational Safety legislation puts a duty on employers to provide sufficient lighting

of suitable standard for specific purposes. By ensuring that photometric quantities
conform to standards, mankind benefits in terms of:
•reduction of eyestrain
•fewer accidents
•better working conditions
•greater productivity
•improved leisure facilities etc.
 Fotometria

Most practical light sources are incandescent or fluorescent sources which emit
energy over a wide range of wavelengths, mainly as wasted heat in the infrared part of
the spectrum.
The distribution of luminous power is not uniform in all directions and light is
emitted from different points on the source.

However, we simplify matters by assuming that:

- the dimensions of the source are negligible compared to its distance from a surface
or object and
- the light is emitted equally in all directions.

The first assumption amounts to saying that we will consider all sources to be point
sources.
The second assumption is of course equivalent to saying that we
consider all sources to be isotropic.

An isotropic radiator is a theoretical point source

of electromagnetic or sound waves which radiates
the same intensity of radiation in all directions.
 Unghiul solid
Photometry

The unit solid angle, or steradian, is the solid angle of a cone that, having its apex at the
centre of a sphere, cuts off an area of the sphere’s surface equal to the square of its
radius

Representation of a steradian

The number of steradians in any solid angle is given by the area of the sphere’s surface
Figure 8.1: Representation of a steradian
that is included in the angle divided by the square of the radius, i.e.:
The number of steradians in any solid angle is given by the area of the sphere’s surface that is included in the angle
divided by the square of the radius, i.e.:

area Area at cone opening

solid angle = =
r2 (cone length)2
 Marimi fotometrice

The central term to photometry is the luminous power, Φ.

This is because the visual sensation produced depends on the rate at which light energy
reaches the retina and not on the total energy.

The rate at which light energy flows is called the luminous power (flux).

The luminous power is therefore the luminous energy flowing per second and this could
be expressed in joules per second (watts).

However, in photometry, we use the unit called the lumen.

One lumen is the luminous power emitted into a unit solid angle (1 steradian) from a
point source of intensity 1 candela.

The total number of lumens emitted in all directions from a source is thus the luminous
power.
 Marimi fotometrice

If we consider the luminous power emitted per unit solid angle, we are now dealing
with the luminous intensity. This is indicated by the symbol I and has as unit the
candela (cd).

Photometry

A light may produce a great deal of radiant energy, (energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation) but relatively little luminous energy (visible light). To be
LUMINOUS EFFICIENCY AND LUMINOUS EFFICACY
useful for lighting purposes, we need most of the output to be in the visible region.
A light may produce a great deal of radiant energy, (energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation) but relatively little
luminous energy (visible light). To be useful for lighting purposes, we need most of the output to be in the visible region.
The luminous efficiency (Vλ) indicates
Two concepts are used to indicate the effectiveness
the fraction of the total power produced
of a source. The luminous efficiency indicates the fraction of the
which is actually
total power visible.
produced which is actually visible. The units will be lumens per lumen.

luminous flux emitted

(Vλ)= Luminous efficiency =
total radiant power emitted

For example,
For example, a 60awatt
60 incandescent
watt incandescent light the
light bulb produces bulb
sameproduces the same
luminous power as a 15 luminous
W fluorescentpower asisa
bulb. This
because much of the incandescent light bulb output is invisible infrared. Its luminous efficiency is much less since it is
15 W fluorescent
converting a large portionbulb. Thisinput
of the power is because much of the incandescent light bulb output is
into wasted heat.
invisible infrared. Its luminous efficiency is much less since it is converting a large
It should be noted that the power output at each wavelength is multiplied by a factor determined by the visual response of
portion
the eye to of
lightthe power
of that inputThe
wavelength. into wasted
human heat.sensitive to green light with a wavelength of 555 nm. One watt
eye is most
of such light is “worth” 683 lumens. In contrast, infrared and ultraviolet radiation are invisible and therefore count zero
 LUMINOUS EFFICIENCY

The power output at each wavelength is multiplied by a factor determined by the visual
response of the eye to light of that wavelength.
The human eye is most sensitive to green light with a wavelength of 555 nm.
One watt of such light is “worth” 683 lumens.

In contrast, infrared and ultraviolet radiation are invisible and therefore count zero
lumens. Using the same principle, we find that one watt of 700 nm red light is “worth”
only 27 lumens.
Example:
The Luminous Flux from a monochromatic source producing light at a single wavelength
is easiest to determine:
Φv = Φ *Vλ * (683 lm/W)
where Vλ is the luminous efficiency and Φ- the power of the source

For instance, a 5 mW laser pointer used at a wavelength of 680 nm produces:

Φv =0.005 W * 0.017 * 683 lm/W = 0.058 lm
while a 5 mW laser pointer at 630 nm produces:
Φv =0.005 W * 0.265 * 683 lm/W = 0.905 lm
a significantly greater luminous flux.
For example, a 60 watt incandescent light bulb produces the same luminous power as a 15 W fluorescent bulb. This is
because much of the incandescent light bulb output is invisible infrared. Its luminous efficiency is much less since it is
LUMINOUS EFFICACY
converting a large portion of the power input into wasted heat.

It should be noted that the power output at each wavelength is multiplied by a factor determined by the visual response of
the eye to light of that wavelength. The human eye is most sensitive to green light with a wavelength of 555 nm. One watt
of such light is “worth” 683 lumens. In contrast, infrared and ultraviolet radiation are invisible and therefore count zero
A related
lumens. Using the quantity is we
same principle, thefindluminous
that one watt efficacy, which
of 700 nm red is theonly
light is “worth” ratio between the total
27 lumens.
luminous power emitted by a source and the total electrical power consumed by it.
A related quantity is the luminous efficacy, which is the ratio between the total luminous power emitted by a source
and It
theindicates howpower
total electrical well consumed
a source bycan achieve
it. It indicatesthe
how desired result
well a source can of producing
achieve luminous
the desired result of
power
producing with power
luminous the minimum input.
with the minimum TheThe
input. units
unitswill belumens
will be lumens per watt.
per watt.

luminous power emitted

Luminous efficacy =
electrical power consumed

RADIOMETRIC
RADIOMETRIC ANDPHOTOMETRIC
AND PHOTOMETRIC UNITS UNITS.
When measuring the light emitted by a source or incident on a receptor, two different
When measuring the light emitted by a source or incident on a receptor, two different systems of units can be used. In one
systems of units can be used. In one system, light of different wavelengths are weighted
system, light of different wavelengths are weighted similarly, i.e. no wavelength is more important than another. This is the
similarly,
radiometric system i.e.most
no people
wavelength is with,
are familiar more important
e.g. than another.
the energy emitted by a lamp by unit of time is measured in Watt. In
some circumstances,
This such a measurement
is the radiometric system in Watt
most maypeople
not be useful. For instance
are familiar a lamp
with, emitting
e.g. 10W in the
the energy IR wouldby
emitted
actually appear turned off to us. So an alternative system exists, the photometric system. In this system wavelengths are
a lamp
weighted by unit
according of sensitive
to how time isthe measured in Watt.
eye is to them. In some
The energy emittedcircumstances,
by a lamp by unit ofsuch
time isa then
measurement
measured in
in Watt may not be useful.
Candela.

For light
Because instance
is usuallya lamp
made ofemitting 10W
many different in the IRthere
wavelengths, would actually
is not appear
a simple rule turned
to convert off tounits
radiometric us. into
So an
alternative
photometric units. system exists, the photometric system. In this system wavelengths are
weighted according to how sensitive the eye is to them. The energy emitted by a lamp by
unit of time is then measured in Candela.
ILLUMINANCE
Marimi fotometrice (sumar)
 Illuminance

When luminous power is incident on a surface, the surface is said to be illuminated.

The illuminance (symbol E) at a point on a surface is the average amount of luminous
power falling on unit area of the surface.

e (symbol E) at a point on a surface is the average amount of luminous power fallin

E= Ф/S

The unit of illuminance is lumens per square metre which is called the lux. The
Φ
illuminance at a point on a surface does not depend on the nature of the surface since it
is only concerned with incident light. E =
A
An equivalent term is luminous flux density. As such, it measures the amount of visible
light striking a surface.
minance is lumens per square metre which is called the lux. The illuminance at a point o
he nature of the surface since it is only concerned with incident light. The total illumina
The total illuminance on a surface which is illuminated by more than one light
nated by more than one light source is simply the sum of the individual illuminance
source is simply the sum of the individual illuminances.
rightness of an extended source or extended surface area is known as its luminance. It
The perceived brightness of an extended source or extended surface area is known as its
flected from) an extended area. The basic SI unit is the nit :
luminance. It quantifies light given off by (reflected from) an extended area. The basic
SI unit is the nit : 2
1 nit = 1 candela/m
 The footlambert is another common unit.

Φ
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS
FUNDAMENTAL E PHOTOMETRY
OF
LAWS =OF PHOTOMETRY
A
Law 1.
lluminance is lumens per square metre which is called the lux. The illuminance at a point on a surface d
The illuminance at a point on a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point and the
n the nature of the surface
Law 1. source. since it is only concerned with incident light. The total illuminance on a sur
minated by more than
This isone
known light sourcesquareis
lawsimply the sum of
The illuminance at a point on a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the
as the inverse and may be summarized the
in the individual
following equation: illuminances.
I
distance between the point and the source. 2
E=
d brightness of an extended source or extended surface area d is known as its luminance. It quantifies lig
(reflected from) an extended area. The basic SI unit is the nit :
2
1 nit = 1 candela/m

bert is another common unit.

MENTAL LAWS OF PHOTOMETRY

ce at a point on a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point and th
Luminous intensity of light on a surface
Figure 8.2: Luminous intensity of light on a surface
2014 Geometric and Physical Optics, Chapter 9-5

n as This is known as the inverse square law and may be summarized in the following
the inverse square law and may be summarized in the following equation:
equation: I
E= 2
d
 FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF PHOTOMETRY
Photometry

This will apply when the surface is not at an angle to the direction of the incident light
This will apply when the surface is not at an angle to the direction of the incident light (directly below or in front of the
source). If the surface is at an angle to the incident light, the illuminance is reduced. This situation is catered for by the

(directly below or in front of the source). If the surface is at an angle to the incident light,
second law.

Law 2.
the illuminance is reduced. This situation is catered for by the second law.
If the normal to an illuminated surface is at an angle θ to the direction of the incident light, then the illuminance is
proportional to the cosine of θ.

Law 2. In the form of an equation:

If the normal to an illuminated surface is at an angle θ to the direction of the incident

E=
I cosθ
2
r
light, then the illuminance is proportional to the cosine of θ. In the form of an equation
This will apply when the surface is not at an angle to the direction of the incident light (direct
source). If the surface is at an angle to the incident light, the illuminance is reduced. This sit
second law.

Law 2.

If the normal to an illuminated surface is at an angle θ to the direction of the incident light, th
proportional to the cosine of θ.

In the form of an equation:

Figure 8.3: Illuminance is proportional to the cosine of θ.

I cosθ
E=
Illuminance is proportional to the cosine of θ.
LIGHT SOURCES
r
2

INCANDESCENT SOURCES
 Surse de lumina

Incandescent sources

The source of light is a fine filament of tungsten metal through which an electric current
is passed. The heating produced by passage of electric current through this resistor
raises its temperature to a maximum of about 3500°C. This device converts only a few
percent of the electrical energy to visible light and the bulk to heat and radiation outside
the visible range. The electric current that flows leads to many collisions between the
moving electrons and the atoms of the wire.
 Surse de lumina

Gas discharger tube sources

This consists of a glass tube containing a low-pressure gas and two electrodes. When an
electric current is passed between the two electrodes, the gas is ionized. Gaseous ions
are attracted to the charged electrodes and collisions with other ions cause excitation
and further ionisations. These high-energy atoms and ions return to their ground states
spontaneously. When they do, the emitted light has energy equal to the difference in
energy between the excited and the ground states. This energy is characteristic of a gas
and thus the emitted light has a colour characteristic of the gas.
 Surse de lumina

Fluorescent lamp sources

In fluorescent lamps the light is generated in a two-stage process as the electric current
is discharged through a mercury vapour. The mercury atoms produce ultra-violet light
(as well as green and blue visible light) when the excited atoms return to their ground
state. This ultra-violet light is then absorbed by the phosphor coating on the inside of the
glass tube containing the gas. The phosphors fluoresce. They absorb the short
wavelength UV radiation and emit longer wavelength white light; typical fluorescence
behaviour.
 Electromagnetic spectrum

Three bands of the spectrum are of most relevance for ophthalmic optics: visible
spectrum, infrared spectrum and the ultra violet spectrum.
The human eye is most sensitive to the wavelength 555 nm and sensitivity drops
towards both ends of the spectrum. Infrared is of concern in certain industrial
environments, although solar infrared is of little concern because its longer wavelength
makes it more difficult to absorb.
Shorter wavelengths are of greater clinical concern, notably near ultra violet (315 nm to
380 nm) because of its long- term effects and erythemal ultra violet (280 nm to 315 nm)
because of its immediate effects.
 Effects of the absorption of radiation

The absorption of radiation can produce various effects:

Thermal effect: when the energy is converted to heat energy. e.g. the rise in
temperature of a body exposed to infrared radiation.
Photochemical effect: when the radiation creates a chemical reaction. e.g. exposure of a
photochromic lens to ultra violet radiation causes a change in the silver halide crystals in
the lens.
Photoluminescent effect: occurs when one wavelength is absorbed and then emitted as
a different (usually longer) wavelength e.g. the crystalline lens absorbs ultra violet
radiation and emits visible violet light.

Radiation can affect living tissue by destroying living cells or causing abnormal function.
These effects can be either direct or indirect.
The damage caused depends on: exposure time, concentration, radiation type.

In the case of ocular tissues, low levels of radiation (notably UV) create a risk for the
conjunctiva and cornea. High levels of radiation (particularly UV) cause severe damage
to the cornea and contribute to cataract formation.
Exposure to radiation can also, ultimately, lead to retinal damage / degeneration or
blindness.
 Effects of radiation on the eye
Absorptive Lenses and Lens Coatings

RADIANT ENERGY AND THE EYE

Reduced functioning of the eye may occur as a result of:
1. absorption of radiation by the media
Reduced functioning of the eye may occur as a result of:
2. scattering of radiation
1. absorption of radiation by the media
2. scattering of radiation
3. reflection
3. reflection
4. aberrations
4. aberrations
Concentration of radiant energy is dependent on:
Concentration of radiant energy is dependent on:
1. size of source
1. size of source
2. intensity of source
2. intensity of source
3. pupil size
3. pupil size
Transmission by the ocular tissues:
Table 15.1 shows the range of wavelength transmitted by the various media of the eye.
Transmission of radiation by the various media of the eye.
Table 15.1: Transmission of various media of the eye
Ocular Components Ultraviolet (nm) Visible (nm) Infrared (nm)
Tear Layer 290 – 380 380 - 760 760 – 3000
Cornea 290 – 380* 380 - 760 760 – 3000*
Aqueous 290 – 380* 380 – 760 760 – 3000*
Adult 310 – 380* 380 – 760 760 – 2500*
Lens
Child 375 - 380* 380 - 760 760 – 2500*
Vitreous 290 - 380* 380 - 760 760 – 1600*

ULTRA VIOLET RADIATION

 earth’s atmosphere.

EffectsAcute
ofexposure
UV radiation on
to ultra violet radiation the eye
is responsible for sunburn and
photokeratitis and photoconjunctivitis. Chronic exposure to ultra violet
pterygia, pingueculae and cataract.

Ultra violet radiation is of most concern in Acute effects

ophthalmic optics. It can be classified as • Photochemical retinopathy (aphakes)
follows: • Tanning of eyelids
UVA
• UVA 315 nm to 380 nm (also referred to as Chronic effects
• Brunescent cataract UVA
“near ultra violet”): UVA’s effects are mainly
• Macular degeneration
long term. • Malignant melanoma
Acute effects
• UVB 280 nm to 315 nm (also known as • Photokeratoconjunctivitis
“erythemal ultra violet”): It is UVB that is • Cataract
responsible for sunburn. • Erythema of eyelid skin
UVB Chronic effects UVB
• Pterygium
• UVC 100 nm to 280 nm: UVA can be created • Band keratopathy
in industrial environments but solar UVC is • Corneal endothelium degeneration
fully absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere. • Basal and squamous cell carcinoma
• Acute effects are very damaging
UVC
• There are no chronic effects. UVC

September 2012, Version 1

 Effects of Visible radiation on the eye

Acute exposure to ultra violet radiation is responsible for:

1. sunburn
2. ocular conditions such as:
- photophthalmia,
- photokeratitis
- photoconjunctivitis.

Chronic exposure to ultra violet radiation is responsible for conditions such as

- pterygia
- pingueculae
- cataract.

While exposure to ambient levels of the visible light is not hazardous, exposure to high
levels can lead to:
- photochemical injury
- thermal injury

Prolonged exposure to ambient levels of violet and blue wavelengths can lead to damage
to cones and retinal pigment epithelium.
epithelium.

Effects of infrared radiation on the eye

INFRA RED RADIATION

That
• IRA 780 nm to 1400 nm
• IRB 1400 nm+

Photon energy decreases as the wavelength increases.

CLASSIFICATION
Most IR damage occurs between 780 nm and 2000 nm.

Artificial sources produce higher levels of IR than are present in ambient conditions.

The effects of temperature increases resulting from exposure to infrared are:

• Loss of function of proteins

• Potential cell death

Unlike ultra violet, there is no latency period with infra red radiation.
EFFECTS OF
INFRA RED
The ocular effects of infrared radiation are:

Cornea: Coagulation, desiccation, opacification

Iris: Congestion, depigmentation and atrophy
Lens: Capsule exfoliation, cataract formation
Retina: Necrotic burn
 Transmitance of radiation

Radiation can be attenuated or minimized by using reflective or, more commonly,

absorptive filters such as tinted lenses.
Radiation incident on a lens will be reflected, absorbed and transmitted in various
proportions. Tinted lenses affect those relative proportions.

Transmission can be measured as the spectral transmission factor (Tλ ), which, for a
given wavelength, is:
Tλ = Transmitted light/ Incident light

The ability of a lens to absorb a particular wavelength can also be defined by its density,
which is:
Dλ=log10 (1/Tλ )

The absorptive and transmission characteristics of tinted lenses are usually measured by
the luminous transmittance factor (LTF) or Tc.
The LTF measures the performance of the lens across the visible spectrum.
The LTF is described with respect to the standard eye viewing a standard source.
 Absorptive lenses

The transmission of electromagnetic radiation, including ultra violet, infra red and the
visible spectrum can be reduced by reflection or absorption. Most lenses designed to
reduce transmission are absorptive filters and their transmittance (percentage
transmission) characteristics will depend on their colour and nature.
The main groups of absorptive lenses include:

PLASTIC LENSES (DYED)

Plastic lenses are tinted by immersing them in a hot (about 92°C) dye pot. The dye
penetrates the surface of the lens or its hard coat. Indeed, with polycarbonate it is only
the hard coat that can accept the tint; polycarbonate cannot be tinted once it is produced.
Some brands of polycarbonate sunglasses have the tint added to the polycarbonate
during production, giving the effect of a solid glass tint.
 Ocular protection

GLASS LENSES (VACUUM TINTED)

Glass vacuum tints are produced in a vacuum chamber in the same way as anti-reflection
coatings. The lenses are held on a disc inside a vacuum chamber which is rotated above a
heated crucible containing the metal oxide that will produce the tint. The oxide
vaporises, forming a film on the back surface of the lens. Various oxides produce
different tints, for example ferrous oxide produces a green tint, cerium oxide produces a
pink tint etc.

GLASS LENSES (SOLID TINTED)

Glass lenses with a solid tint have the metal oxide mixed with the glass during its
manufacture. Thus, the density of a glass lens tint varies with the lens thickness.
Only a few specialised lenses are still in common use, however, glass photochromic
lenses are also produced in this way.
 Figure 15.1: Absorptive lenses

Tinted lenses categories

TINTED LENS CATEGORIES

There are numerous ways of categorizing tinted lenses and some countries have passed
laws, which standardize these categorizations.
North America categorizes tinted lenses according to the lens characteristics as follows:
There are numerous ways of categorizing tinted lenses and some countries have passed
these categorizations. North America categorizes tinted lenses according to the lens characte

• Lenses that absorb the spectrum evenly

CATEGORY 1:
• Lenses that have less UV or IR absorption than crown glass
• Lenses that absorb UV
CATEGORY 2:
• Lenses that evenly transmit visible light
• Lenses that absorb UV & IR light
CATEGORY 3:
• Lenses that evenly transmit visible light
CATEGORY 4: • Lenses that absorb visible light in a non-uniform fashion
• Lenses that absorb special bands
CATEGORY 5:
• Lenses that have specific occupational purposes
 Special sunglasses These filter
intended to
during dusk
Category 5 shadows on
easier for th
snow. In ad
CONTRAST FILTERS shooters an
NTRAST driving glas
TERS dusk where
they should
night since,
transmissio
These filters have a bright yellow color and are intended to increase contrast in hazy
Figure 15.2: Contrast filters light. They w
conditions, or during dusk . They also highlight shadows on, for example, a ski slope,
end of the s
making it easier for the skier to see the undulations on the snow. In addition to skiing
caution sho
they are popular with shooters and are also often referred to as night driving glasses
patients. W
because of their effectiveness at dusk where contrast is poor. Despite their name, they
should not be recommended for driving at night since, like all sunglasses, they reduce the
These are a
transmission of the already low levels of available light. They work by cutting out much
of the blue end of the spectrum, which is another reason why caution should be used
They are us
when prescribing them to patients. We will discuss this effect a little later. unusual tra
 transmission of th
Special sunglasses
Figure 15.2: Contrast filters light. They work b
end of the spectru
caution should be
patients. We will d
CONTRAST FILTERS
These are a much
They are usually m
unusual transmitt
they transmit both
YELLOW
spectrum they ab
ABSORBING
yellow part of the
FILTERS
useful for increas
green, which is th
They are therefor
Figure 15.3: Yellow absorbing filters to patients with re
These are a much more specialized type of filter. They are usually mauve in colour and
have a very unusual transmittance chart (Figure 15.3). While they transmit both the blue
Photochromic filte
and red ends of the spectrum they absorb a significant degree of the yellow part of the
a silver halide mix
spectrum. This makes them useful for increasing contrast between red and green, which
the effect of a sol
is the main function of these filters. They are therefore almost exclusively prescribed to
violet radiation, th
patients with red/green color blindness.
removed from the
return to its lighte
PHOTOCHROMIC
recently, photoch
 yellow part of the spec
LTERS
useful for increasing c
Special sunglasses green, which is the ma
They are therefore alm
Figure 15.3: Yellow absorbing filters to patients with red/gr
PHOTOCHROMIC FILTERS
Photochromic filters o
a silver halide mixed w
the effect of a solid tin
violet radiation, the len
removed from the ultra
return to its lighter sta
HOTOCHROMIC
recently, photochromi
LTERS
in plastic, with the plas
photochromic chemica
referred to as comfort
the conditions experie
Photochromic filters originated as glass lenses with a silver halide mixed with the glass.
Figure 15.4: Photochromic filters because they do not u
This produced the effect of a solid tint. When activated by ultra violet radiation, the lens
most “sunglasses”.
would darken and when removed from the ultra violet radiation it would return to its
lighter state. More recently, photochromic lenses were made available in plastic, with the
plastic material imbibed with the photochromic chemical. These lenses are often
Polarising lenses redu
referred to as comfort tints because they adapt to the conditions experienced by the
transmitted light to on
wearer and also because they do not usually darken as much as most “sunglasses”.
polarising axes are se
light vibrating verticall
ILTERS
in plastic, with the pla
Special sunglasses photochromic chemic
referred to as comfort
the conditions experie
Figure 15.4: Photochromic filters because they do not u
POLARISING LENSES: most “sunglasses”.

Polarising lenses redu

transmitted light to on
polarising axes are se
light vibrating verticall
OLARISING
reflected light from, fo
ENSES:
lake which is vibrating
will be absorbed by th
lenses are, therefore,
there is likely to be re
Polarizing lenses reduce the vibrations of the transmitted light to one plane. Their
Figure 15.5: Polarising lenses
polarizing axes are set such that they only transmit light vibrating vertically. Thus,
partially polarized reflected light from, for example, the surface of a lake which is
vibrating in the horizontal meridians will be absorbed by the polarizing lenses. Polarized
lenses are, therefore, best suited to areas where there is likely to be reflected glare.

eptember 2012, Version 1

 Attenuation of UV radiation

Solar UV radiation is of more concern, clinically, than other forms of radiation. In

particular UVB, or solar erythema ultra violet radiation, can cause significant damage.
Unlike infrared radiation, UV light is particularly insidious since it cannot be felt and it is
cumulative in its effects. UVC does not reach the earth as it is absorbed by the
Physical and Optical Characteristics
atmosphere. While less dangerous than UVB, UVA (near UV) has also been attributed to
of Lens Materials
causing various ocular conditions, including cataracts.
COMPARING LENS MATERIALS
UV can also be produced artificially, notably in arc welding and UV lamps. In such cases
the patient needs to have eye protection designed to minimize the UV radiation.
.Lens materials vary in their characteristics: refractive index, constringence, specific gravity, impact resistance, UV
absorption, etc. When analyzing the different materials, it can be interesting to compare them (Table 1.2).

Table1.2: Comparing different lens materials

Specific Gravity Curve Variation
Material Index, nd Index, ne Abbe no. nd
(g/cm3) Factor
Crown glass 1.523 1.525 58.9 2.54 1.000
CR-39 1.498 1.502 58.0 1.32 1.050
Polycarbonate 1.586 1.591 30.0 1.20 0.892
Mid-index plastic 1.557 1.561 37.0 1.23 0.939
High-index plastic 1.595 1.599 36.0 1.36 0.879
High-index glass 1.701 1.705 42.0 3.21 0.746
High-index 1.802 1.807 35.0 3.65 0.652
NB: nd is an American value and ne is a European value

Weight
 Physical and Optical Char
Attenuation of UV radiation of Len

TRA-VIOLET ABSORPTION
PLASTIC LENSES WITH UV COATING
Solar ultra-violet radiation is relatively easy to absorb and ordinary CR-39 will absorb
Lens materials vary in their ultra-violet (UV) absorption (Figure 1.12). Plastic le
about 92% of near UV. Treated with a UV inhibitor, an almost clear coating, CR-39 will
absorb more UV than glass, with polycarbonate cutting out all radiation to abou
nanometres. CR-39 will cut out UV to about 360 nm but requires a clear UV co
absorb all solar UV. Sunglass lenses are generally treated with the UV coating before
absorb all wavelengths of UV.
being tinted. Thus they will absorb the visible light and 100% of the UV.

RA-VIOLET
ORPTION

Figure 1.12: UV absorption in different ophthalmic lens materials

UV absorption in different ophthalmic lens materials
UV rays are is responsible for a number of ocular conditions, such as pterygium
 Attenuation of UV radiation
ure 1.12: UV absorption in different ophthalmic lens materials
POLYCARBONATE lenses
onsible for a number of ocular conditions, such as pterygium and
Polycarbonate is very effective in
ption is, therefore, desirable. This is one of the main advantages of
absorbing solar UV and requires no
ls over glass. They are more efficient at absorbing solar UV radiation
further treatment. It absorbs almost all
solar UV.

SOLID GLASS TINTS

Solid glass tints with the
appropriate oxide are very effective
in absorbing UV, although no more
effective in attenuating solar UV
than polycarbonate or treated CR-
39. Solid glass tints are rarely used
these days except maybe for people
who are exposed to artificially
UV
elength absorption
absorption in different
of different ophthalmic
light rays in different lens produced UV such as arc welders.
ophthalmic lens materials
materials
 Attenuation of Infrared radiation
Absorptive Lenses and Lens Coatings

ATTENUATION OF IR

Solar infra red is much more difficult to absorb. CR-39 and similar plastics, even when tinted,
PLASTIC LENSES
do not have a significant effect on IR.

Polycarbonate is also quite ineffective in absorbing solar IR, however, there are ready-made
POLYCARBONATE
polycarbonate sunglass lenses, which absorb significant amounts of solar IR.
100

80

60
As with UV, solid glass tints with the appropriate
oxide are very effective in absorbing IR (Figure
SOLID GLASS 40
15.7). Although rarely used these days they remain
TINTS 20
the most effective way of attenuating artificially
produced IR such as that produced with oxy
0
300 400 500 600 700 750 welding.

Figure 15.7: Attenuation of IR rays

SIGNAL FACTORS (Q VALUES)

The Q values replace the old red and violet coloration factors. They take into account the main signal light colours of
EAL SUNGLASSES Ideal sunglasses
minous transmittance between 50% and 15%: Transmittance of greater than 50% is considered too light to be a
sunglass lens, while transmittance of less than 15% is considered too dark and, therefore, unsafe.

Luminous transmittance between 50% and 15%: Transmittance of greater than 50%
en transmission of the spectrum: A lens which transmits all of the colours of the spectrum evenly and which,
efore has Q values of 1, will not affect the relative appearance of colours. On the other hand, a brown lens would
is considered too light to be a true sunglass lens, while transmittance of less than 15% is
ke blue or green objects appear greyer, while a green lens would have the same effect on red and brown.
considered too dark and, therefore, unsafe.
Even
mplete transmission
elimination of UVA of andthe spectrum:
UVB: A lens lens,
an ideal sunglass which transmits
would all of solar
totally eliminate the colors of the
ultra violet
ure 15.9). Reduction of solar infrared would also be desirable but this is generally impractical.
spectrum evenly and which, therefore has Q values of 1, will not affect the relative
appearance
en that of colors.
sunglasses are On the
used outdoors andother hand,
often for a brown
physical activities,lens wouldimpact
reasonable make blue orwould
resistance green alsoobjects
be
irable in an ideal sunglass lens.
appear greyer, while a green lens would have the same effect on red and brown.
100

80

60

40

20

0
300 400 500 600 700 750

Complete elimination of UVA and UVB: an ideal sunglass lens, would totally eliminate
Figure 15.9: Transmission curve indicating the elimination of UVA and UVB
solar UV. Reduction of solar IR would also be desirable but this is generally impractical.
Given that sunglasses are used outdoors and often for physical activities, reasonable
impact resistance would also be desirable in an ideal sunglass lens.
 Figure 15.9: Transmission curve indicating the elimination of UVA an

Reflection from lens surface

REFLECTIONS FROM LENS SURFACES
Light is lost to reflection at both surfaces of a spectacle lens. For clear lenses of normal
indices (CR-39 and crown glass) this is about 4%. The exact amount can be calculated
Light is lost to reflection at both surfaces of a spectacle lens. For clear lenses of no
using the Fresnel Reflection Factor.
glass) this is about 4%. The exact amount can be calculated using the Fresnel Reflectio

FRESNEL REFLECTION FACTOR

r = [(n´ - n) / (n´ + n)] ²

For Example
For CR-39 (n = 1.498) r = [(1.498 - 1)/ (1.498 + 1)] ²
= 0.0397
= 3.97% reflected at each surface

Higher index lenses will create more reflection at each surface.

For Example:
For high index glass (n = 1.806) r = [(1.806 - 1)/ (1.806 + 1)] ²
= 0.0825
= 8.25% reflected at each surface
 Anti-reflection (A/R) coatings make a considerable difference to the appearance of sp
off the lenses. It also improves the visual function, reducing troublesome multiple refle

Anti-Reflection coatings
surface.
A/R coatings are particularly important for high index lenses and flat form lenses, such
shown on the previous page, a lens of refractive index 1.806 will lose 15.8% to reflect
would lose about 8%.
Moreover, flat form lenses create troublesome reflections for the wearer. The flatter
will be the surface reflections.
Anti-reflection coatings and more recent multi-coat
anti-reflection coatings significantly reduce reflection
at each surface. The principle on which anti-reflection
is based is interference. For a single layer anti-
reflection coating, the optical thickness of the coating
is one quarter the wavelength of light (yellow of about
550 nm is used as the reference wavelength for light).
Thus the optical thickness of single coatings is about
137 nm.

Figure 15.10: Antireflections coatings

Anti-reflection (A/R) coatings make a considerable difference to the appearance of

spectacles, taking the glassy lookSCRATCH
off the lenses.RESISTANTIt alsoCOATINGS
improves the visual function,
reducing troublesome multiple reflections which
Scratch resistant bounce
coatings offlenses
for plastic thewere
lensdeveloped
surface. because of the relative la
A/R coatings are particularly important
(Figure for high index lenses and flat form
15.11). While CR-39 is reasonably durable, some lenses,
materials suchsuch
as polyc
without a coating. A/R coatings for plastic lens are applied after the scratch resistant c
as the new aspheric lenses. A lensWhile
of refractive index 1.806 will lose 15.8% to reflection,
scratch resistant coatings improve the surface durability of plastic lenses the
compared with CR-39 which would lose
This shouldabout 8%. if impact resistance is an important criterion for lens se
be considered
considered to have a very high impact resistance compared with other materials,
Moreover, flat form lenses create reduce
troublesome reflections
its impact resistance. foreven
That said, the wearer.
coated The flatter
polycarbonate thea mu
will still have
surface the more noticeable will beanythe
othersurface reflections.
material, coated or uncoated.
Most plastic lenses with scratch resistant coatings and A/R coatings are also given
 Figure 15.10: Antireflections coatings

SCRATCH RESISTANT COATINGS Scratch resistant coatings

Scratch resistant coatings for plastic lenses were developed because of the relative lack of surface durability of plastic
(Figure 15.11). While CR-39 is reasonably durable, some materials such as polycarbonate are not recommended
without a coating. A/R coatings for plastic lens are applied after the scratch resistant coatings.
While scratch resistant coatings improve the surface durability of plastic lenses they reduce the impact resistance.
Scratch resistant coatings for plastic lenses were developed because of the relative lack
This should be considered if impact resistance is an important criterion for lens selection. While polycarbonate is
considered to have a very high impact resistance compared with other materials, a scratch resistant coating will
of surface durability of plastic. While CR-39 is reasonably durable, some materials such
reduce its impact resistance. That said, even coated polycarbonate will still have a much higher impact resistance than
any other material, coated or uncoated.
as polycarbonate are not recommended without a coating. A/R coatings for plastic lens
Most plastic lenses with scratch resistant coatings and A/R coatings are also given a hydrophobic coating which is
are applied after the scratch resistant coatings.
intended to make lens cleaning easier.

Figure 15.11: Scratch resistant coatings

While scratch resistant coatings improve the surface durability of plastic lenses they
reduce September
the impact resistance. This should be considered if impact resistance
2012, Version 1 Applied Optics
Chapter 15-11 is an
important criterion for lens selection. While polycarbonate is considered to have a very
high impact resistance compared with other materials, a scratch resistant coating will
reduce its impact resistance. That said, even coated polycarbonate will still have a much
higher impact resistance than any other material, coated or uncoated.
Most plastic lenses with scratch resistant coatings and A/R coatings are also given a
hydrophobic coating which is intended to make lens cleaning easier.
 Efecte ale luminii coerente. Laserul.

Emisia spontana

Emisia stimulata
 Laserul.

Principiul de functionare a laserului

 Particularitati ale laserului
Intensitatea laserului - puterea transportată de fascicul
Puterea diodelor lasere folosite pentru citirea discurilor compacte este e5mW.
Laserii cu CO2 folosiți în industria metalurgica: 100W - 6000W.
În medicină pentru penetrare adâncă a țesutului se folosește putere de 1- 12W .
Densitatea ridicata de putere caracterizeaza puterea fasciculului laser pe unitatea de
suprafată. Deoarece fasciculele laser sunt înguste, această densitate devine foarte mare.
Laserului He-Ne de putere 1 mW, și diametrul fasciculului de 0,4 mm, poseda densitate
medie de putere de 0,5 W/cm2.
Pentru fasciculele de mare putere focalizate, densitatea de putere atinge ușor valoarea
(1011 - 1012) W/cm2. Chiar în cazul unui laser de mică putere intensitatea fasciculului laser
este de circa 104 ori mai mare decât intensitatea soarelui.
Coerența - proprietatea unei surse de a emite radiații de aceiași frecvență și cu un defazaj
constant în timp.
Monocromaticitate - lumina de o singura culoare.
Direcționalitate
 Tipuri de laseri

Laserul cu gaz He-Ne emite lumină cu lungimea de undă l=632,8 nm (culoare rosie). În
calitate de mediu activ, se utilizează un ameste de atomi de He și Ne.
Laserul CO2 funcționează pe baza unui ameste de atomi de oxygen și carbon. Astfel de
laser emite radiație electromagnetică monocromatică cu lungimea de undă l=1600 nm.
Laserul cu Argon are în calitate de mediu activ argonul și emite lumină monocromatică
cu lungimea de undă l=458 nm (albastru) și l=515 nm (verde).
Laserul cu Rubidium posedă în calitate de mediu activ un cristal sintetic de rubidium
dopat cu ioni de Cr (Al2O3: Cr). Lățimea liniei spectrale emise de așa laser este de ordinul
milisecundelor, iar lungimea de undă corespunde l=694,3 nm și puterea în jur de 5 W.
Lasere cu dopanti de neodymium (Nd: YVO4, Nd: YLF, Nd: YAlG), erbium (Er: YAG) ori
dopanti de iterbium (Yb: YAG, Yb:SYS ori Yb: CaF2) emit radiație în domeniul infraroșu
cu lungimea de undă (1020-2140) nm, puterea de emisie a cărora este de până la 100 W.
Laserul de tip LED se bazează pe diode de tip semiconductoare (GaAs, GaAlAs,
InGaAlAs) emit radiație electromagnetică în diapazonul (375-3500) nm.
Laserul cu eximer emite in diapazonul ultraviolet (157-351) nm si genereaza impulsuri
de ns. Mediul activ reprezinta un ameste de molecule compus din gaze nobile (argon,
cripton, xenon) si halogen (clor or fluor).
 Mecanismul interacţiunii radiaţiei
laser cu celulele vii
Interacţiunea laserului cu materia vie reprezintă un fenomen complex, ce depinde de
parametri laserului şi proprietăţile ţesuturilor. Radiaţia laser este absorbită diferit de
celulele biologice, fiecare lungime de undă având efect unic asupra structurilor biologice.

În ţesuturile biologice radiaţia absorbită este

transformată în alte forme de energie (caldură,
energie chimică). Unele lasere sunt absorbite doar
de sânge şi ţesutul pigmentat, în timp ce altele sunt
absorbite de apă şi ţesuturile dure, precum smalţul,
dentina şi osul. Având în vedere aceste lucruri,
laserul produce diverse acţiuni:
Laserul cu diodă si cel Nd: YAG acţionează asupra pigmenţilor din ţesuturi, agenţilor
patogeni şi asupra ţesuturilor inflamate şi vascularizate.
Laserul cu CO2 evaporă moleculele de apă din ţesuturi, celule şi agenţi patogeni.
Laseru cu dopanţi de Erbiu (Er:YSGG si Er:YAG) evaporă apa din straturile superioare
ale ţesuturilor moi şi a celor dure, având emisii foarte scurte. In ţesuturi are loc o reacţie
termică ce variază în funcţie de parametrii instrumentului şi de proprietăţile optice ale
ţesutului, temperatura ajungând la 50°C pentru dezactivarea bacteriilor, 60°C pentru
hemostază şi îndepartarea ţesuturilor inflamatorii ale diverselor maladii.
 Laserul cu eximer in oftalmologie

Corecţia erorilor de refracţie cum ar fi miopia, hipermetropia şi astigmatism.

Afectiuni ale retinei- retinopatia diabetica, trombozele vasculare retiniene, dezlipirea
de retina si alte afectiuni retiniene beneficieaza de aportul laserului in tratament prin
procedeul numit fotocoagulare retiniana.

LASIK – este cea mai frecventa operatie cu laser la ochi. Aceasta incepe prin crearea unui
lambou subtire in cornee. Chirurgul foloseste o lama sau un laser pentru a face acest
lambou. Odata ce acel fragment este creat, laserul excimer este folosit pentru a remodela
corneea, care mai apoi corecteaza eroarea de refractie.
 Laserul cu eximer in oftalmologie

PRK – este al doilea tip de operatie comun chirurgiilor cu laser la ochi. PRK incepe prin
indepartarea unei portiuni de pe suprafata corneei sau a tesutului epitelial. Prin urmare,
nu este nevoie de crearea unui lambou, iar tesutul indepartat creste la loc. Unii pacienti
prefera PRK, deoarece ei nu doresc un lambou cornean sau au o cornee subtire. Odata ce
epiteliul este indepartat, este folosit un laser pentru remodelarea corneei. Laserul este
de acelasi tip, excimer, ca si cel folosit in interventiile LASIK.
 Laserul cu eximer in oftalmologie

PRK – este al doilea tip de operatie comun chirurgiilor cu laser la ochi. PRK incepe prin
indepartarea unei portiuni de pe suprafata corneei sau a tesutului epitelial. Prin urmare,
nu este nevoie de crearea unui lambou, iar tesutul indepartat creste la loc. Unii pacienti
prefera PRK, deoarece ei nu doresc un lambou cornean sau au o cornee subtire. Odata ce
epiteliul este indepartat, este folosit un laser pentru remodelarea corneei. Laserul este
de acelasi tip, excimer, ca si cel folosit in interventiile LASIK.
 Laserul cu eximer in oftalmologie

LASEK este similar cu LASIK sau PRK, doar că se aplică o soluţie de alcool la nivelul
epiteliului cornean, pentru a slăbi celulele corneene ultraperiferice, permiţându-i astfel
medicului să le mute, fără a scoate aceste celule. Dupa remodelarea stromei cu laser
excimer, pojghita de celule epiteliale poate fi înlocuită cu o lentilă de contact, pentru a
permite o vindecare mai rapidă.
 Laserul cu eximer in oftalmologie

Corecţia erorilor de refracţie cum ar fi miopia, hipermetropia şi astigmatism.

Afectiuni ale retinei-
 Lucru individual

1. Măsurarea parametrilor oculari axiali. Tomografia computerizată.

2. Imagistica prin rezonanță magnetică in optometrie.
3. Fotografierea în optometria clinică și angiografie fluorescentă.
4. Tehnica laser și de scanare (oftalmoscopia, tomografia).
5. Optica adaptiva și aberometria frontului de unda (Wavefront aberrometry).

Nota: Lucrul individual se prezinta sub forma de prezentare in format ppt pina la 10
pagini. Lucrul individual se apreciaza cu nota!
 Lentile Subţiri

Intrebari, comentarii, sugestii!

Lentile Subţiri

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 Effects of coherent light. Laser.

Spontaneous emission

Stimulated emission
 Laser.

Working principle of a laser.

 Laser proprieties
Laser intensity - power transmitted by the beam
The power of laser diodes used to read compact discs is 5mW.
CO2 lasers used in the metallurgical industry: 100W - 6000W.
In medicine for deep tissue penetration, 1-12W power is used.
High power density characterizes the power of the laser beam on the surface unit. Because
the laser beams are narrow, this density becomes very high. The He-Ne laser of 1 mW
power, and the beam diameter of 0.4 mm, has an average power density of 0.5 W/cm2.
For high-power focused beams, the power density easily reaches the value 1011-
1012W/cm2. Even in the case of a low-power laser, the intensity of the laser beam is about
104 times the intensity of the sun.
Coherency - the property of a source to emit radiation of the same frequency and constant
phase shift over time. Monochromaticity - light of a single color.
Directionality
 Types of lasers

The He-Ne gas laser emits light with wavelength l = 632.8 nm (red color). As an active
medium, a mixture of He and Ne is used.
The CO2 laser works on the basis of a mixture of oxygen and carbon atoms. Such a laser
emits monochromatic electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength λ = 1600 nm.
The Argon Laser has argon as the active medium and emits monochromatic light with
wavelength = 458 nm (blue) and l = 515 nm (green).
The Rubidium laser possesses as active medium a synthetic crystal of doped rubidium
with Cr (Al2O3: Cr) ions. The width of the spectral line emitted by such a laser is in the
order of milliseconds, and the wavelength corresponds to l = 694,3 nm and power
around 5 W.
Neodymium doped lasers (Nd: YVO4, Nd: YLF, Nd: YAlG), erbium (Er: YAG) or iterbium
dopants (Yb: YAG: YF: SYS or Yb: CaF2) wave (1020-2140) nm, the transmitting power of
which is up to 100 W.
The LED type laser is based on semiconductor diodes (GaAs, GaAlAs, InGaAlAs) emit
electromagnetic radiation in the 375-3500 nm range.
The excimer laser emits ultraviolet (157-351) nm and generates ns pulses. The active
medium is a mixture of molecules composed of noble gases (argon, krypton, xenon) and
halogen (chlorine or fluorine).
 Mecanismul interacţiunii radiaţiei
laser cu celulele vii
The interaction of the laser with the living matter is a complex phenomenon, which
depends on the laser parameters and the properties of the tissues. Laser radiation is
absorbed differently from biological cells, each wavelength having a unique effect on
biological structures.
In biological tissues, the absorbed radiation is
transformed into other forms of energy (heat,
chemical energy). Some lasers are only absorbed by
blood and pigmented tissue, while others are
absorbed by water and hard tissues such as enamel,
dentin and bone. In view of these things, the laser
produces various actions:

The diode laser and the Nd: YAG act on pigments in tissues, pathogens and inflamed
and vascular tissues.
The CO2 laser evaporates the water molecules in tissues, cells and pathogens.
Erbium doping lasers (Er: YSGG and Er: YAG) evaporates water from the upper layers
of soft and hard tissues with very short emissions. In the tissues there is a thermal
reaction that varies according to instrument parameters and optical tissue properties,
the temperature reaches 50 ° C for the deactivation of bacteria, 60 ° C for hemostasis and
 Excimer laser in ophthalmology

Correction of refractive errors such as myopia, hyper-metropia and astigmatism.

Retinal diseases, diabetic retinopathy, retinal vascular thrombosis, retinal detachment
and other retinal disorders benefit from laser intake by the process called retinal
photocoagulation.

LASIK - is the most common laser eye surgery. It starts by creating a thin flap in the
cornea. The surgeon uses a blade or laser to make this flap. Once that fragment is
created, the excimer laser is used to remodel the cornea, which then corrects the
refractive error.
 Laserul cu eximer in oftalmologie

PRK - is the second type of surgery common to laser eye surgery. PRK begins by
removing a portion of the surface of the cornea or epithelial tissue. Therefore, there is no
need to create a flap, and the distal tissue grows back. Some patients prefer PRK because
they do not want a corneal flap or have a thin cornea. Once the epithelium is removed, a
laser is used to remodel the cornea. The laser is of the same type, excimer, as that used in
LASIK interventions.
 Laserul cu eximer in oftalmologie

PRK - is the second type of surgery common to laser eye surgery. PRK begins by
removing a portion of the surface of the cornea or epithelial tissue. Therefore, there is no
need to create a flap, and the distal tissue grows back. Some patients prefer PRK because
they do not want a corneal flap or have a thin cornea. Once the epithelium is removed, a
laser is used to remodel the cornea. The laser is of the same type, excimer, as that used in
LASIK interventions.
 Excimer laser in ophthalmology

LASEK is similar to LASIK or PRK, except that a solution of alcohol is applied to the
corneal epithelium to weaken the outer corneal cells, allowing the doctor to move them
without removing these cells. After remodeling of the excimer laser, epithelial cells can
be replaced with a contact lens to allow faster healing.
 Individual work

1. Measurement of axial ocular parameters. Computerized tomography.

2. Magnetic resonance imaging in optometry.
3. Photographing in clinical optometry and fluorescence angiography.
4. Laser and scanning technique (ophthalmoscopy, tomography).
5. Adaptive Optics and Wavefront aberrometry.

Note: Individual work is presented in ppt format up to 10 pages. Individual work is

appreciated with a mark!
 Lentile Subţiri

Intrebari, comentarii, sugestii!

Lentile Subţiri

Multumesc !!!!!!