Bush Craft Training Manual and Workbook

Bush Craft Training Manual and
Workbook
2018
Table of Contents
A. INTRODUCTION TO THE BUSH CRAFT TRAINING MANUAL AND WORKBOOK 5

B. ORIENTATION 6
1. Maps 6
a) Using local landmarks 6
b) Using a compass - 7
2. Methods in the bush 7
Stick and shadow method 7
3. The Night Sky 8
a) The Southern Cross 8
b) Orion’s Belt (visible from November to May) 8
c) Scorpius/ Scorpio (visible from May to November) 9
C. SURVIVAL 9
1. Principles of Survival 9
a) Remain Calm 9
b) Conserve all available water 9
2. Locating Water 10
a) Water loss occurs in several ways: 10
b) Water can be obtained in the following ways: 10
1. Locating Food 12
a) Animal Food: 12
b) Plant Food: 12
D. TREES AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION 13
1. Tree size, form and foliage colour 13
2. The bark 13
3. Branches and twigs 13
4. Latex 13
5. Leaves 13
6. Flowers 14
7. Fruits/Seedpods 14
8. Distribution, geology and soils 14
E. BIRDS AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION 19
1. Passerine: 19
2. Non-Passerine: 19
Bush Craft Training Manual

Page | 2
3. Near-Passerine: 19
a) Size and shape of the bird 19
b) Bill (shape and colour) 20
c) Legs and Feet (length and colour) 20
d) Habitat (ecological area and geographical distribution) 20
e) Voice (distinctive call of the bird) 20
f) Plumage (colour and patterns) 21
g) Habits (feeding behaviour and flight patterns) 21
F. Animal Tracks and Signs 22
1. Digitigrade (carnivores) 22
2. Plantigrade (primates) 22
3. Unguligrade (hooved animals) 23
4. Signs 25
G. APPROACHING ANIMALS ON FOOT 26
1. Psychological Defence Zones and Personal Space 26
a) The Comfort Zone 26
b) The Alert Zone 26
c) The Warning Zone 27
d) The Critical Zone (Attack Zone) 27
2. Factors Affecting the Size of the Critical Zone: 27
3. Avoid Approaching Species Under Certain Circumstances 28
4. Areas to Avoid or be Extra Vigilant in 28
5. Charging Animals 28
6. Important Rules of Charging Animals 30
H. VENOM - SNAKES 31
1. Snakes 31
a) Neurotoxic venom 31
b) Cytotoxic Venom 32
c) Haemotoxic Venom 32
d) Non-venomous solid toothed snakes 33
I. VENOM – SPIDERS AND SCOPRIONS 33
1. Spiders 34
a) Black Button Spider/Black widow 34
b) Brown Button Spider 34
c) Small Baboon Spider 35

Page | 3
d) Violin Spider 35
e) Sac Spider 35
f) Six-eyed Sand Crab Spider 36
2. General rules for treating a spider bite: 36
3. Scorpions 36
a) General Behaviour and Characteristics 37
J. Glossary of Terms 38
K. Literature You Will Find in Camp 42
L. Workbook Questions 42

Page | 4
A. INTRODUCTION TO THE BUSH CRAFT TRAINING MANUAL AND WORKBOOK
The main purpose of the Bush Craft Training Manual and Workbook is to support you as you learn new skills
and gain knowledge during your time in the African bush. The aim of this manual and workbook is to add
value to what you would have learnt whilst in the field. Furthermore this manual and workbook has been
created in order to enhance and develop a further understanding of African animals and basic bush skills.
The manual and workbook has been divided into the below sections:
1. Theory
The manual and workbook has been divided into eight different modules. Each module is divided into
different sub sections. Each module supported by a comprehensive theory section along with a practical task
and workbook sections.
The eight modules include:

1. Orientation
2. Survival
3. Trees and their identification
4. Birds and their identification
5. Animal tracks and signs
6. Approaching animals on foot
7. Venom – Snakes
8. Venom – Spiders and Scorpions
2. Tasks
The tasks are the practical components of each of the above mentioned modules (there is no task for modules
5, 7 and 8). Each task will be done in groups and lead by your camp coordinator. Each task is aimed at
practically demonstrating what you have learnt in each module. Completing each task will help you to further
understand the theory behind each module.
3. Workbook Questions
The workbook question section is aimed at testing your knowledge gained from both the theory and practical
sections of the manual. The workbook can be completed in your own time. Completing the questions will
show you, as an individual, what knowledge you have gained from each module. The answers to the
questions are found in the theory section, glossary, and practically from what you have learnt during your
time in the bush. It basically summarizes up all what you have learnt through using this manual.
4. Glossary of Terms

Page | 5
Can’t remember what that word means? Well you are sure to find it in the glossary! The glossary has over 80
words with their definitions. These words and terms are what you would have probably used and heard
during your time in the bush. Some words and terms in the glossary will help you answer the questions in the
workbook section.
5. Literature Found in Camp

This is a list of the books you are likely to find in camp. You are welcome to use these books if they are
available. If you wish to further your knowledge beyond the scope of this manual and workbook then you
should make use of these books and materials made use during your stay.
B. ORIENTATION
It is important whether on a walk or a game drive that you always know where you are, which direction you
are moving in, and where the final destination is. It’s in the initial stage of finding yourself in a new location
that you will have to orientate yourself to the area. As you spend more time in a specific area you will gain
a greater understanding of the surroundings, key topographical features, and other land marks which are
useful to navigate your way around.
There are several basic techniques that can be used to orientate oneself in the bush with minimal equipment:
1. Maps
Maps are a usually the easiest way to orientate yourself in an unfamiliar area. A map is simply a flattened
representation of an area onto paper. Geographical features can be represented on a map by the use of lines
and symbols, for example ‘contour lines’ to indicate gradients, or blue patches to indicate water. Maps must
be positioned in the same orientation as the natural landscape. This can be achieved by:
a) Using local landmarks - Find a landmark in the area and identify it on the map. Draw a line on the map
from your standing position to the landmark, and then rotate your map until that line is pointing towards
the physical landmark. The map should then be correctly orientated, and the grid lines can be used to
indicate direction.

Page | 6
b) Using a compass - Place a compass horizontally on the
map and use the long edge to connect the starting point
to the desired destination. Turn the capsule so that the
N-S orientating arrow is parallel to the vertical lines
(magnetic North) on the map. Rotate your body so that
the magnetic needle is in line with the orientating
arrow, and you can then follow the direction of travel
arrow.
2. Methods in the bush

It is also possible to orientate yourself in the bush without any special equipment, and instead just using the
path of the sun to navigate.
a)
Stick and shadow method – Place a reasonably long stick vertically in the ground on a cleared piece of
flat ground. Mark the end of the shadow cast by the stick using a small stone, wait approximately 30
minutes and mark where the shadow now stands. A line drawn between these two stones will indicate
East to the right, and West to the left (in the Southern hemisphere). A line perpendicular to that will then
indicate the North-South line.

Page | 7
b) The Watch method – Hold your watch so that ‘12’ is pointing towards
the sun. True North can be obtained by bisecting the angle between
‘12’ and the hour hand. This method can even be used if you have a
digital watch by drawing a watch on the ground with the correct time
and using the same method with the 12 pointing towards the sun.
3. The Night Sky

There are two prominent constellations that are often visible in the night sky, and it is possible to orientate
yourself by using these stars (this is obviously dependent on a clear sky and dull moon).
a) The Southern Cross

Identify the long axes of the cross, and draw an imaginary
line that extends 4.5 times the length of the cross. At this
point, drop the line down to the horizon, and this will identify
South. Another method involves locating the two bright
pointers near the cross, drawing a line perpendicular to the
pointers until it intersects the extended axis of the cross.
Directly below this point should also indicate South.
b) Orion’s Belt (visible from November to May)

This constellation has a group of seven stars. Three stars grouped together in the middle is the ‘Belt of Orion’.
The top star will always rise due East and set due West, no matter which part of the earth you happen to be
in. Alternatively, the three bright stars of the belt can
be used to form half of a pointing arrow; the other half
is marked by a faint star below the belt. Three more
faint stars form the shaft of the arrow. This arrow
points the direction of north.

Page | 8
c) Scorpius/ Scorpio (visible from May to November)
This is one of the largest constellations seen in the southern hemisphere
during the winter months when Orion is no longer visible. Unlike many
other constellations in the nights sky, this one actually resembles its
namesake. Scorpius can also be used to find direction as it rises in the
east and sets in the west with the head of the scorpion driving the move.
On a clear night, it should be possible to see approximately 2500 stars and 5 planets with the naked eye
alone. Stars differ from planets as they produce their own light and energy, whereas planets reflect the light
from stars and do not produce light energy of their own. For some star gazing terms please view the Glossary
at the back of the manual.
TASK:
In your groups, each member can try out one of the methods above (although it will take a few hours as
you will require both sunlight and the night sky!). Once you have each established your orientation, check
with each other to see if your points of direction are the same.
C. SURVIVAL
Understanding the basic principles of survival is far more important than learning techniques per se,
particularly since most techniques require some modification every time they are used. Nothing is easy, no
matter how well trained you may be, but by understanding and learning the basics, you may adapt to any
number of different circumstances. Above all, survival depends on making right decisions and maintaining
mental toughness. DO NOT PANIC!
1. Principles of Survival
a) Remain Calm
Rationalize, calm yourself and remember - panic, depression and a feeling of hopelessness will destroy your
ability to think clearly and positively. Every man feels fear to some degree when faced with danger - master
your fear so that you are lucid and functional despite the danger you may be faced with.
b) Conserve all available water
In arid Africa this is the most important element of survival. The human body`s limitations are indicated
below. This is a guide for static survival conditions, as the climatic conditions and the personal endurance of
the person will affect this information:

Page | 9
1. 4 minutes without oxygen
2. 4 days without water
3. 40 days without food
c) Evaluate your situation
Do an appreciation of the situation. Right from the start, the right AIM must be decided upon, because only
then does it become possible to begin a process of logical reasoning - what has to be done and how it must
be done.
2. Locating Water
YOU ONLY MISS THE WATER WHEN THE WELL RUNS DRY. The body`s intake of water is initiated and
controlled by a sensation known to us as THIRST. If the mouth is swilled out with water, the sensation of
thirst will be temporarily quenched even if no water is consumed. By placing a small round stone under the
tongue when travelling on foot for any length of time will excite the salivary glands which will keep the mouth
moist and thus reduce the sensation of thirst.
a) Water loss occurs in several ways:

1. Sweating is a process whereby water is lost on hot days or under exercise. Water (sweat) reaches the
skin via the sweat glands and the evaporation of this sweat cools the skin.
2. Air breathed out of the body contains water from respiration.
3. “Insensible perspiration” is a process whereby a very small amount of water is lost from tissue spaces.
4. Faeces, urine, vomiting, haemorrhage and diarrhoea can all cause a considerable loss of water and
lead to dehydration.
b) Water can be obtained in the following ways:

Natural drainage lines: Do not expend your body water and energy aimlessly wandering around for water.
Climb a vantage point and carefully study the land. Follow the natural drainage systems and note the areas
which show thick, green riverine vegetation or natural valleys. If rivers are dried up, good likely sources of
water are found at river bed convergences and the outside bank of the river bed at the sharpest bend. Select
a long smooth dry stick and thrust into the sand as far as possible. Examine for dry sand sticking to the wood
for an indication of dampness, and dig a hole where appropriate.
Game path network: Many species of game require water on a daily basis, and so if tracks can be identified
to be a water dependent species, there is a good chance that there is a water source nearby. Game paths

Page | 10
that converge onto a larger, main paths indicate the direction of travel to a water point for game that is
water-dependent.
Water dependent species include: Baboons, monkeys, warthogs, zebra, impala, lions, bushbuck, waterbuck,
leopard, bush pig, buffalo, elephant, rhino and hippo.
If a dam or pan is located, the water isn’t necessarily safe to drink. Pans are static and animals use them
regularly, thereby resulting in dirty water. Four methods for obtaining clean water are as follows:
1 Dig a hole to the side of the pan at its lowest point and allow the water to filter in.
1. Push a reed through the scum and debris to the bottom of the pan for cleaner water.
2. Take your shirt and place lumps of mud in the shirt and wring it out over a receptacle.
3. Place a receptacle on the ground, fill with river sand, make a hollow in the centre of the sand and
allow the water to filter through into another receptacle, which you can then drink.
Water dependent birds: Similarly, there are many species of birds which require water on a regular basis.
Seedeaters for example need water on a regular basis as they don’t obtain the water they require from the
seeds that they eat. Birds such as the Namaqua sandgrouse, rock pigeon, and certain duck species fly to
water early in the morning.
Other birds dependent on water include: Guinea-fowl (not crested), Fishing owl, Hamerkop, Saddlebilled
storks, Hadeda ibis, Herons, Red-eyed dove, Marabou storks and Purple-crested lourie.
NOTE:

Page | 11
• Never drink sea water - it gives temporary relief, but will create an even greater thirst and
dehydration
• Never drink urine as it contains body waste products
• Rain water is a must to be collected. Dig holes and line with grass, for muddy water is better than no
water! Use clothes, ponchos, hats, etc. to collect the rain.
1. Locating Food
a) Animal Food: This provides the best source of food as immediate protein, although animal foods aren’t
always the easiest food source to obtain safely.
• Termites, grasshoppers and other insects and grub can be eaten
raw or cooked and they offer a good source of protein. Brightly
coloured insects should be avoided as these may be toxic.
• Reptiles such as lizards, snakes and tortoises can be eaten. They
should be gutted and cooked, and ensure that head areas which
could contain venom are avoided.
• Eggs and chicks can be taken from birds’ nests and eaten raw (eggs)
or cooked.
• Fish can be caught by using a simple line or by poisoning the water
by using various parts of tree species, such as the roots and bark of
the Apple-leaf.
b) Plant Food: This is the easiest method of collecting food, however it can
be considered risky and often requires a good knowledge of the bush and
local vegetation.
• Generally any food eaten by monkeys (not baboons) is edible for
humans.
• Avoid bulbs that look like onions, but underground tubers that look
like potatoes are generally safe.
• Plants that resemble tomatoes and cucumbers should generally be
avoided.
• Plants that contain milky latex should be avoided as these are toxic,
with the exception of figs and num-num.
• Some fruits that are edible when ripe are poisonous when unripe.

Page | 12
It is important to test the plants before eating them, as if you eat a plant that turns out to be inedible or toxic,
it is likely that there will be minimal medical treatment available, and it could cause a death in the bush.
To test the edibility:

1. Rub a small part of the plant (or the sap) on a sensitive part of your skin, such as the wrist, and wait
for up to 20 minutes to check for signs of blistering, rash, or a itchy or burning feeling. If these arise,
do not consume the plant.
2. Touch the plant with the tip of your tongue, and if there is a bitter unpleasant taste or burning
sensation then do not eat it.
3. If the plant tasted pleasant, consume a small amount cautiously, wait for at least an hour, and if there
are no adverse reactions such as nausea or stomach cramps, you can continue eating with care.
D. TREES AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION
Some trees can vary hugely in their appearance; however they can sometimes be some difficult in identifying
them. There are several characteristics that trees possess which can be used to help to identify them:
1. Tree size, form and foliage colour

The basic shape of a tree can vary dramatically between different species. One must look at the shape and
position of the canopy, as well as the form of the trunk and stems. Colour of foliage is also a key indicator of
plant species, and can vary from a bright green to a dull brown depending both on the tree species and the
season.
2. The bark
Every species has its own pattern, texture and colour, although this varies depending on the age of the tree.
3. Branches and twigs
Note the texture, shape and colour of the branches and twigs. Also check for the presence of spines or thorns
on the branches, however pay attention to which of these are present as they are similar in appearance with
just subtle differences between them.
Spine – a pointy structure formed from a modified leaf.
Thorn – a pointy woody structure formed from a modified branch.
4. Latex
A clear, cloudy or milky substance produced by some plants.
5. Leaves

Page | 13
There are several different aspects of leaves that can be used to identify the plant type; the texture and
hairiness, the leaf shape, venation, odours, the margins, and the arrangement of the leaves on the branch
(see Figure D1 below for details).
6. Flowers
The shape and colour of flowers can be helpful, but one must look carefully for flowers as often they are
small and hard to see and aren’t always present.
7. Fruits/Seedpods
Establish if the fruit is dry (a nut) or fleshy (a berry). If there are no visible fruits, check the ground below the
tree for fallen or discarded fruit and seeds.
8. Distribution, geology and soils
Use books to discover the distribution of the tree if you are unsure that you have the correct species. If the
distribution doesn’t match your area, you can likely dismiss that species.

Page | 14
Figure D1: Glossary of leaf shapes as an indication of different tree types.
Table D1: Some common tree species and their specific characteristics which are found in the Lowveld and
Waterberg areas in South Africa.

Page | 15
Species Name Practical Uses Animal Association Medicinal Uses
Gall midge larvae inject a
The hairs on the leaves are
Silver Cluster Leaf chemical substance that causes A bitter root extract is used
used in glazing pottery to
(Terminalia sericea) a growth within which it can to treat diarrhoea.
give a silvery sheen.
grow.
The clusters of pods produced Used in the treatment of
Sicklebush The inner bark is tough and by the Sickle bush are relished snakebite, scorpion stings,
(Dichrostachys pliable and makes a strong by herbivores such as elephant and insect bites, by chewing
cinerea) fibre rope and string. due to their high nutritional the leaves and placing them
value. on the lesion.
The female fig wasp lays her
eggs within the fig where the
The sticky milky latex is
un-hatched galls are fertilised The latex is infused with the
traditionally used by locals
Common Cluster Fig by the flightless male. This bark to help treat chest,
to catch birds by smearing
(Ficus sycomorus) mutualistic relationship both glandular, throat and
it on the branches on which
pollinates the tree and allows stomach complaints.
they land.
the wasps to complete their life
cycle.
The fruits are widely eaten by
Jackalberry The wood is used for A decoction of the root is
birds and animals such as
(Diospyros furniture and to make used as a de-wormer, for
Jackals, African civit, monkeys,
mespiliformis) mokoros (dugout canoes). example to cure ringworm.
and humans.
When under attack from lions,
During the Anglo-Boer war, Boils and other skin
buffalos reverse their hind
Buffalo-Thorn the stones were roasted infections can be treated
quarters into thorn bush and
(Ziziphus mucronata) and ground as a substitute with a paste made from the
use horns to protect from the
for coffee. leafs.
front for all round protection.
Combretums have Flowers of the Comberetum
exceptionally hard, termite family attract butterflies, An infusion of the roots is
Bushwillow species
resistant wood used for wasps and other insects, which used for the treatment of
(Combretum family)
mine props and railway in turn encourage many insect stomach disorders.
sleepers. eating birds to the area.
Elephants heavily exploit the
Marula tree, particularly to eat
The fruit produced by the The inner bark of the Marula
the fruits to obtain Vitamin C
Marula tree has a citrus can be used against the
Marula which acts to boost their
flavour and is used to make stings of hairy caterpillars
(Sclerocarya birrea) immune systems. It is thought
jams, jellies, beer and due to the antihistamine
that passage through the
Amarula liquor. properties.
elephant gut stimulates the
germination of the seed.

Page | 16
Caterpillars of the moth Cirina
forda can occur in large The roots can be used to
The dried and crushed bark
Wild seringa numbers on the tree and can treat tooth ache by swilling
can be used as a fish
(Burkea africana) cause defoliation. The moths a warm infusion around the
poison.
are harvested and eaten as a mouth where the pain is.
delicacy.
The twigs of the Natal
Guarri can be used to make The ground root powder is
This is a very popular tree
Natal guarri toothbrushes by removing used to treat leprosy, and
amongst the Black Rhino which
(Euclea natalensis) the bark and chewing the can also be used to treat
feed excessively on the foliage.
branch to make it brush- toothache and headaches.
like.
Roots are boiled and the
The attractive reddish
Transvaal beech Flowers produce nectar that is liquid is drunk as a remedy
brown wood is used to
(Faurea salinga) popular amongst honeybees. for diarrhoea and
make furniture.
indigestion.
TASK: The list of trees below fit into the key the page below. Use the facilities available to you (including
the diagram of leaf shapes) to identify which tree belongs in which red box on the key (working from the
‘start’ box). Then using the same books, find and identify 8 different tree species in camp. Also add any
practical uses, medicinal uses and animal associations related to the tree species. Write this all down and
hand it to your lecturer/ coordinator once you have completed the task.
1. Silver Cluster Leaf
2. Sicklebush
3. Common Cluster Fig
4. Jackalberry
5. Buffalo Thorn
6. Bushwillow spp.
7. Marula
8. Wild Seringa
9. Natal Guarri
10. Transvaal Beech
START

Page | 17
Plants with serrated leaf margins Plants with entire leaf margins
Opposite leaf arrangement Alternate leaf arrangement
Tufted alternate Simple alternate

Seeds in winged pods Seeds in berries
leaf structure leaf structure

Page | 18
E. BIRDS AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION
For basic identification, birds are divided into three different groups depending on their foot structure:
1. Passerine: This is the most common group of birds, and refers to mostly smallish birds that are
characterised by having feet that are well adapted to perching, that is, three toes in the front, and one
toe behind.
E.g. Fork Tailed Drongo, Chinspot Batis, Arrow-Marked Babbler.
2. Non-Passerine: These include all birds that have webbed or semi-webbed feet or otherwise specially
modified feet.
E.g. African Darter, Blacksmith Lapwing, Egyptian Goose.
3. Near-Passerine: This group of birds appear to be passerine birds by their size and behaviour, but instead
they often have a foot structure with two toes facing forward and two toes facing backwards
(Zygodactylous foot structure).
E.g. Crested Barbet, Red Billed Oxpecker, Golden-Tailed Woodpecker.
Passerine foot Non-Passerine foot Near-Passerine foot
Birds can be tricky to identify as they are relatively small, often on the move, and several species can look
quite similar and will often require the use of a bird identification book to distinguish between them. There
are several key characteristics of birds that can be used to help to identify them:
a) Size and shape of the bird

Exact sizes do not need to be determined, but use size rather as a comparison to other birds. For
example sparrows are obviously smaller than pigeons, which are obviously smaller than guinea fowl.
Similarly, it is possible to use shape to identify the type of bird you have seen. For example, the legs,
bill, neck and tail vary dramatically between birds according to their biology.

Page | 19
b) Bill (shape and colour)
The bill can reveal a lot of information about the feeding habits and
guild of the bird. For example, hard conical shaped bills indicate seed
eaters, whereas soft pointed bills indicate insect eaters.
c) Legs and Feet (length and colour)

The lifestyle of birds can be indicated by the legs. For example, wading
birds may have long thin legs, whereas birds of prey may have shorter
stronger legs.
d) Habitat (ecological area and geographical distribution)

Although many birds are relatively mobile, individual species are often
unique to certain geographical areas or habitat types. The birds that
are seen in grassland areas, for example, will differ from those seen in
dessert, fynbos, coastal bush, woodland, and aquatic habitats.
e) Voice (distinctive call of the bird)

The sounds that birds make are also key to their identification. Birds
can both call (short sounds associated with specific behaviours) and
make songs (longer and mostly heard during the breeding season), and
these sounds are often unique to a species.

Page | 20
f) Plumage (colour and patterns)
The colours of birds’ plumage can be key to identifying
birds. It is important to notice the overall colour, but
also any distinguishing patterns or combination of
colours that may separate the bird from other similar
species. It is useful to be familiar with the terms given
to different parts of the bird so that a description can
be given when trying to identify the bird.
g) Habits (feeding behaviour and flight patterns)

The way in which birds behave can also help to identify them. Feeding habits for example differ between
each bird family. Flight patterns are also often unique to different types of bird. The way in which doves
sail in flight differs dramatically from how some kingfisher species are able to hover in the air.
Here are some examples of flight patterns in birds:
Dipping Flight
e.g. – Red Billed Hornbill
Straight Flight
e.g. – Crested Barbet
Thermal Gliding
e.g. – White Back Vulture
TASK: First complete the Bird Identification presentation. Once you have completed that, in your groups
using both binoculars and bird identification books identify 8 different bird species around camp. Write
your species down as well as their most identifiable features i.e. feathers, beak, habitat etc. You have one
hour to complete the task.

Page | 21
F. ANIMAL TRACKS AND SIGNS
Tracking is a skill that allows a person to observe the signs in the bush to guess the whereabouts of an animal
simply by reading the clues that it left behind. Depending on a number of factors such as weather and soil
type, tracking can be quite straight forward or it can be tricky. It can require years of experience in the bush
to become a skilled tracker, and there are many different signs that one must be aware of.
Tracks are the physical imprints that animals leave on the ground. All animal species have unique footprints
of a certain shape or size. Tracks can be subdivided into four different classes (all diagrams are of front feet
unless otherwise specified, and measurements indicate the length from the front to the back of the foot).
1. Digitigrade (carnivores)
This foot posture is found mostly in predatory animals where just the toes of the foot make contact with the
ground. This enables them to move silently through the bush, assisting them to conceal their position away
while hunting. This foot type can be divided into members of the dog and cat families.
a) Dog-like
Jackal (51mm) Hyena (96mm) African Wild Dog (70mm)
b) Cat-like
Lion (128mm) Leopard (92mm) Cheetah (84mm)
2. Plantigrade (primates)

Page | 22
This is the most primitive foot structure where the entire foot is used, and is found in primates such as
humans, monkeys, and baboons.
3. Unguligrade (hooved animals)

These animals run on the tips of their toes and normally have specially adapted nails or ‘hooves’ that allow
for fast escapes from predators. Ungulates are further divided into odd toed or even toed animals:
a) Odd toes
Black Rhino (200mm) White Rhino (250mm) Plains Zebra (100mm)

Page | 23
b) Even toes
Hippo (250mm) Buffalo (120mm) Giraffe (180mm)
For ease of identification, antelope species are often separated into small (such as duiker), medium (such as
impala) and large (such as kudu).
Common duiker (40mm)
Impala (60mm)
Greater Kudu (65mm)
c) Near Ungulates
These animals have toenails rather than
proper hooves, and they tend to walk on their
whole foot rather than their toes. The most
common near ungulate track that is seen is
the elephant.
Front (500mm) Back (520mm)
African Elephant

Page | 24
4. Signs
Signs are all the clues that one may use to indicate an animals’ presence, and they can be divided into three
different categories:
a) Aerial signs: Any clues that are above the ground that could indicate an animals’ presence.
For example:
• A birds’ alarm call as it flies from a tree having seen a potential threat. Alarm calling animals
include: baboons, oxpeckers, impala, guineafowl,
• The smell of animals carried on the wind, such as an elephant in musth.
• Anal gland sent marking, by hyena and dwarf mongoose, the strength of the smell can determine
the time of the animal passing.
• The line of sight of a giraffe as it looks at a disturbance or predator in the vegetation.
b) Arboreal signs: Clues that are found on trees and bushes as an animal passed through the area.
For example:
• Animals that are prone to bud bathing may use the trunk of a tree to rub or scratch on. The
height of this rubbing can indicate which animal left the mark. Warthogs, elephants, rhino and
buffalo leave mud marks.
• Branches that are broken by animals, for example the path of destruction that elephants can
leave as they pass through an area.
• Scratch marks in the bark of trees as a result of cats marking their territory.
• Physical presence of territorial pasting on bits of grass made by species such as hyaena or
vegetation moistened by cats spraying urine.
c) Terrestrial signs: The most obvious terrestrial signs are the track marks left by animals as mentioned
above. However, it is also possible to use other indicators that are left on the ground after an animal has
passes through.
For example:
• Animal faeces – these differ from species to species according to the size of the animal and it the
particular diet, for example, carnivore scat will often have hair and bone in the scat, whereas
herbivorous animal dung will contact only vegetation.
• Animal pathways, including game trails and human roads, which are mark with middens or scent
i.e. rhino’s and hyena.
• Scrape marks in the ground left by an animal marking its territory using feet to scrape the sand.

Page | 25
G. APPROACHING ANIMALS ON FOOT
Field guides regularly expose themselves to elements of danger, be they on foot or vehicle based. When on
bush walks, the guides should always cover the ground rules such as the safety briefing and the emergency
drill; it is essential that all participants adhere to these rules. The job as a field guide often calls for taking
calculated risks. It is thus important to distinguish between calculated and unnecessary risk. A calculated
risk is a risk in which the odds are heavily stacked in your favour. An unnecessary risk gives the animal the
upper hand and favour. Field guides (and students) who take unnecessary risks are not “brave”, they are
irresponsible. The way in which an animal must be approached is ultimately based on the theory of comfort
zones and personal space.
1. Psychological Defence Zones and Personal Space

Animals experience discomfort or threat when their comfort zones are penetrated by anything they perceive
to be a danger to either themselves or their offspring. Generally every animal has psychological zones within
the personal space that surrounds them that dictates their reaction to any intruders.
a) The Comfort Zone

This is the area or distance that the animal requires in order to feel comfortable about the presence of
another organism. In this zone, you are outside the personal space of the animal and your presence does not
pose a threat to them. The animal is
comfortable with your presence and carries
Comfort Zone
on with its normal activities.
Alert Zone
Warning Zone
b) The Alert Zone Critical Zone
On entering this zone, you have entered the

personal space and have violated the
distance that is required. The animal
usually freezes to conceal itself and relies
on its senses to analyse the situation. It Figure B1: The different comfort zones of an animal. The position
of the animal is indicated in the centre red circle and known as
may initially become inquisitive or curious
the “Critical Zone”.
and approach in an attempt to identify you.
If you keep that distance and show no interest, the animal may continue feeding or carry on with its initial
activity. If they feel uncomfortable they will choose to move off. Confrontation is usually avoided at this
stage.

Page | 26
c) The Warning Zone
As you penetrate through the first into the second personal zone, the animal may begin to feel uncomfortable
and threatened by your approach. Depending on the species, it may start to respond by displaying warning
signals. Animal warning behaviour is intended to persuade the intruder not to come any closer. Some
methods used to warn intruders not to approach any closer include: hissing, snarling, puffing up, growling,
baring teeth, tossing the head, bristling the hair on neck and back, raising the tail, flattening the ears, breaking
branches, kicking or pawing the ground, spitting, rattling quills and mock charging. If you penetrate the
warning zone and then proceed to back away, in most cases the animal will calm down and move off.
d) The Critical Zone (Attack Zone)

If you ignore these warning signals and move closer, the intensity of the warning will increase. Ultimately
the situation can result in the animal running away where an escape route is available, or more likely, an
attack in an effort to defend itself.
TASK: The exact size and shape of each zone is variable between species and individuals, and even within
a single individual. As a group, discuss what factors could contribute to how the comfort zones of animals
may vary. Close your manuals and later check your answers against the list on the following page.
2. Factors Affecting the Size of the Critical Zone:
o The species involved (fight or flight species)
o The type of habitat (open or thick)
o Time of day (day or night)
o Time of year (mating or calving season)
o Mood of the animal (Angry or passive)
o Whether the animals are alone or in herds
o Activity of the animal (sleeping or feeding)
o The presence of young
o Age, sex, social status
o Wind direction (up or down wind)
o Individual experiences
o Nutritional status (healthy or weak and vulnerable)
o Water and food availability
o Management or research actions in the vicinity (e.g. culling) etc.

Page | 27
For example: An undernourished pride of lion feeding on a kill with the presence of young cubs will be more
sensitive to human approach than a well-conditioned coalition of males resting in the midday heat.
Vs
3. Avoid Approaching Species Under Certain Circumstances
Dangerous animals (such as the Big 5) will not be approached under the following circumstances:
o Highly nervous group
o Dangerous animals with young, especially breeding herds of elephant
o Bull elephant in musth
o Dangerous animals mating
o Predators feeding
o Wounded animals
o Startled animals
o Stressed animals
4. Areas to Avoid or be Extra Vigilant in
o Dense vegetated areas with restricted visibility

o Drainage lines, gullies (dongas) and river beds with steep sides
o Dense reed beds
5. Charging Animals

Page | 28
Table B1: How different animals can behave differently, and the warning signs that they may or may not give
prior to a charge.
Charging
Species General Encounter Information Warning Signs and Charges
speed
Mock charges are sometimes given
Lions often move away from an
by males, and are indicated by a
approach during the day, but can
stiff-legged run and growling.
Lion become more aggressive at night,
80 km/h Charging lions flatten their ears,
(Panthera Leo) when they tend to hunt. They can
crouch, whip the tail around and
become aggressive very quickly if
grunt and growl. It will start at a trot
suddenly disturbed.
then pick up pace.
Leopards usually shy away from Leopards provide very little warning
human presence and seldom before an attack. If you see a
Leopard 80-90 km/h
represent a threat to field guides leopard and it moves to hide, do not
(Panthera
and their groups. But when cubs pursue it as this may then provoke
pardus)
are present, females can become an attack, as leopards are cryptic
aggressive. and easily disturbed.
Elephants often mock charge as a
warning for approach. It is
Elephant behavior may be
characterized by the ears spread
African Elephant unpredictable and they should be
out, tossing grass into the air,
(Loxodonta 40 km/h respected at all times. Always
kicking the ground, and trumpeting
africana) avoid breeding herds and bulls in
loudly. In a real charge, the ears will
musth.
be flattened, the trunk curled up,
and no vocalization.
Buffalo can be one of the most If the ears are pushed forward and
dangerous and unpredictable the head held high, the Buffalo is
animals. In normal circumstances trying to pick up your scent. It is a
African Buffalo
54 km/h they are inquisitive and non- sign of heightened aggression if the
(Syncerus caffer)
aggressive; however their mood animal starts to snort, stamp, paw
can change suddenly and with at the ground with its hooves, and
little warning. thrash the shrubs with the boss.

Page | 29
Charging
Species General Encounter Information Warning Signs and Charges
speed
Black rhino are nervous and
Rhinos make snorting and puffing
Black Rhino aggressive by nature, and may
sounds when they are upset. They
(Diceros 45 km/h charge without any provocation;
have been known to charge
bicornis) however they will usually run off
repeatedly.
when disturbed.
Rhino’s vision is poor, so they may
White rhino are generally more
charge you merely to investigate an
White Rhino passive than Black rhino and will
intruder. Most charges will break
(Ceratotherium 40 km/h usually run off when disturbed,
off 10 to 15 meters away from the
simum) however they should not be
intruder, at which point it will
underestimated.
change direction and run past.
Charges are sometimes directed at
Hippos are usually placid and intruders who venture too close to
Hippopotamus inoffensive when left alone, the edge of the water. Attacks are
(Hippopotamus 36 km/h however when provoked, they often the result of a person being
amphibious) can become one of the most between a hippo and the water as
dangerous animal in the bush. they will run along paths and attack
anyone in the way.
6. Important Rules of Charging Animals

The appropriate response of the group is generally animal and species specific, but the actions are dictated
by the guide alone and the group is simply responsible for following these two important rules:
a) The group obeys every instruction given by the guide immediately and without question.
b) If no instruction is given or heard, the group must place themselves close behind the guide (without
crowding him/her) and remain there. It is important to realise that “behind” is a position that can
change very quickly. The guide should always have a clear field of fire in any direction that the
position of the animal dictates.
c) Never RUN!

Page | 30
H. VENOM - SNAKES
The smaller and seemingly less harmful creatures such as snakes, spiders and scorpions are often ignored or
overlooked when faced with the prospect of encountering the more famous enigmatic species such as the
BIG 5. However the chance of encountering these smaller animals are often far greater and you usually do
so without realizing it. It is when working on research elements or moving around camp that you need to
know how best to avoid bites and stings.
1. Snakes
Snakes are specialized lizards that lack limbs, eyelids, and external ears. All snakes are carnivorous, and their
prey is usually swallowed whole; this is possible due to ability of many snake species to separate their bottom
jaw to allow the passage of large prey. Snakes have very good eyesight to match their keen sense of smell
and their ability to sense other animals approaching through detecting faint vibrations in the air and on the
ground. Of the 151 species of snakes in Southern Africa, just 16 of are medical importance to humans. Snake
venom is stored and produced in salivary glands, which are located on either side of the head. Venom,
produced in snakes’ salivary glands, is primarily used to capture and subdue prey or kill prey, but it also assists
with digestion of the food.
Snakes are shy animals and generally prefer to flee from disturbances; only if threatened will they attack,
and possibly use their venom in self-defence. Most snake bites normally occur on the feet or lower half of
the legs due to people accidently standing on well camouflaged snakes. It is often therefore advisable to
wear protective clothing when walking through the bush, and be vigilant about where to place your feet
when climbing over objects such as rocks and logs. Encountering snakes at close range is very possible, and
the standard reaction is to remain still as snakes will strike at moving objects if threatened.
Snake can be classified into four different groups according to the venom type (including non-venomous
snakes) and the relating dental structure.
a) Neurotoxic venom
Symptoms: This venom affects the nervous system and causes muscle
paralysis. The symptoms may start with severe chest and abdominal
pain, then lead to difficulty in breathing, nausea, vomiting and
ultimately if left untreated, heart stoppage.
Fang type: ‘Fixed front fangs’ – short erectile fangs which are tubular
in nature to allow for the injection of venom into the victim. In some
snakes these fangs are modified to allow for spitting venom up and away from the mouth.

Page | 31
E.g. Black Mamba (2m – 4.5m)
A large, grey-ish snake with a long, slender coffin shaped
head. The name is due to the black colour on the inside
of the mouth. Black Mambas are usually active during
the day. Black mamba’s can move up to a 3rd of its body
off the ground. This is the largest venomous snake in
South Africa and I bite requires immediate medical
attention.
b) Cytotoxic Venom
Symptoms: The venom leads to tissue destruction around the site of the bite. The bite is at first painless with
symptoms developing after about 2-8 hours. It may start by resembling a mosquito sting, becoming more
painful and swollen, and eventually ulcerating into a large
surface lesion that will require medical attention.
Fang type: ‘Hinged front fangs’ – large functional fangs
attached to the front of the upper jaw via a hinged
mechanism. The fangs are erected only when the mouth is
open and ready for biting, and they lie flat again when the
snake closes its mouth to avoid piercing its own bottom jaw.
E.g. Puff adder (0.9m – 1.4m)

This is a slow moving, largely nocturnal snake with a
short stubby body and a triangular head. They have
distinct dark backward-pointing chevrons on the back
and are thus very well camouflaged in undergrowth.
The venom is slow acting and can cause death if left
untreated. The Puff adder is so called because of their
tendency to puff up in aggression when disturbed.
c) Haemotoxic Venom

Page | 32
Symptoms: This venom acts to prevent the blood from clotting,
resulting in continued bleeding and internal haemorrhaging. Symptoms
include severe headaches and bleeding from internal organs.
Fang type: ‘Back-fanged’ – The snakes have up to three pairs of
recurved fangs situated towards the back of the upper jaw. There is a
grove through which the venom passes.
E.g. Boomslang
(1m – 1.5m)
These snakes rely on cryptic colouration to camouflage
themselves in the trees in which they live, and can range
from a dull brown colour in females, to a bright green in
males. They have large eyes, which enable them to
identify immobile prey – a trait which is unique amongst
most other snakes. Boomslang actively hunt on the
chameleons and birds that share their tree top lifestyle.
d) Non-venomous solid toothed snakes

Symptoms: Some of these snakes are capable of inflicting a very
painful bite despite the lack of venom. These bites are likely to bleed
and are prone to infection, thus the wound must be cleaned soon
after the bite has taken place.
Fang type: ‘Solid Toothed/Fangless’ – These teeth are solid (i.e. there
are no grooves for venom) and sharp and there are normally full rows
of teeth on both the upper and the lower jaw. The teeth point backwards to grip onto the prey item and
prevent it from escaping.
E.g. African Rock Python (6m – 9m)
This is the largest snakes in the Lowveld and can live up to 30 years of age. They
are one of the few reptile species that exhibit parental care where the female will
protect her eggs and even warm herself up in the sun and return to the eggs to
incubate them. Pythons kill their prey via constriction; each time the prey exhales
in its struggle, the python further tightens its grip until the prey is asphyxiated.
I. VENOM – SPIDERS AND SCOPRIONS

Page | 33
1. Spiders
There are thought to be approximately 3000 species of spider within South Africa, and of these, just six
species are thought to be dangerous to humans. Many spiders are armed with either cytotoxic or neurotoxic
venom (with symptoms matching those described in snake venom), although most spiders would rather use
the opportunity to scuttle away as their fangs are not strong enough to penetrate human skin.
Spiders are often classified under two main groups:
a) Araneomorphs – web making spiders with sideways striking fangs.
b) Mygalomorphs – Ground dwelling spiders with downward striking fangs.
The six most dangerous spiders in South Africa:
a) Black Button Spider/Black widow

Description: A medium sized black spider with red markings
on the upper side of the abdomen which is absent in some
females. They have long legs with a short third pair. Males
are brown and smaller than the female.
Venom: Strongly neurotoxic venom that is potentially fatal
for humans causing the spider to be considered the most
dangerous spider in South Africa.
Symptoms: Painful bite with visible symptoms within half
an hour. The bite may cause sweating, raised blood
pressure, and muscle cramps.
b) Brown Button Spider

Description: An hour glass shape on the underside of the abdomen and
geometric patterns on the upper side. They vary in colour from yellowish
brown to black. These spiders are often found around human habitation.
Venom: Neurotoxic venom
Symptoms: A localised burning sensation which may spread to the
surrounding tissue. The bite site may be seen as a red spot surrounded
by rashing.

Page | 34
c) Small Baboon Spider
Description: This spider is smaller and more slender than other
species of baboon spiders, which are so called for their thick hairy
legs with pads on the end which resemble baboon fingers.
Venom: Neurotoxic venom
Symptoms: A powerful and painful bite.
d) Violin Spider
Description: The colour varies from a golden-yellow to a reddish-
brown with darker markings on the abdomen. They have a dark
brown violin shaped marking on the carapace. The spider runs free
at night in search of prey.
Venom: Cytotoxic venom
Symptoms: The bite that produces mildly painful ulcerated wounds
which are prone to severe secondary infection. The resulting tissue
damage can leave disfiguring scars.
e) Sac Spider
Description: A relatively aggressive spider that is responsible for the
majority of bites in Southern Africa. They have a “black faced”
appearance with long legs and short stout black fangs. Colouring is
usually in various shades of cream, yellow and light brown.
Venom: Cytotoxic venom
Symptoms: Painless bite characterised by two bite marks around
6mm apart. The bite causes inflammation and swelling and
ulceration after a few days. The wounds are slow to heal and are
prone to secondary infections which are often associated with
headaches and fever.

Page | 35
f) Six-eyed Sand Crab Spider
Description: A reddish brown to yellow spider. It is relatively
flat looking with legs extended sideways and held close to the
ground. The body and legs are covered with sickle-shaped
setae. These are nocturnal spiders, usually found in sandy
areas. Venom: Strongly cytotoxic venom
Symptoms: The bite causes severe ulcers and tissue damage,
both at the site of the bite and throughout the body. This tissue
damage causes internal haemorrhaging and necrosis and can be
fatal.
2. General rules for treating a spider bite:

• Wash the bite with soap and water.
• Apply a cool compress.
• If necessary, ask for medication to control pain or itching.
• Antibiotics are not helpful unless the wound becomes infected.
• Do not cut or apply suction to the wound.
• Monitor the bite for redness, swelling, pain, or signs of infection.
• If redness, swelling or pain does not subside or there are signs of infection, consult a medic.
3. Scorpions

Page | 36
There are 172 species of scorpion in South Africa, however, due to their competitive nature, one will rarely
find more than a few species in an area. All scorpion venom is neurotoxic (with symptoms matching those
described in snake venom), and although the toxicity varies between species, scorpions have what is
considered to be the strongest known venom of all venomous species. Venom is used mostly to subdue prey
or enemies, but some species will sting their own mates to calm them down during courtship. All scorpions
have pincers and stings, but the relative size of these varies according to the family. Scorpions are divided
into two main families;
• Scorpionidae – This family has large powerful pincers and slender tail and stings. They rely on their
pincers to capture their prey, and thus their venom is of secondary importance and isn’t very toxic.
• Buthidae – This family has small pincers and large thick tails and stings. They rely on their venom to
paralyze or kill their prey, and thus they produce highly toxic venom in large volumes.
Scorpionidae Buthidae
a) General Behaviour and Characteristics

Scorpions are mostly nocturnal and are usually hiding during the day. They are classified into rock dwelling,
tree dwelling and burrowing species. Scorpions are ectothermic (not able to regulate own body temperature)
and usually hibernate in colder months. Interestingly amongst invertebrates, young scorpions are born live
(instead of in eggs) after a 2 – 18 month gestation period; longer than many large mammals! When born,
the babies climb onto their mothers back where they will live and be cared for up until their first moult.
Scorpions may live up to 30 years, although 10 years is more usual.

Page | 37
J. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Afrotheria Ancient radiation of uniquely African mammals that evolved during Africa's
continental isolation. The aardvark, elephants, sea cows, hyraxes, elephant shrews,
otter shrews and golden moles all share the genetic markers for Afrotheria.
Allopatry Condition in which populations of different species are geographically separated.
Alpha male/female The dominant male or female within a social group, often the only breeders.
Altricial Born or hatched in a helpless condition requiring prolonged parental care, as by
being naked, blind, or unable to move about. Nesting birds, monotremes,
marsupials, and carnivores have altricial young.
Artiodactyl Even toed ungulates.
Biome A major regional or global biotic community, such as a grassland or desert,
characterized chiefly by the dominant forms of plant life and the prevailing climate.
Bipedal Two-footed stance or locomotion.
Black Hole An area of space-time with a gravitational field so intense that its escape velocity is
equal to or exceeds the speed of light.
Browser An animal that feeds mainly on woody or herbaceous plants.
Carnivore Any meat eating organism.
Carrion Dead and decaying flesh of animals.
Cellulose Main constituent of the cell walls of plants. Very tough and fibrous, and can be
digested only by the intestinal flora in mammalian guts.
Conservation The protection, preservation, management, or restoration of wildlife and of natural
resources such as forests, soil, and water.
Constellation An arbitrary formation of stars perceived as a figure or design, especially one of 88
recognized groups named after characters from classical mythology and various
common animals and objects.
Convergence The evolution of similarities between unrelated species occupying similar ecological
niches.
Crepuscular Animals active before sunrise or at twilight (dusk or dawn activity).
Deciduous Shedding leaves at the end of the growing season.
Desert A large, dry, barren region, usually having sandy or rocky soil and little or no
vegetation. Water lost to evaporation and transpiration in a desert exceeds the
amount of precipitation; most deserts average less than 25 cm of precipitation each
year, concentrated in short local bursts.
Dimorphism The existence among animals of the same species of two distinct forms that differ in
one or more characteristics, such as coloration, size, or shape.

Page | 38
Diurnal Active during daylight hours.
Dorsal Back or upper surface.
Dung The droppings of an herbivore which consumes plant matter.
Eclipse The total or partial obscuring of one celestial body by another. A solar eclipse occurs
when the moon passes between the sun and the earth; a lunar eclipse when the
earth passes between the sun and the moon.
Ecological Niche The particular combination of adaptations that fits each species to a place different
from that filled by any other species within a community of organisms.
Ecology The study of living things in relation to each other, and their relationship to the non-
living environment.
Ecosystem Unit of the environment within which living and non-living elements interact.
Endemic Native to or confined to a certain region.
Faeces The droppings of an omnivore which consumes both animal and plant matter.
Forest A tree-dominated vegetation type with a continuous canopy cover of mostly
evergreen trees, a multi-layered understory and almost no ground layer.
Fynbos Vegetation in which dominant plants are heaths, restios and proteas; found on
coastal plains and mountains of the southern and south-western Cape.
Galaxy A collection of millions of stars and interstellar material that are gravitationally
bound and orbit around a common centre. Earth is part of the Milky Way.
Grassland An area that is dominated by grass or grass-like vegetation. Moderately dry climatic
conditions and seasonal disturbances, such as floods or fires, are generally conducive
to the growth of grasses and prohibitive of that of trees and shrubs.
Grazer An animal that feeds on grass, such as a zebra or some antelope.
Gregarious Living in communities.
Harem Group A social group consisting of a single adult male, at least two adult females and
immature animals.
Herbivore An animal whose diet consists of plant food.
Hindgut Fermentation Process by which breakdown of cellulose occurs in the cecum and large intestine.
Ivory The hard, smooth, yellowish-white substance forming the teeth and tusks of certain
animals, such as the tusks of elephants and walruses and the teeth of certain whales.
Ivory is composed of dentin.
Karroo Arid part of the interior plateau in temperate southern Africa. Dominated by dwarf
shrubs.
Keratin Tough fibrous substance of which horns, claws, hooves and nails are comprised.
Light Year A light year is the distance which light travels in a vacuum in one year.

Page | 39
Midden A heap of dung to mark a territory of an animal such as a rhino.
Montane Mountainous areas.
Morphology The form and structure of an animal or plant.
Musth An annual period of heightened aggressiveness and sexual activity in male elephants,
during which violent frenzies occur.
Natural Selection Process whereby the fittest genotypes.
Near-Endemic A species whose range is largely restricted to a region but extends slightly outside
the region's borders.
Niche differentiation/ The process by which natural selection drives competing species into different
separation patterns of resource use or different niches. This process allows two species to
partition certain resources so that one species does not out-compete the other.
Nocturnal Active at night.
Non-Passerine Are birds that aren`t Passerines and generally have feet designed for specific
functions, like webbed feet for swimming or feet for grabbing prey.
Omnivore A mixed diet including both animal and vegetable food.
Passerine Belonging to the avian order Passeriformes, which includes the perching birds.
Passerine birds make up more than half of all living birds. They are of small to
medium size, have three toes pointing forward and one pointing back, and are often
brightly colored. Larks, swallows, jays, crows, wrens, thrushes, cardinals, finches,
sparrows, and blackbirds are all passerine birds.
Perissodactyl Odd-toed ungulate.
Phylogenetic Classification based on the closeness of evolutionary descent.
Poisonous Something which is ingested and injected. Some plants and food substances can be
poisonous if you consume them.
Precocial Born or hatched in a condition requiring relatively little parental care, as by having
hair or feathers, open eyes, and the ability to move about. Water birds, reptiles, and
herd animals usually have precocial young.
Quadrupedal Walking on all four limbs.
Raptor Bird of prey.
Red Giant A giant star towards the end of its life, with a relatively low temperature of 2000-
4000 K, which emits red light.
Riparian In close association with rivers and river-bank habitats.
Ruminant A mammal with a specialized digestive system typified by the behaviour of chewing
the cud. Their stomach is modified so that vegetation is stored, regurgitated for
further maceration, and then broken down by symbiotic bacteria.

Page | 40
Savanna Any vegetation type in which both trees and grasses are conspicuous.
Scat The droppings of a carnivore which consumes animal’s products.
Sedentary Pertaining to mammals which occupy relatively small home ranges.
Shooting Stars Formed when small pieces of matter enter the earth’s atmosphere and set fire due
(Meteors) to friction from the air resistance. The pieces are rarely bigger than a grain of rice
and burn out before they reach the earth’s surface. Occasionally the particles will
reach the earth’s surface and they are then known as meteorites.
Solitary Animals which live alone with no social group.
Speciation The process by which new species arise in evolution. Typically occurs when a single
species population is divided by some geographical barrior.
Spine A hard, straight and sharply pointed structure, often long and narrow. Usually a
modified leaf or stipule.
Spoor Afrikaans word for footprint which is the track or trail of an animal.
Supernova A rare celestial phenomenon involving the explosion of most of the material in a star,
resulting in an extremely bright, short-lived object that emits vast amounts of
energy.
The Solar System All objects that are held by the gravitational field of the sun. Our solar system
consists of the nine planets and their satellites and other inter-planetary material.
Thicket A vegetation type characterized by thickly growing deciduous or evergreen shrubs,
occasionally with trees rising above, and lacking a conspicuous grassy ground layer;
sometimes very thorny, or with many succulents. Common in hot, arid, river valleys
in subtropical regions along the east coast.
Thorn A sharply pointed branch, which usually is a modified branch.
Veld Afrikaans word for open land used for grazing and other needs.
Venom A poisonous secretion of an animal, such as a snake, spider, or scorpion, usually
transmitted by a bite or sting. Venoms are highly concentrated fluids that typically
consist of dozens or hundreds of powerful enzymes, peptides, and smaller organic
compounds.
Ventral Underside or lower surface.
Waning Pertaining to the period during which the visible surface of the moon decreases.
Waxing Pertaining to the period during which the visible surface of the moon increases.
Woodlands An open, park-like vegetation type with scattered trees at least 8m tall, a canopy
cover of 40 per cent or more, and a grass-dominated ground layer.
Zygodactyl Bird foot structure with two toes facing forward and two toes facing backwards,
specialized for clinging onto branches etc.

Page | 41
K. LITERATURE YOU WILL FIND IN CAMP
Please make use of the below reading material you will find in camp. Please note that not all the books will
be available to you.
Book Title Author/s
Beat About the Bush: Mammals Trevor Carnaby
Birds of Southern Africa Ian Sinclair; Phil Hockey & Warwick Tarboton
Field Guide to Insects of South Africa Mike Picker; Charles Griffiths & Alan Weaving
Field Guide to Snakes and Other Reptiles of Southern Africa Bill Branch
Field Guide to Tracks and Signs Chris Stuart
Field Guide to Trees of Southern Africa Braam van Wyk & Piet van Wyk
Game Ranger in your Backpack Megan Emmett & Sean Pattrick
Scorpions of Southern Africa Jonathan Leeming
Spiders of Southern Africa Astri & John Leroy
Ernst Schmidt; Mervyn Lotter & Warren

Trees and shrubs of Mpumalanga and Kruger National Park
McCleland
Field Guide to Mammals of Southern Africa Chris & Tilde Stuart
Roberts Bird Guide to Southern Africa Hugh Chittenden & Guy Upfold
Roberts Bird Guide: Kruger National Park & Adjacent Lowveld Hugh Chittenden & Ian Whyte
L. WORKBOOK QUESTIONS
Orientation Workbook Questions:

Page | 42
1. Name three methods you could possibly use to find direction during the day (3 marks)?
a.
b.
c.
2. Name three things you need with you in the bush at all times (3 marks)?
a.
b.
c.
3. How many stars can you see on a clear night (1 mark)?
4. Name the three brightest stars visible in the Scorpius constellation (3 marks)?
a.
b.
c.
5. How many planets can you see with the naked eye (1 mark)?
6. What is the name of the galaxy Earth is in (1 mark)?
7. Explain the difference between a waning and a waxing moon (2 marks) [CLUE view your Glossary]
a. Waning:
b. Waxing:
8. Define the following terms (2 marks)?

a. Red Giant:
b. Supernova:
TOTAL 16 MARKS
Survival Workbook Questions:
1. Name the four methods of finding water (4 marks).

Page | 43
a.
b.
c.
d.
2. Name three water baring plants (3 marks)?
a.
b.
c.
3. How many days can a human survive for without water (1 mark)?
4. Which three animals which can lead you to water (3 marks)?

a.
b.
c.
5. Which animal should you observe eating food which is safe enough for you to consume (1 mark)?
6. How do you get rid of bacteria from water (1 mark)?
7. Name five sources of animal protein (5 marks).

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
TOTAL 18 MARKS
Tree Identification Workbook Questions:
a) Name three characteristics used to identify trees (3 marks).

Page | 44
a.
b.
c.
b) Name three different types of leaf margins (3 marks).
a.
b.
c.
c) Name the practical use of Sickle Bush (1 mark).
d) Name the nine vegetation biomes in South Africa (9 marks) [CLUE view the Glossary]?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
e) What form of management is used to control and monitor plant growth (1 mark)?
f) Where would you find riparian vegetation (1 mark)?
g) Explain the difference between a thorn and a spike (2 marks) [CLUE view the Glossary]
a. Thorn:
b. Spike:
TOTAL 20 MARKS
Bird Identification Workbook Questions:
1. Name the three feet orientations in birds (3 marks).

a.

Page | 45
b.
c.
2. Name the three birds which are used as size comparisons (3 marks).
a.
b.
c.
3. Which bird coos, “Three Blind Mice” (1 mark)?
4. When are birds more active during the day and why (2 marks)?
5. When are birds of prey and raptors more active during the day (1 mark)?
6. Name the seven ways of identifying birds in the field (7 marks)?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
TOTAL 17 MARKS
Tracks and Signs Workbook Questions:
1. What is the difference between a track and a sign (2 marks)?

a. Track:

Page | 46
b. Sign:
2. Name three different toe structures in mammals (3 marks)?
a.
b.
c.
3. Which cat cannot retract its nails (1 mark)?
4. What animals do these tracks/spoor belong to (5 marks)?
5. Name an aerial sign you will find in the bush (1 mark).
6. What type of signs are animal faeces and animal pathways called (1 mark)?
7. Explain two types of arboreal signs you will find in the bush (2 marks).
a.
b.
8. Name three even toed ungulates (3 marks).
a.
b.
c.
TOTAL 18 MARKS
Approaching Animals Workbook Questions:
1. Name the four different psychological defence zones when approaching animals (4 marks)?
a.
b.

Page | 47
c.
d.
2. Name three factors which affect the size of the defence zones (3 marks)?
a.
b.
c.
3. What should you never do when faced with an aggressive animal such as a lion (1 mark)?
4. Name the African Big 5 (5 marks)?

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
5. Name an area to avoid or be vigilant of when in the bush (1 mark)?
6. What is the charging speed of white and black rhino’s respectively (1 mark)?
7. Explain the difference between nocturnal and diurnal animals (2 marks).

a. Nocturnal:
b. Diurnal:
8. Name the four characteristics of a mock charge by elephants (4 marks)?
a.
b.
c.
d.
TOTAL 21 MARKS
Venom Workbook Questions:
1. Name the three types of venom (3 marks).

a.
b.
c.

Page | 48
2. Name five ways of treating a spider bite (5 marks).
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3. Are all spiders and snakes dangerous to humans, Yes or No (1 mark)?
4. Name three characteristics/ behaviour of a scorpion (3 marks)?

a.
b.
c.
5. How many venomous spiders are there in South Africa (1 mark)?
6. Name the two groups of spiders (2 marks)?
7. Explain the difference between a Buthidae and Scorpionidae scorpion (2 marks)

a. Buthidae:
b. Scorpionidae:
8. Define the following terms (2 marks)?

a. Poisonous:
b. Venomous:
TOTAL 19 MARKS

Page | 49

Bush Craft Training Manual and Workbook

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bush Craft Training Manual and Workbook

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bush Craft Training Manual and

A. INTRODUCTION TO THE BUSH CRAFT TRAINING MANUAL AND WORKBOOK 5

Bush Craft Training Manual

Bush Craft Training Manual

Bush Craft Training Manual

The eight modules include:

Bush Craft Training Manual

5. Literature Found in Camp

Bush Craft Training Manual

2. Methods in the bush

Bush Craft Training Manual

3. The Night Sky

a) The Southern Cross

b) Orion’s Belt (visible from November to May)

Bush Craft Training Manual

Bush Craft Training Manual

a) Water loss occurs in several ways:

b) Water can be obtained in the following ways:

Bush Craft Training Manual

Bush Craft Training Manual

Bush Craft Training Manual

To test the edibility:

D. TREES AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION

1. Tree size, form and foliage colour

Bush Craft Training Manual

Bush Craft Training Manual

Bush Craft Training Manual

Bush Craft Training Manual

Bush Craft Training Manual

Tufted alternate Simple alternate

Bush Craft Training Manual

Passerine foot Non-Passerine foot Near-Passerine foot

a) Size and shape of the bird

Bush Craft Training Manual

c) Legs and Feet (length and colour)

d) Habitat (ecological area and geographical distribution)

e) Voice (distinctive call of the bird)

Bush Craft Training Manual

g) Habits (feeding behaviour and flight patterns)

Here are some examples of flight patterns in birds:

e.g. – Red Billed Hornbill

e.g. – Crested Barbet

e.g. – White Back Vulture

Bush Craft Training Manual

Jackal (51mm) Hyena (96mm) African Wild Dog (70mm)

Lion (128mm) Leopard (92mm) Cheetah (84mm)

Bush Craft Training Manual

3. Unguligrade (hooved animals)

Black Rhino (200mm) White Rhino (250mm) Plains Zebra (100mm)

Bush Craft Training Manual

Hippo (250mm) Buffalo (120mm) Giraffe (180mm)

Common duiker (40mm)

Front (500mm) Back (520mm)

Bush Craft Training Manual

Bush Craft Training Manual

1. Psychological Defence Zones and Personal Space

a) The Comfort Zone

b) The Alert Zone Critical Zone

On entering this zone, you have entered the

Bush Craft Training Manual

d) The Critical Zone (Attack Zone)

Bush Craft Training Manual