Composites Part B 97 (2016) 329e335

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Composites Part B
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesb

The effect of curing on the properties of metakaolin and fly ash-based

geopolymer paste
€ rhan*, Rıdvan Aslaner, Osman Şinik
€ khan Go
Go
Afyon Kocatepe University, Engineering Faculty, Civil Engineering Department, 03200, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fly ash was used as the raw material in the preparation of geopolymer paste and metakaolin was used as
Received 8 December 2015 a substitution material in different ratios. Metakaolin material was made of kaolin clay calcined at a
Received in revised form temperature of 1000
C and at a final temperature for 1 h in a laboratory-type electric arc furnace. The fly
28 April 2016
ash in the prepared mixture was substituted by metakaolin ranging from 10% to 40%. In the mixtures,
Accepted 9 May 2016
NaOH was used as the reactive together with a 3-module sodium silicate solution to solve silica and
Available online 11 May 2016
alumina in the fly ash and metakaolin particles. A 9 M NaOH solution was used in the preparation of the
geopolymer pastes and the liquid/solid ratio used in the mixtures was 0.36 ml/gr. The pastes were cast
Keywords:
Physical properties
into a 25 by 50-mm cylinder mold. This process was performed under a 100 bar pressure using a hy-
Strength draulic hand press. Afterwards, the samples were placed in a laboratory-type oven for thermal curing.
Mechanical testing The samples were subjected to curing at 60
C and 80
C (two different curing temperatures) for 2 h, 4 h
Cure and 24 h (three different curing times). Following curing, the samples were maintained under laboratory
Geopolymer conditions at room temperature until the day of the physical and mechanical tests. 7-day geopolymer
paste samples were used for the tests. As a result, the ideal curing temperature and curing time were
decided to be 60
C and 2 h for the production of the geopolymer paste. It was also determined that the
compressive strength values of the samples subjected to curing reached up to 25.1 MPa and that a 40%
metakaolin substitution provided a better geopolymerization and significantly improved compressive
strength values.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Geopolymers are thought to harden due to the polycondensation of

Aluminosilicate inorganic polymers called geopolymer were
first described by Davidovits. Geopolymers are ceramic-like and
similar to zeolites in terms of their chemical structures, however
have an amorphous structure. Such materials quickly harden at
ambient temperatures and gain mechanical strength and heat
resistance [1].
Geopolymerization refers to the hardening of fly ash-based
geopolymers with the dissolution of Al and Si components in fly
ash via alkaline activators. This geopolymerization process involves
a chemical reaction between SieOeAleO polymer chain forms and
AleSi oxides. These structures are of three types depending on the
silica/alumina ratio; poly(sialate)(eSieOeAleOe) SiO2/Al2O3 ¼ 2,
poly(sialate-siloxo) (eSieOeAleOeSieO) SiO2/Al2O3 ¼ 4, and
poly(sialate-disiloxo) (eSieOeAleOeSieOeSieO) SiO2/Al2O3 ¼ 6.
* Corresponding author.
€rhan).
E-mail address: ggorhan@aku.edu.tr (G. Go
the type of hydrolyzed alumina and silicate. A typical composition
of geopolymerization is generally denoted by nM2O-
$Al2O3$xSiO2$yH2O [2,3].
Geopolymerization occurs in silicates as reagents, aluminosili-
cate oxides and alkaline solutions. Geopolymerization is a mecha-
nism which involves the dissolution of various types of silica and
aluminum from the surfaces of source materials, such as surface
hydration of undissolved particles. Later on, the polymerization of
the soluble types and active surface groups a gel form and reveal a
hardened geopolymer structure. In many cases, only a small
amount of silica and alumina is found in the particles which need
dissolution and react in all solidified mixtures [4].
Numerous aluminosilicate solids are found in nature or pro-
duced industrially. They contain amorphous silica and alumina
which are partially dissolved in large amounts of alkaline solution
and these aluminosilicate solids are used in the geopolymer syn-
thesis [4e7]. Among the materials used as reagents are feldspars
and albite which can be found in nature; treated minerals such as
metakaolin; and waste materials such as furnace slag, fly ash and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.05.019
1359-8368/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
330 €rhan et al. / Composites Part B 97 (2016) 329e335
G. Go
construction waste [4].
Kaolin which is a natural reactive product is a non-renewable
resource of clay, however, fly ash is one of the waste materials
obtained from thermal power stations [8]. Fly ash is stored in large
areas and is hazardous to nature [9]. However, fly ash has been
widely used as an original material for the production of geo-
polymer materials in recent years. The factors that affect the
characteristics of fly ash based geopolymers are the particle size of
the ash, curing temperature, curing time and alkali activator solu-
tion [10].
600 million tons of coal ash is produced as waste material
worldwide every year and although 75%e80% of this waste consists
of fly ash (500 million tons), only 20%e30% of it is used as substi-
tution or fill material in the cement and concrete industry [11].
Therefore, the use of fly ash in the geopolymer synthesis is
important for environmental and economic reasons [8]. In recent
years, the use of fly ash in geopolymers has showed significant
improvements due to its ease of use, handling in production and its
capacity to improve durability in the final product [12]. However,
not all fly ash has high reactivity and therefore, low reactive fly ash
is used together with other geopolymer precursors in order to
achieve the desired strength [8].
Numerous studies have focused on the microstructure of fly ash
geopolymers under different synthesizing conditions [3,13e15].
However, there is limited information in the literature on the
substitution of metakaolin by fly ash in metakaolin-based geo-
polymers [8].
In the activation of fly ash with NaOH, the reaction starts with
the dissolution of Al and Si, which are precursor particles in the
alkaline solution, and then, followed by polymerization in the
aluminum-rich first gel phase, which will be transformed into
silicon-rich final geopolymer gel. When we compare fly ash and
metakaolin, it seems like similar reaction mechanisms are in
progress in both materials, however, under prevailing conditions,
the dissolution of fly ash during geopolymerization is much slower
than that of metakaolin. Zhang et al. [8] point out that the disso-
lution rate of metakaolin at 40
C is significantly higher than that of
the fly ash at 50
C and that in the case of alkali activation of fly ash
with NaOH at 60
C, the dissolution is about 70 times higher than
that of the samples cured at 20
C. In a similar study, Kani and
Allahverdi [16] state that for the geopolymerization reactions to be
completed, temperature ranging from 25 to 90
C should be
implemented for a certain period of time.
In previous studies, the fly ash samples were activated with
NaOH and a solution with a concentration of 8e12 M and they were
cured at 85
C for 24 h. It was reported that the compressive
strength values obtained were at satisfactory levels and that the
compressive strength values showed a significant increase with the
addition of sodium silicate solution into the mixtures [17]. Swa-
nepoel and Strydom [18] state that curing time and temperature
have an effect on the compressive strength of the geopolymers
produced using fly ash, kaolinite, sodium silicate solution, NaOH
and water, and that the optimum conditions for curing are 60
C
and 48 h, respectively.
Xu et al. [19] claim that the compressive strength values of
geopolymers depend on the material used. According to the study,
the compressive strength values of calcined materials such as fly
ash, slag and metakaolin are much higher than those of natural
materials such as kaolinite. High compressive strength values are
reached at early stages with the geopolymers produced from
calcined materials, while compressive strength values increase
more as a result of long curing times applied on geopolymers
produced from untreated materials.
Nowadays, geopolymers are used in different areas such as
concrete, mortar and composites. Geopolymers were used in
different studies such as flexural behaviour of inorganic polymer
concrete [20], metahalloysite based geopolymer with high strength
[21], cotton fabric reinforced geopolymer composites [22], alumi-
nate activated geopolymers [23], fly ash and blast furnace slag
based geopolymer mortars [24,25], nanoclay-geopolymer com-
posites [26] and strain hardening fiber reinforced engineered
geopolymer composite [27].
As stated by the current studies, there is little information in the
literature on metakaolin and fly ash systems. Fly ash-based geo-
polymer materials were produced in this study. Fly ash was
substituted by metakaolin in different ratios for the production of
the geopolymers and thermal cure was applied to the samples at
different temperatures and times. This way, the changes in the
properties of the fly ash-based geopolymer paste samples by the
curing process, were examined, and the role of metakaolin in these
changes was investigated.
2. Materials and method
2.1. Materials
The source of the fly ash used in the preparation of the geo-
polymer pastes was Kütahya Seyito € mer Thermal Power Plant. The
fly ash was supplied from a private ready-mixed concrete company
operating in Kütahya, Turkey. The substitution material, the met-
akaolin used in the mixtures, was obtained from kaolin clay
brought from Kale Maden and calcined in a laboratory type electric
arc furnace at 1000
C and at final temperature for 1 h. Metakaolin
was ground and sieved in a laboratory type ball mill until it reached
a fineness of 250 mm, before it was used as the substitution
material.
Laser particle size analyses of the fly ash and the metakaolin
were carried out in a Malvern Mastersizer 2000 device and d10, d50
and d90 values are presented in Table 1. Table 1 shows that the
metakaolin is a thinner material than the fly ash according to the
laser particle size analyses.
According to the XRF analysis results of the fly ash, its total
SiO2þAl2O3þFe2O3 value is 81.71% and CaO value is 4.31%. Hence, it
is classified as class F fly ash according to ASTM C618-08a [28]. The
silica/alumina ratio (SiO2/Al2O3) in the fly ash is 2.69 (Table 2).
According to the XRD analysis of the fly ash and the metakaolin, the
fly ash contained minerals such as quartz, magnetite, hematite and
albite (Fig. 1) while metakaolin contained quartz and mullite
minerals (Fig. 2).
NaOH and sodium silicate solution (SS) were used as alkali ac-
tivators in the preparation of the geopolymer pastes and the
properties of these materials are presented in Table 3.
2.2. Method
2.2.1. Mixing procedure
NaOH was used together with the sodium silicate solution as the
reagents to dissolve the silica and alumina in the fly ash and met-
akaolin particles [14]. The sodium silicate solution (SS) (water glass)
added to the mixtures was a 3-module (SiO2/Na2O ¼ 3) solution.
The NaOH solution was prepared in a desired concentration and
kept at room temperature for 24 h. Afterwards, the fly ash,
Table 1
d10, d50 and d90 values of the materials.
Sample d10 (mm) d50 (mm) d90 (mm)
Fly ash 15.96 84.75 231.33
Metakaolin 1.18 11.69 56.34
 €rhan et al. / Composites Part B 97 (2016) 329e335
G. Go 331

Table 2
Chemical (XRF) composition of the fly ash and metakaolin.

Oxide (%) SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO Na2O K2O SO3 CaO L.O.I. Total

Metakaolin 61.61 35.02 0.89 0.06 0.03 0.50 0.08 0.15 0.27 98.61
Fly ash 49.81 18.50 13.40 4.56 0.55 1.84 1.45 4.31 3.52 97.94

Fig. 1. XRD diffractogram of the fly ash.

Fig. 2. XRD diffractogram of the metakaolin.

metakaolin and alkali solution were mixed for 10 min. The fly ash in
the prepared mixture was substituted by metakaolin ranging from
10% to 40%.
2.2.2. Preparation of the geopolymer pastes
Solution with a 9 M NaOH concentration was used in the geo-
polymer pastes. The liquid/solid ratio used in the preparation of the
pastes was 0.36 ml/gr. The NaOH, which was in pellet form dis-
solved in pure water and turned into concentration. The SS/NaOH
332 €rhan et al. / Composites Part B 97 (2016) 329e335
G. Go

Table 3 completely dissolves in the alkaline solution and forms tetrahedral

The alkali activators and their properties.
Sodium silicate solution (SS) Sodium hidroxide (NaOH)
Na2O: 26.98 (%) M: 40 g/mol
SiO2: 8.77 (%) NaOH  99.0 (%)
H2O: 64.25 (%)
ratio used in the preparation of the pastes was 2.
The pastes were cast into a 25 by 50-mm cylinder mold and it
was performed under 100 bar pressure using a hydraulic hand
press. Then the samples were placed in a laboratory-type oven to be
subjected to thermal curing. The samples were subjected to curing
at 60
C and 80
C (two different curing temperatures) for 2 h, 4 h
and 24 h (three different curing times). Table 4 shows the prepared
samples and the applied curing process.
2.2.3. The tests
After curing, the samples were maintained under laboratory
conditions at room temperature until the day of the physical and
mechanical tests. 7-day geopolymer paste samples were used for
the tests. The mean values of three samples from each sample
group were calculated in the physical tests and in the compressive
strength test.
The samples were placed in a water tank for 24 h in order to
determine their physical properties. The physical properties of the
samples such as water absorption, apparent porosity, bulk density
and apparent density were determined based on the Archimedes
principle. During the determination of the physical properties, the
samples were removed from the water tank and their submerged
weights and saturated surface dry weights were calculated. Then
they were dried in the oven until a constant weight was reached.
With the help of these values, the apparent porosity, bulk density
and apparent density values of the samples were determined based
on TS EN 772-4 [29] and the water absorption values were deter-
mined based on TS EN 771-1 [30]. The mechanical properties of the
samples were determined based on the TS EN 196-1 [31] standard.
3. Results and discussion
Clay and metakaolin are the most widely used raw materials in
the production of geopolymers [32e34]. However, fly ash material
is also used in the production of geopolymers. During the geo-
polymerization process, fly ash reacts with alkali solution and
causes the formation of cementitious material containing alumino-
silicate-hydrate. The low reactivity and slow setting of the fly ash
hinders the development of resistance. In many cases, fly ash
cannot complete dissolution before the final hardening [35]. During
the geopolymerization process, metakaolin powder partially or
aluminosilicate units. During the geopolymerization process, which
is initiated by the reaction between silicate and aluminate oligo-
mers, silicate dissolves in the alkaline solution and accelerates the
polymerization process. Hence, an increase in the silicate content
enhances the progress of the geopolymerization and results in an
increase in the amorphous phase content [36]. Hence, an increase
in the compressive strength values of the samples is expected due
to the increase in the metakaolin rate in the bodies of the mixtures,
and in addition, materials with better properties are expected.
It was observed that the curing temperature applied to the
geopolymer pastes had a significant effect on the apparent porosity
and water absorption rates. They increased with an increase in the
curing temperature applied to the samples. The water contained in
the liquids had the tendency to leave the sample bodies during the
curing. It moved towards the surfaces and as a result of this
movement, micro cracks formed. The water absorption rates of the
samples were thought to increase due to the increase in the for-
mation of the micro cracks. Therefore, it can be stated that an in-
crease in the curing temperature increased the rates of open pores.
The apparent porosity and water absorption values of the geo-
polymer pastes cured at 60
C increased with an increase in the
curing time (Figs. 3a and 4a). Among the sample groups, the highest
values were obtained from the samples cured for 24 h. It appears
that the curing time, as well as the curing temperature, had a sig-
nificant effect on the data. It was also observed that the apparent
porosity and water absorption rates of the samples decreased
depending on the increase in the metakaolin substitution rate used
in the preparation of the samples. The structure of the metakaolin is
more cohesive than that of the fly ash. This was initially thought to
give rise to the results obtained. However, what yielded these re-
sults was actually the metakaolin having more reactivity than the
fly ash during the polymerization process. The apparent porosity
and the water absorption rates of the samples cured at 60
C ranged
from 24.4% to 36.8% and from 17.1% to 29.9%, respectively.
The apparent porosity and water absorption rates of the samples
cured at 80
C significantly increased depending on the increase in
the temperature. However, the effect of the applied cure time on
the values varied. The apparent porosity values of the samples with
a 10% and 30% metakaolin substitution increased with an increase
in the curing time (Fig. 3b) while only the water absorption rate of
the pastes with a 30% substitution increased with an increase in the
curing time (Fig. 4b). Therefore, no linear relationship was observed
regarding the data in the case of the increase in the curing tem-
perature applied to the geopolymer pastes. Different trends were
observed depending on the curing time and metakaolin substitu-
tion rates. The apparent porosity and the water absorption rates of
the samples cured at 80
C ranged from 38.6% to 46.5% and from
29.4% to 40.2%, respectively.

Table 4
Prepared samples and the applied curing process.



Serial no Metakaolin substitution (%) Curing time (h) Curing temperature ( C) Serial no Metakaolin substitution (%) Curing time (h) Curing temperature ( C)

1 10 2 60 13 10 2 80
2 10 4 60 14 10 4 80
3 10 24 60 15 10 24 80
4 20 2 60 16 20 2 80
5 20 4 60 17 20 4 80
6 20 24 60 18 20 24 80
7 30 2 60 19 30 2 80
8 30 4 60 20 30 4 80
9 30 24 60 21 30 24 80
10 40 2 60 22 40 2 80
11 40 4 60 23 40 4 80
12 40 24 60 24 40 24 80
 €rhan et al. / Composites Part B 97 (2016) 329e335
G. Go 333

a) 9M NaOH - 60 oC b) 9M NaOH - 80 oC
55 55
50
10% 20% 30% 40% 50
10% 20% 30% 40%

Apparent porosity (%)

Apparent porosity (%)
45 45
40 40
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
2 4 24 2 4 24
Curing time (h) Curing time (h)

Fig. 3. Apparent porosity rates of the geopolymer pastes.

a) 9M NaOH - 60 oC b) 9M NaOH - 80 oC
50 50
10% 20% 30% 40% 10% 20% 30% 40%
45 45
Water absorption (%)

Water absorption (%)

40 40
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
2 4 24 2 4 24
Curing time (h) Curing time (h)

Fig. 4. Water absorption rates of the geopolymer pastes.

The bulk density values of the samples increased in parallel with
the increase in the rates of the metakaolin substitution used in the
preparation of the geopolymer pastes. The specific weight of the
metakaolin material is higher than that of the fly ash, therefore, the
bulk density values of the samples increased with an increase in the
substitution rates, while the bulk density values of the samples
cured at 60
C slightly decreased with an increase in the curing
temperature. The highest bulk density values were obtained from
the samples with a 40% metakaolin substitution cured for 2 h
(Fig. 5a). As observed in the porosity and the water absorption
values of the samples cured at 80
C, the bulk density values varied
depending on the applied curing time. An increase in the bulk
density values with an increase in the curing time was observed
only in the samples with a 20% metakaolin substitution (Fig. 5b).
The apparent density values of the geopolymer paste samples
cured at 60
C increased depending on the increase in the curing
time and the metakaolin substitution rate, and the highest
apparent density values were obtained from the samples cured for
24 h. The apparent density values of the samples cured at 80
C
increased relatively more. However, the density values of the
samples cured for 2 h and 4 h increased with an increase in the
metakaolin substitution rate in the mixtures while the highest
apparent density values of the samples cured for 24 h were ob-
tained from the pastes with a 10% metakaolin substitution (Fig. 6a
and Fig. 6b).
The compressive strength of geopolymer pastes is also a result of
physico-chemical interactions that take place between the
unreacted particles and the geopolymeric gel, and a result of

a) 9M NaOH - 60 oC b) 9M NaOH - 80 oC
1800 1800
10% 20% 30% 40% 10% 20% 30% 40%
1600 1600
Bulk density (kg/m3)

Bulk density (kg/m3)

1400 1400
1200 1200
1000 1000
800 800
600 600
400 400
200 200
0 0
2 4 24 2 4 24
Curing time (h) Curing time (h)

Fig. 5. Bulk density values of the geopolymer pastes.

334 €rhan et al. / Composites Part B 97 (2016) 329e335
G. Go

a) 9M NaOH - 60 oC b) 9M NaOH - 80 oC
2500 2500
10% 20% 30% 40% 10% 20% 30% 40%

Apparent density (kg/m3)

Apparent density (kg/m3)
2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
2 4 24 2 4 24
Curing time (h) Curing time (h)

Fig. 6. Apparent density values of the geopolymer pastes.

chemical bonds comprising aluminosilicate gel form. The activation
of metakaolin in the presence of moderate to high concentrations of
calcium can result in the generation of CeSeH and CeAeSeH gels
as well as geopolymer-type gel. In such structures, the Ca2þ ions
may also be linked to the SieOeAl structure of the geopolymeric
gel, assisting in the equalization of the negative charge linked with
tetrahedral Al(III), rather than the alkali metal cations that gener-
ally perform this duty [37].
The metakaolin substitution rate made a significant contribu-
tion to the compressive strength values of the samples. Fig. 7 shows
the data. In a general sense, it was observed that the samples cured
at 60
C resulted in better geopolymerization and that the
compressive strength values were higher for this reason (Fig. 7).
The effect of the metakaolin substitution rates and the curing times
used in the production of the samples on the compressive strength
values varied. It was determined that the compressive strength
values increased with an increase in the metakaolin substitution
and the curing time; however, the compressive strength values of
the samples decreased when the curing temperature was raised to
80
C (Fig. 7). It was noted that although different optimal curing
temperatures for different alkali - activated raw materials result in
high compressive strength values, a curing process applied for
more than a day does not result in high compressive strength [38].
It has been proven that longer curing times at high temperatures
weaken the structure and that a small amount of water should be
present in the body to prevent the formation of cracks and to
provide structural integrity. However, it is noted that the first
curing at higher temperatures (over 50e80
C) does not increase
the compressive strength. In general, suitable curing time should be
implemented to ensure the durability and the mechanical devel-
opment of the geopolymer materials [16]. Based on this
information, it was concluded that the curing times applied to the
geopolymer pastes were sufficient and that there were no signifi-
cant differences between them.
In the pastes with a 40% metakaolin substitution, the highest
compressive strength values (26.1 MPa) were obtained from the
samples cured at 60
C for 24 h (Fig. 7a). Joe et al. [39] cured the
geopolymer pastes at 50
C for 24 h and obtained a compressive
strength of 33.9 MPa. Manjunatha et al. [40] report that the
compressive strength values of the geopolymer binder increased
with an increase in both the curing temperature and the curing
time. This study indicates that the compressive strength values of
the samples had an upward trend with an increase in the curing
times applied to the samples while lower compressive strength
values were obtained when the curing temperature increased.
In the geopolymer pastes, the samples cured at 60
C for 2 h and
24 h revealed similar compressive strength values. Short curing
time was preferred over long curing time considering the electric
power spent on the curing of the samples. Therefore, it was
concluded that the ideal curing temperature and time in the pro-
duction of geopolymer pastes were 60
C and 2 h, respectively.
However, it was noted that the 40% metakaolin substitution used in
the preparation of the samples resulted in better geo-
polymerization and led to a significant increase in the compressive
strength values. The compressive strength values of the geo-
polymer pastes varied between 11.8 MPa and 26.1 MPa.
4. Results
Based on the data obtained from this study which examined fly
ash e metakaolin based geopolymer paste production;

a) 9M NaOH - 60 oC b) 9M NaOH - 80 oC
30 30
Compressive strength (MPa)

10% 20% 30% 40% 10% 20% 30% 40%

Compressive strength (MPa)

25 25

20 20

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
2 4 24 2 4 24
Curing time (h) Curing time (h)

Fig. 7. Compressive strength values of the geopolymer pastes.

 €rhan et al. / Composites Part B 97 (2016) 329e335
G. Go
 The porosity and water absorption increased with an increase in
the curing temperature applied to the samples. As a result of
curing at 60
C, the highest values were obtained from the
samples cured for 24 h, while as a result of curing at 80
C, no
linear relationship was observed regarding the data in general.
Depending on the increase in the metakaolin substitution rate,
the apparent porosity and the water absorption values of the
samples decreased.
 The bulk density values increased in parallel with the increase in
the metakaolin substitution rates. The bulk density values
decreased with an increase in the curing time applied to the
samples at 60
C, while the effect of the curing time on the bulk
density values of the samples cured at 80
C varied.
 According to the compressive strength values, the samples
cured at 60
C resulted in better geopolymerization and there-
fore, the values were higher. However, the effect of the meta-
kaolin substitution rates used in the preparation of the samples
and the applied curing times on the compressive strength values
varied.
As a result, it has been concluded that the ideal curing tem-
perature and curing time in the production of geopolymer pastes is
60
C and 2 h, respectively. The compressive strength value of the
samples subjected to the curing process in question was 25.1 MPa
while the 40% metakaolin substitution resulted in better geo-
polymerization and significantly increased the compressive
strength value.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Scientific and Technological
Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK Project No: 213M294) for its
support.
References
[1] Aredes FGM, Campos TMB, Machado JPB, Sakane KK, Thim GP, Brunelli DD.
Effect of cure temperature on the formation of metakaolinite-based geo-
polymer. Ceram Int 2015;41(6):7302e11.
[2] Ryu GS, Lee YB, Koh KT, Chung YS. The mechanical properties of fly ash-based
geopolymer concrete with alkaline activators. Constr Build Mater 2013;47:
409e18.
[3] Andini S, Cioffi R, Colangelo F, Grieco T, Montagnaro F, Santoro L. Coal fly ash
as raw material for the manufacture of geopolymer-based products. Waste
Manag 2008;28(2):416e23.
[4] Ayuso EA, Querol X, Plana F, Alastuey A, Moreno N, Izquierdo M, Font O,
Moreno T, Diez S, Vazquez E, Barra M. Environmental, physical and structural
characterization of geopolymer matrixes synthesized from coal (co-)com-
bustion fly ashes. J Hazard Mater 2008;154(1e3):175e83.
[5] Xu H, Van Deventer JSJ. The geopolymerization of alumino-silicate minerals.
Int J Min Process 2000;59:247e66.
[6] Wang H, Li H, Yan F. Synthesis and mechanical properties of metakaolinite-
based geopolymer. Coll Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2005;268:1e6.
[7] Duxson P, Mallicoat SW, Lukey GC, Kriven WM, Van Deventer JSJ. The effect of
alkali and Si/Al ratio on the development of mechanical properties of
metakaolin-based geopolymers. Coll Surf. A Physicochem Eng Asp 2007;292:
8e20.
[8] Zhang Z, Wang H, Zhu Y, Reid A, Provis JL, Bullen F. Using fly ash to partially
substitute metakaolin in geopolymer synthesis. Appl Clay Sci 2014;88e89:
194e201.
[9] Little MR, Adell V, Boccaccini AR, Cheeseman CR. Production of novel ceramic
materials from coal fly ash and metal finishing wastes. Resour Conserv Recycl
2008;52(11):1329e35.
[10] Riahi S, Nazari A, Zaarei D, Khalaj G, Bohlooli H, Kaykha MM. Compressive
strength of ash-based geopolymers at early ages designed by Taguchi method.
Mater Des 2012;37:443e9.
[11] Ahmaruzzaman M. A review on the utilization of fly ash. Progr Energy Comb
Sci 2010;36(3):327e63.
335
[12] Kumar S, Kumar R. Mechanical activation of fly ash: effect on reaction,
structure and properties of resulting geopolymer. Ceram Int 2011;37:533e41.
[13] Bakharev T. Durability of geopolymer materials in sodium and magnesium
sulfate solutions. Cem Concr Res 2005;35:1233e46.
[14] Rattanasak U, Chindaprasirt P. Influence of NaOH solution on the synthesis of
fly ash geopolymer. Min Eng 2009;22:1073e8.
[15] Winnefeld F, Leemann A, Lucuk M, Svoboda P, Neuroth M. Assessment of
phase formation in alkali activated low and high calcium fly ashes in building
materials. Constr Build Mater 2010;24(6):1086e93.
[16] Kani EN, Allahverdi A. Effects of curing time and temperature on strength
development of inorganic polymeric binder based on natural pozzolan.
J Mater Sci 2009;44:3088e97.
[17] Palomo A, Grutzeck MW, Blanco MT. Alkali e activated fly ashes: a cement for
the future. Cem Concr Res 1999;29:1323e9.
[18] Swanepoel JC, Strydom CA. Utilization of fly ash in a geopolymeric material.
Appl Geochem 2002;17(8):1143e8.
[19] Xu H, Van Deventer JSJ. Geopolymerization of multiple minerals. Min Eng
2002;15(12):1131e9.
[20] Fan X, Zhang M. Experimental study on flexural behaviour of inorganic
polymer concrete beams reinforced with basalt rebar. Compos Part B Eng
2016;93:174e83.
[21] Zivica V, Palou MT, Bagel PTI. High strength metahalloysite based geopolymer.
Compos Part B Eng 2014;57:155e65.
[22] Alomayri T, Shaikh FUA, Low IM. Synthesis and mechanical properties of
cotton fabric reinforced geopolymer composites. Compos Part B Eng 2014;60:
36e42.
[23] Masi G, Rickard WDA, Bignozzi MC, van Reissen A. The effect of organic and
inorganic fibres on the mechanical and thermal properties of aluminate
activated geopolymers. Compos Part B Eng 2015;76:218e28.
[24] Go€rhan G, Kürklü G. The influence of the NaOH solution on the properties of
the fly ash-based geopolymer mortar cured at different temperatures. Compos
Part B Eng 2014;58:371e7.
[25] Kürklü G. The effect of high temperature on the design of blast furnace slag
and coarse fly ash-based geopolymer mortar. Compos Part B Eng 2016;92:
9e18.
[26] Assaedi H, Shaikh FUA, Low IM. Characterizations of flax fabric reinforced
nanoclay-geopolymer composites. Compos Part B Eng 2016;95:412e22.
[27] Nematollahi B, Sanjayan J, Shaikh FUA. Matrix design of strain hardening fiber
reinforced engineered geopolymer composite. Compos Part B Eng 2016;89:
253e65.
[28] ASTM C 618. Standard specification for coal fly ash and raw or calcined natural
pozzolan for use as a mineral admixture in concrete, annual book of ASTM
standard, No. 04.02. 2000.
[29] TS EN 772-4, Kagir Birimler, deney metotları e Bo €lüm 4: Tabii taş k^
agir bir-
imlerin toplam ve go € rünen porozitesi ile boşluksuz ve boşluklu birim hacim
kütlesinin tayini (Methods of test for masonry units e Part 4: Determination
of real and bulk density and of total and open porosity for natural stone
masonry units). Ankara-Turkey: TSE; 2000.
€
[30] TS EN 771e1, Kagir Birimler, Ozellikler- Bo€lüm 1: Kil ka
^gir birimler (Tuglalar)
(Specification for masonry units e Part 1: Clay masonry units). Ankara-
Turkey: TSE; 2005.
[31] TS EN 196e1, Çimento Deney Metotları- Bo € lüm1: Dayanım (Methods of
testing cement e Part 1: Determination of strength). 2002 (Patent, Ankara e
Turkey).
[32] Prud’homme E, Michaud P, Joussein E, Peyratout C, Smith A, Rossignol S. In
situ inorganic foams prepared from various clays at low temperature. Appl
Clay Sci 2011;51(1e2):15e22.
[33] Rovnaník P. Effect of curing temperature on the development of hard struc-
ture of metakaolin-based geopolymer. Constr Build Mater 2010;24(7):
1176e83.
[34] He J, Zhang J, Yu Y, Zhang G. The strength and microstructure of two geo-
polymers derived from metakaolin and red mud-fly ash admixture: a
comparative study. Constr Build Mater 2012;30:80e91.
[35] Nath SK, Kumar S. Influence of iron making slags on strength and micro-
structure of fly ash geopolymer. Constr Build Mater 2013;38:924e30.
[36] Rasouli HR, Golestani-fard F, Mirhabibi AR, Nasab GM, Mackenzie KJD,
Shahraki MH. Fabrication and properties of microporous metakaolin-based
geopolymer bodies with polylactic acid (PLA) fibers as pore generators.
Ceram Int 2015;41(6):7872e80.
[37] Bernal SA, Rodriguez ED, De Gutierrez RM, Gordillo M, Provis JL. Mechanical
and thermal characterization of geopolymers based on silicate-activated
metakaolin/slag blends. J Mater Sci 2011;46:5477e86.
[38] Erdogan ST. Properties of ground perlite geopolymer mortars. J Mater Civ Eng
2015;27(7).
[39] Jo BW, Park SK, Park JB. Properties of concrete made with alkali-activated fly
ash lightweight aggregate (AFLA). Cem Concr Compos 2007;29(2):128e35.
[40] Manjunatha GS, Radhakrishna, Venugopal K, Maruthi SV. Strength charac-
teristics of open air cured geopolymer concrete. Trans Ind Ceram Soc
2014;73(2):149e56.