A No-Nonsense

A No—Nonsense Introduction
Introduction to
to General
General Relativity
Relativity

Sean M.
Sean M. Carroll
Carroll
Enrico Fermi
Enrico Fermi Institute
Institute and
and Department
Department ofof Physics,
Physics,
University of
University of Chicago,
Chicago, Chicago,
Chicago, IL,
IL, 60637
60637
carroll©theory . uchicago . edu
carroll@theory.uchicago.edu

©2001
2001
c

1
1 Introduction
General relativity
General relativity (GR)
(GR) isis the
the most
most beautiful
beautiful physical
physical theory
theory ever
ever invented.
invented. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,
it has
it has aa reputation
reputation of
of being
being extremely
extremely difficult,
difficult, primarily
primarily for
for two
two reasons:
reasons: tensors
tensors are
are ev-
ev—
erywhere, and
erywhere, and spacetime
Spacetime is is curved.
curved. These
These two
two facts
facts force
force GR
GR people
people toto use
use aa different
different
language than
language than everyone
everyone else,
else, which
which makes
makes thethe theory
theory somewhat
somewhat inaccessible.
inaccessible. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,
it is
it is possible
possible to
to grasp
grasp the
the basics
basics of
of the
the theory,
theory, even
even if
if you’re
you’re not
not Einstein
Einstein (and
(and who
who is?).
is?)
GR can
GR can be
be summed
summed up up inin two
two statements:
statements: 1) 1) Spacetime
Spacetime is is a
a curved
curved pseudo-Riemannian
pseudo—Riemannian
manifold with
manifold with aa metric
metric of
of signature
signature (−+++).
(—+++). 2) 2) The
The relationship
relationship between
between matter
matter and
and the
the
curvature of
curvature of spacetime
Spacetime is
is contained
contained in in the
the equation
equation

11
R,”
R — 2ERQ’”
µν − = 8πGT
Rgµν = 87mm,”
µν .. (1)
(1)

However, these
However, these statements
statements are are incomprehensible
incomprehensible unless unless you
you sling
sling the
the lingo.
lingo. So So that’s
that’s what
what we
we
shall start
shall start doing.
doing. Note,
Note, however,
however, that
that this
this introduction
introduction is is aa very
very pragmatic
pragmatic affair,
affair, intended
intended
to give
to give you
you some
some immediate
immediate feelfeel for
for the
the language
language of of GR.
GR. ItIt does
does not
not substitute
substitute for for aa deep
deep
understanding –
understanding 7 that
that takes
takes more
more work!
work!
Administrative notes:
Administrative notes: physicists
physicists love
love to
to set
set constants
constants toto unity,
unity, and
and it’s
it’s aa difficult
difficult habit
habit to
to
break once
break once you
you start.
start. II will
will not
not set
set Newton’s
Newton’s constant
constant G G= = 1.
1. However,
However, it’s
it’s ridiculous
ridiculous notnot to
to
set the
set the speed
speed ofof light
light c0 =
= 1,
1, so
so I’ll
I’ll do
do that.
that. For
For further
further reference,
reference, recommended
recommended texts texts include
include
A First
A First Course
Course in in General
General Relativity
Relativity byby Bernard
Bernard Schutz,
Schutz, at
at an
an undergrad
undergrad level;
level; and
and graduate
graduate
texts General
texts General Relativity
Relativity byby Wald,
Wald, Gravitation
Gravitation and and Cosmology
Cosmology by by Weinberg,
Weinberg, Gravitation
Gravitation by by
Misner, Thorne,
Misner, Thorne, and and Wheeler,
Wheeler, and and Introducing
Introducing Einstein’s
Einstein’s Relativity
Relativity by
by D’Inverno.
D’Inverno. Of Of course
course
best of
best of all
all would
would be be to
to rush
rush to
to <http://pancake.uchicago.edu/~carroll/notes/>,
<http : //pancake.uchicago . edu/"carroll/notesb, where where
you will
you will find
find about
about oneone semester’s
semester’s worth
worth ofof free
free GR
GR notes,
notes, ofof which
which this
this introduction
introduction is is
essentially an
essentially an abridgment.
abridgment.

2
2 Special Relativity
Special Relativity
Special relativity
Special relativity (SR)
(SR) stems
stems from
from considering
considering the
the speed
speed of
of light
light to
to be
be invariant
invariant in
in all
all reference
reference
frames. This
frames. This naturally
naturally leads
leads to
to a
a view
view in
in which
which space
space and
and time
time are
are joined together to
joined together to form
form
Spacetime; the
spacetime; the conversion
conversion factor
factor from
from time
time units
units to
to space
space units
units is
is cc (which
(which equals
equals 1, 1, right?
right?
couldn’t be
couldn’t be simpler).
simpler). The
The coordinates
coordinates ofof spacetime
Spacetime may
may bebe chosen
chosen to to be
be

$030
x 0
=tt
≡ ct =
H~

$1
1
x ≡x
2%

$22
x ≡y
I“
<6

x ≡ z..
.13
3
(2)
(2)
N
III

2
[\D
These are
These are Cartesian
Cartesian coordinates.
coordinates. Note Note aa few few things:
things: these
these indices
indices areare superscripts,
superscripts, not
not
exponents. The
exponents. The indices
indices gogo from
from zero
zero to to three;
three; the the collection
collection of of all
all four
four coordinates
coordinates isis denoted
denoted
x“.. Spacetime
x µ
Spacetime indices
indices are
are always
always in in Greek;
Greek; occasionally
occasionally we we will
will use
use Latin
Latin indices
indices if
if we
we mean
mean
only the
only the spatial
spatial components,
components, e.g. e.g. i2' =
= 1,
1, 2,
2, 3.3.
The stage
The stage on
on which
which SR SR is is played
played outout is is aa specific
specific fourfour dimensional
dimensional manifold,
manifold, known
known as as
Minkowski spacetime
Minkowski spacetime (or (or sometimes
sometimes “Minkowski
“Minkowski space”).
space”). The The x :16“ are
µ
are coordinates
coordinates on on this
this
manifold. The
manifold. The elements
elements of of spacetime
spacetime are are known
known as as events;
events; an an event
event is is specified
specified byby giving
giving its
its
location in
location in both
both space
space and
and time.
time. Vectors
Vectors in in spacetime
spacetime are are always
always fixed
fixed at at an
an event;
event; there
there isis
no such
no such thing
thing as
as aa “free
“free vector”
vector” that
that cancan move
move fromfrom place
place toto place.
place. Since
Since Minkowski
Minkowski space
space
is four
is four dimensional,
dimensional, these
these areare generally
generally known
known as as four-vectors,
four-vectors, and and written
written in
in components
components
as V
as V“,, or
µ
or abstractly
abstractly asas just
just V V..
We also
We also have
have the
the metric
metric on on Minkowski
Minkowski space, space, η77,”. The metric
µν . The metric gives
gives us
us aa way
way ofof taking
taking
the norm
the norm of of a
a vector,
vector, oror the
the dot
dot product
product of of two
two vectors.
vectors. Written
Written as as a
a matrix,
matrix, the
the Minkowski
Minkowski
metric is is
—1000
metric
−1 0 0 0
 

 0100
 0 1 0 0
77“”‘0010
ηµν =   .
(3)
(3)

 0 0 1 0
00001 0 0 1
Then the
Then the dot
dot product
product of
of two
two vectors
vectors is
is defined
defined to
to be
be

A ·- B
A B≡Eη
nMVA"B"
µ ν
µν A B == −A
—A°B0
0 0
B ++A
AlB1
1 1
B ++A
A232
2 2
B ++A
A333
B ..
3 3
(4)
(4)

(We always
(We always use
use the
the summation
summation convention,
convention, in in which
which identical
identical upper
upper and
and lower
lower indices
indices
are implicitly
are implicitly summed
summed over
over all
all their
their possible
possible values.)
values.) This
This is
is especially
especially useful
useful for
for taking
taking the
the
infinitesimal (distance)
infinitesimal (distance)2 between
2
between two
two points,
points, also
also known
known as
as the
the spacetime
spacetime interval:
interval:

ds22 =
ds = ηnwdcc’flx"
µ
µν dx dx
ν
(5)
(5)
= −dt
= —dt22 +
+ dx
dm22 +
+ dy
dy22 +
+ dz
(£222 .. (6)
(6)

In fact,
In fact, an
an equation
equation of of the
the form
form (6)
(6) is
is often
often called
called “the
“the metric.”
metric.” The The metric
metric contains
contains all
all of
of the
the
information about
information about thethe geometry
geometry ofof the
the manifold.
manifold. TheThe Minkowski
Minkowski metricmetric is
is of
of course
course just the
just the
spacetime generalization
spacetime generalization of of the
the ordinary
ordinary inner
inner product
product on on flat
flat Euclidean
Euclidean space,
space, which
which we we can
can
think of
think of in
in components
components as as the
the Kronecker
Kronecker delta,
delta, δ517- We say
ij . We say that
that the
the Minkowski
Minkowski metric
metric has
has
signature (−
signature (— ++ ++),
++), sometimes
sometimes called
called “Lorentzian,”
“Lorentzian,” as as opposed
opposed to to the
the Euclidian
Euclidian signature
signature
with all
with all plus
plus signs.
signs. (The
(The overall
overall sign
sign of
of the
the metric
metric isis aa matter
matter of of convention,
convention, and
and many
many texts
texts
use (+
use (+ −— −−).)
——).)
Notice that
Notice that for
for aa particle
particle with
with fixed
fixed spatial
spatial coordinates
coordinates x 30",
i
the interval
, the interval elapsed
elapsed as
as it
it moves
moves
forward in
forward in time
time isis negative,
negative, dsds2 =
2
= −dt
—dt2 <
2
< 0.
0. This
This leads
leads usus to
to define
define the
the proper
proper time
time τ7' via
Via

dT22 ≡
dτ E −ds
—ds22 .. (7)
(7)

3
The proper
The proper time
time elapsed
elapsed along
along a a trajectory
trajectory through
through spacetime
spacetime will will be
be the
the actual
actual time
time mea-
mea—
sured by
sured by anan observer
observer onon that
that trajectory.
trajectory. Some Some other
other observer,
observer, as as we
we know,
know, will
will measure
measure a a
different time.
different time.
Some verbiage:
Some verbiage: aa vector
vector V V“µ with
with negative
negative norm,norm, V V ·- V
V< < 0,
0, is
is known
known as as timelike.
timelike. If If the
the
norm is
norm is zero,
zero, the
the vector
vector isis null,
null, andand ifif it’s
it’s positive,
positive, thethe vector
vector is is spacelike.
spacelike. Likewise,
Likewise, tra-
tra—
jectories with negative
jectories with negative dsd82 (note
2
(note i not proper
– not proper time!)
time!) areare called
called timelike,
timelike, etc.
etc. These
These concepts
concepts
lead naturally
lead naturally to to the
the concept
concept of of aa spacetime
spacetime diagram,diagram, with with which
which you
you are
are presumably
presumably
familiar. The
familiar. The set
set of
of null
null trajectories
trajectories leading
leading intointo and
and out out of
of anan event
event constitute
constitute aa light
light
cone, terminology
cone, terminology which
which becomes
becomes transparent
transparent in in the
the context
context of of aa spacetime
spacetime diagram
diagram such
such
as Figure
as Figure 1.1.
AA path
path through
through spacetime
spacetime is is specified
specified by by giving
giving the
the four
four spacetime
spacetime coordinates
coordinates as as a a
function of
function of some
some parameter,
parameter, x 3:”(A).
µ
(λ). A A path
path is is characterized
characterized as as timelike/null/spacelike
timelike/null/spacelike when when
its tangent
its tangent vector
vector dx
d$“/dA
µ
/dλ isis timelike/null/spacelike.
timelike/null/spacelike. For For timelike
timelike paths
paths the
the most
most convenient
convenient
parameter to
parameter to use
use is
is the
the proper
proper time time τ7',, which
which we we can
can compute
compute along along an
an arbitrary
arbitrary timelike
timelike
path via
path via s
_ √ 22 _ dz”µ dx
dx"ν
τT =
_ /\/—d3 _/ −η ”WKK dA.. (8)
Z Z
dx
−ds = µν dλ (8)
dλ dλ
The corresponding
The corresponding tangent
tangent vector
vector U
U“µ == dxdm“/d7'
µ
is called
/dτ is called the
the four-velocity,
four-velocity, and
and is
is auto-
auto—
matically normalized:
matically normalized:
ηnHVU“U"
µ ν
µν U U = = −1
—1 ,, (9)
(9)
as you
as you can
can check.
check.
A related
A related vector
vector is
is the
the momentum
momentum four-vector,
four-vector, defined
defined by
by

p“ = mU
pµ = mU"µ ,, (10)
(10)

where m
where m isis the
the mass
mass of of the
the particle.
particle. The
The massmass isis aa fixed
fixed quantity
quantity independent
independent of of inertial
inertial
frame, what
frame, what you may be
you may be used
used toto thinking
thinking of of as
as the
the “rest
“rest mass.”
mass.” The
The energy
energy of of aa particle
particle
is simply
is simply p”, 0
p , thethe timelike
timelike component
component of of its
its momentum
momentum vector.vector. InIn the
the particle’s
particle’s rest
rest frame
frame
we have
we have 1900
p = = m;
m; recalling
recalling that
that wewe have
have set
set cc == 1,1, we
we find
find that
that we
we have
have found
found the
the famous
famous
equation E
equation E = = mc77102.. In
2
In aa moving
moving frame
frame we we can can find
find the
the components
components of of p“
µ
p byby performing
performing a a
Lorentz transformation;
Lorentz transformation; for for aa particle
particle moving
moving withwith three-velocity
three—velocity vv = = dx/dt
dx/dt along
along the
the xx axis
axis
we have
we have
pµ =
1’” : (γm,
(Fl/ma vγm,
117m: 0,
07 0)
0) ,a (11)
(11)
√
where γ”y =
where = 1/ 1/\/11 −— v212. For small
2 . For small v,
11, this
this gives
gives 19”
p0 == mm+ + firm?
1
2 (what we
mv 2 (what we usually
usually think
think of
of
as rest
as rest energy
energy plus plus kinetic
kinetic energy)
energy) andand p1p =1
2 mv
m1) (what
(what we we usually
usually think
think of
of as
as Newtonian
Newtonian
momentum).
momentum).

4
 t

timelike

null
null

spacelike
spacelike

Figure 1:
Figure l: AA lightcone,
lightcone, portrayed
portrayed on
on aa spacetime
spacetime diagram.
diagram. Points
Points which
which are
are spacelike-,
spacelike—, null-,
null—,
and timelike-separated
and timelike—separated from
from the
the origin
origin are
are indicated.
indicated.

5
3 Tensors
The transition
The transition from from flatflat to to curved
curved spacetime
spacetime means means that that we we will
will eventually
eventually be be unable
unable to to
use Cartesian
use Cartesian coordinates;
coordinates; in in fact,
fact, somesome rather rather complicated
complicated coordinate
coordinate systems
systems become
become nec- nec—
essary. Therefore,
essary. Therefore, for for our
our own
own good,
good, we we want
want to to make
make all all of
of our
our equations
equations coordinate
coordinate
invariant *
invariant i.e., if
– i.e., if the
the equation
equation holdsholds in in one
one coordinate
coordinate system, system, it it will
will hold
hold inin any.
any. It It also
also
turns out
turns out that
that many
many of of the
the quantities
quantities that that we we use use inin GRGR willwill be
be tensors.
tensors. Tensors
Tensors may may be be
thought of
thought of as
as objects
objects likelike vectors,
vectors, except
except with with possibly
possibly more more indices,
indices, which
which transform
transform under under a a
µ0
change of
change of coordinates
coordinates x so“ →
µ
—> x
{13”, according
according to to the
the following
following rule, rule, the
the tensor
tensor transformation
transformation
law:
law: I
SMµ ,
0 8x“
∂x µ0
0x”ν ∂x
∂x 83:”ρ µ
S 0
νu’p’ 0 =
ρ : ——/—I 0 S νρup .' (12)
(12)
636“µ ∂x8:16”ν ∂x636”ρ
0
∂x
Note that
Note that the
the unprimed
unprimed indices indices on on the the rightright are are dummy
dummy indices,
indices, which
which are are summed
summed over. over.
The pattern
The pattern in in (12)
(12) is is pretty
pretty easy
easy toto remember,
remember, if if you
you think
think of of “conservation
“conservation of of indices”:
indices”: the the
upper and
upper and lower
lower free indices (not
free indices (not summed
summed over) over) on on each
each side
side of
of an
an equation
equation must must be be the
the same.
same.
This holds
This holds true
true forfor any
any equation,
equation, not not just just the the tensor
tensor transformation
transformation law. law. Remember
Remember also also that
that
upper indices
upper indices can can only
only be be summed
summed with with lower lower indices;
indices; if if you
you have
have two
two upper
upper or or lower
lower indices
indices
that are
that are the
the same,
same, you you goofed.
goofed. Since
Since there there are are in in general
general no no preferred
preferred coordinate
coordinate systemssystems in in
GR, it
GR, it behooves
behooves us us to
to cast
cast all
all of
of our
our equations
equations in in tensor
tensor form,form, because
because if if an
an equation
equation between
between
two tensors
two tensors holds
holds in in one
one coordinate
coordinate system, system, it it holds
holds in in all
all coordinate
coordinate systems.
systems.
Tensors are
Tensors are notnot very
very complicated;
complicated; they’re they’re just generalizations of
just generalizations of vectors.
vectors. (Note (Note that that
scalars qualify
scalars qualify as as tensors
tensors with with no no indices,
indices, and and vectors
vectors are are tensors
tensors withwith oneone upper
upper index;
index; a a
tensor with
tensor with two
two indices
indices can can be
be though
though of of asas aa matrix.)
matrix.) However,
However, therethere is is an
an entire
entire language
language
associated with
associated with themthem whichwhich youyou must
must learn. learn. If If aa tensor
tensor has has n n upper
upper and
and m m lower
lower indices,
indices, it it
is called
is called aa (n,
(n, m)m) tensor.
tensor. The The upper
upper indices indices are are called
called contravariant
contravariant indices, indices, andand the the lower
lower
ones are covariant; but everyone just says “upper” and “lower,” and so should you. Tensors
ones are covariant; but everyone just says “upper” and “lower,” and so should you. Tensors
of type
of type (n,
(n, m)m) can
can be be contracted
contracted to to formform aa tensor
tensor of of type
type (n (n −— 1,
1, m m− — 1)1) by
by summing
summing over over
one upper
one upper andand oneone lower
lower index:
index:
S“µ =
S = TTIMA µλ
λ .. (13)
(13)
The contraction
The contraction of of aa two-index
two—index tensor
tensor is
is often
often called
called the
the trace.
trace. (Which
(Which makes
makes sense
sense if
if you
you
think about
think about it.)
it.)
If aa tensor
If tensor is
is the
the same
same when
when we
we interchange
interchange two
two indices,
indices,

Swag...
S =S
···αβ··· = ···βα··· ,,
Sufia... (14)
(14)

it is
it is said
said to
to be
be symmetric
symmetric in
in those
those two
two indices;
indices; if
if it
it changes
changes sign,
sign,

Swag...
S = −S
···αβ··· = —S...,3a...
···βα··· ,, (15)
(15)
we call
we call it
it antisymmetric.
antisymmetric. A A tensor
tensor can
can be
be symmetric
symmetric or
or antisymmetric
antisymmetric inin many
many indices
indices at
at
once. We
once. We can
can also
also take
take aa tensor
tensor with
with no
no particular
particular symmetry
symmetry properties
properties in
in some
some set
set of
of indices
indices

66
and pick
and pick out
out the
the symmetric/antisymmetric
symmetric/antisymmetric piece
piece by
by taking
taking appropriate
appropriate linear
linear combinations;
combinations;
this procedure
this procedure of
of symmetrization
symmetrization or
or antisymmetrization
antisymmetrization isis denoted
denoted by
by putting
putting parentheses
parentheses
or square
or square brackets
brackets around
around the
the relevant
relevant indices:
indices:
11
T(,,1,,2...,,n)
T(µ1 µ2 ···µn ) == a (T
(THIWWW + + sum
sum over
over permutations
permutations of
of µ
M11 ·- ·- ·p")
µn )
1. µ1 µ2 ···µn
n!
1
TUHWUM]
T = —' (T
[µ1 µ2 ···µn ] = (TWWM + alternating
µ1 µ2 ···µn + alternating sum
sum over
over permutations
permutations of of µ
MI1 ·- ·- ·p7,)
µn ) .. (16)
(16)
n.
n!
By “alternating
By “alternating sum”
sum” we
we mean
mean that
that permutations
permutations which
which are
are the
the result
result of
of an
an odd
odd number
number of
of
exchanges are
exchanges are given
given a
a minus
minus sign,
sign, thus:
thus:
1
T[µνρ]σ =
Thu/Pl" : (Tµνρσ − Tµρνσ + Tρµνσ − Tνµρσ + Tνρµσ − Tρνµσ ) . (17)
66 (TIM/P17 _ Tupi/U + TPHW _ TVHPU + Tuplw _ TPVIMT) ' (17)

The most
The most important
important tensor
tensor in in GR
GR isis the
the metric
metric gguy, a generalization
µν , a generalization (to (to arbitrary
arbitrary coor-
coor—
dinates and
dinates and geometries)
geometries) of of the
the Minkowski
Minkowski metricmetric η77,”. Although η
µν . Although 17,“,
µν isis just
just aa special
special case
case ofof
g9,”, we denote
µν , we denote itit by
by aa different
different symbol
symbol to to emphasize
emphasize the the importance
importance of of moving
moving from
from flat
flat to
to
curved space.
curved space. TheThe metric
metric isis aa symmetric
symmetric two-index
two—index tensor.
tensor. AnAn important
important fact fact is
is that
that it
it is
is
always possible
always possible toto find
find coordinates
coordinates such
such that,
that, at
at one
one specified
specified point
point p, the components
p, the components of of the
the
metric are
metric are precisely
precisely those
those ofof the
the Minkowski
Minkowski metric
metric (3)
(3) and
and the
the first
first derivatives
derivatives ofof the
the metric
metric
vanish.
vanish. In In other
other words,
words, the
the metric
metric will
will look
look flat
flat atat precisely
precisely that
that point;
point; however,
however, in in general
general
the second derivatives of ggm, µν cannot be made to vanish, a manifestation of curvature.
Even if
Even if spacetime
spacetime is is flat,
flat, the
the metric
metric can
can still
still have
have nonvanishing
nonvanishing derivatives
derivatives if if the
the coordi-
coordi—
nate system
nate system is is non-Cartesian.
non—Cartesian. For For example,
example, in in spherical
spherical coordinates
coordinates (on (on space)
space) wewe have
have

t = t
a: = r7" sin
x sin θ6 cos
cos φ
n
yy = r7" sin
sin θ6 sin
sin φ
gt
z2 =
= r7" cos
cos θ6 ,, (18)
(18)

which leads directly

which leads directly to
to

d822 =
ds = −dt
—dt22 +
+ dr
dr22 +
+ rr22 dθ
d622 +
+ r7‘22 sin
sin22 θ6 dφ
dc?2 ,, (19)
(19)

or
or
—1
−1 00 00 00
 

 0 11 00 00
 0 
ggull =  . (20)

—  0
µν
 0 00 r7.22 00 (20)

00 00 00 rr2 sin
sin2 θ6

2 2

Notice that,
Notice that, while
while we
we could
could use
use the
the tensor
tensor transformation
transformation law law (12),
(12), it
it is
is often
often more
more straight-
straight—
forward to
forward to find
find new
new tensor
tensor components
components byby simply
simply plugging
plugging in in our
our coordinate
coordinate transformations
transformations
to the
to the differential
differential expression
expression (e.g.
(6. g. dz
dz =
= cos
cos θ6 dr
dr −
— r7" sin
sin θ6 dθ).
d6).

77
 Just as
Just as in
in Minkowski
Minkowski space,
space, we
we use
use the
the metric
metric to
to take
take dot
dot products:
products:

A ·- B
A B≡E ggWA"B"
µν A B ..
µ ν
(21)
(21)

This suggests,
This suggests, as
as aa shortcut
shortcut notation,
notation, the
the concept
concept of
of lowering
lowering indices;
indices; from
from any
any vector
vector we
we
can construct
can construct aa (0,
(0, 1)
1) tensor
tensor defined
defined by
by contraction
contraction with
with the
the metric:
metric:

AVν ≡
A E ggWA“
µν A ,,
µ
(22)
(22)

so that the dot product becomes ggHuA“B"

µ ν
AVB".
µν A B = A ν B . We
ν
define the inverse metric g
We also define g’”
µν

as the matrix inverse of the metric tensor:

g9"”gup
µν
= δ6’;ρ ,,
gνρ = µ
(23)
(23)

where δ6’;ρµ is
where is the
the (spacetime)
(spacetime) Kronecker
Kronecker delta.
delta. (Convince
(Convince yourself
yourself that
that this
this expression
expression really
really
does correspond
does correspond to to matrix
matrix multiplication.)
multiplication.) Then
Then we
we have
have the
the ability
ability to
to raise
raise indices:
indices:

A“µ =
A = gg’WAV
µν
Aν .. (24)
(24)

Note that
Note that raising
raising an
an index
index on
on the
the metric
metric yields
yields the
the Kronecker
Kronecker delta,
delta, so
so we
we have
have

gg’n
µν
= δ65µµ =
gµν = =44 .. (25)
(25)

Despite the
Despite the ubiquity
ubiquity of
of tensors,
tensors, it
it is
is sometimes
sometimes useful
useful to
to consider
consider non-tensorial
non—tensorial objects.
objects.
An important
An important example
example is
is the
the determinant
determinant ofof the
the metric
metric tensor,
tensor,

g9 ≡
E det
det (g
(9W)
µν ) .- (26)
(26)
0
A straightforward
A straightforward calculation
calculation shows
shows that
that under
under aa coordinate
coordinate transformation
transformation x3:“µ →
—> x
36“,,
µ
this
, this
doesn’t transform
doesn’t transform by
by the
the tensor
tensor transformation
transformation law
law (under
(under which
which it
it would
would have
have toto be
be invari-
invari—
ant, since
ant, since it
it has
has no
no indices),
indices), but
but instead
instead as
as
0 !#−2
∂xµ
"
gg →
a (det
det (2:01—29.
g. (27)
(27)
∂xµ

The factor
factor det(∂x
det(8x“l/3ac“) is the
the Jacobian
Jacobian ofof the
the transformation.
transformation. Objects
Objects with
with this
this kind
kind ofof
µ0
The /∂xµ ) is
transformation law
transformation law (involving
(involving powers
powers ofof the
the Jacobian)
Jacobian) are
are known
known as
as tensor
tensor densities;
densities; the
the
determinant gg is
determinant is sometimes
sometimes called
called aa “scalar
“scalar density.”
density.” Another
Another example
example of
of a
a density
density is
is the
the
volume element
volume element dd4zv
4
x=: dx
dxodxldx2d$3z
0 1 2
dx dx dx : 3

823”,
µ 0 !
∂x
dd44 x
a: →
—> det
det (Tam) dd44 x
cc .. (28)
(28)
∂xµ

8
To define
To define anan invariant
invariant volume
volume element,
element, wewe can
can therefore
therefore multiply
multiply d d4x
4
by the
x by the square
square root
root ofof
minus g,
minus 9, so
so that
that the
the Jacobian
Jacobian factors
factors cancel
cancel out:
out:
√ √
V—gd‘lx
−g d4 x →—> V—gd‘lx.
−g d4 x . (29)
(29)
√
In Cartesian
In Cartesian coordinates,
coordinates, for for example,
example, wewe have
have 1/—g−g dd433
4
x= = dt
dt dx
dac dy
dy dz,
dz, while
while in
in polar
polar coor-
coor—
dinates this
dinates this becomes
becomes rr2 sin
2
sinfidt dr dθ
θ dt dr d6 dφ.
dcfi. Thus,
Thus, integrals
integrals ofof functions
functions over
over spacetime
spacetime areare of
of
µ √
the form
form f ff (x
(56“)4
) −g—g dd4x.
4
(“Function,” of of course,
course, is
is the
the same
same thing
thing asas “scalar.”)
“scalar.”)
R
the x. (“Function,”
Another object
Another object which
which isis unfortunately
unfortunately notnot aa tensor
tensor isis the
the partial
partial derivative
derivative ∂/∂x
6/356“,
µ
often
, often
abbreviated to
abbreviated to ∂6“. Acting on
µ . Acting on aa scalar,
scalar, the
the partial
partial derivative
derivative returns
returns aa perfectly
perfectly respectable
respectable
(0, 1)
(0, 1) tensor;
tensor; using
using the
the conventional
conventional chain
chain rule
rule we
we have
have

∂µ φ → ∂ φ =
6x“µ
∂x
∂xµ0 am a am = WM ,
∂µ φ , µ0 (30) (30)
in agreement
in agreement with
with the
the tensor
tensor transformation
transformation law.
law. But
But on
on a
a vector
vector V
V“,
µ
given that
, given that V
V“µ →
—>
539::
∂xµ V“, we get
0
∂xµ µ
V , we get

νl, νV,0 _ 836“µ 833”, νV

!
ν0 !
∂x ∂x
µV →
∂3,,V —> ∂µ0 V
all/V =
— (Way) ∂µ (6.1” VV >
∂xµ0 ∂x ν

856“µ ∂x
833”, νV 3m“µ ∂8236”,
0 0

wµ .. (31)
ν 2 ν
∂x ∂x x
= µ
∂x ∂x 0 ν
(∂µ V
WW< H ) W—axuamfl
) + 0
∂x ∂x ∂xµ
µ ν
V (31)

The first
The first term
term is
is what
what we
we want
want to
to see,
see, but
but the
the second
second term
term ruins
ruins it.it. So
So we
we define
define aa covariant
covariant
derivative to
derivative to be
be aa partial
partial derivative
derivative plus
plus a a correction
correction thatthat is
is linear
linear in
in the
the original
original tensor:
tensor:

VHV"
∇ ν
µV =2 ∂av"ν
µV ++ ΓI‘VAVA
ν
,u V
µλ
λ
.. (32)
(32)
Here, the
Here, the symbol
symbol ΓFZA
ν
stands for
µλ stands for aa collection
collection of
of numbers,
numbers, called
called connection
connection coefficients,
coefficients,
with an appropriate
with an appropriate non-tensorial
non—tensorial transformation
transformation law
law chosen
chosen to
to cancel
cancel out
out the
the non-tensorial
non—tensorial
term in
term in (31).
(31). Thus
Thus we
we need
need to
to have
have
833“µ ∂x
(936"λ ∂x
833”] νV 8x“µ ∂x831:"λ ∂3233”,
ν 0 2 ν 0
∂x ν 0I ∂x x
=
Z Γ
1—1111
WWWµ0 λ
µ 0 A!0
λ 0 ν
Γ
∂x ∂x ∂x “A — wwaxflax".µλ − 0
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂xλ
µ λ 0 µ
. (33)
(33)

Then ∇
Then VflV" ν
µ V isis guaranteed
guaranteed to
to transform
transform like like aa tensor.
tensor. The
The same
same kind
kind of
of trick
trick works
works to
to define
define
covariant derivatives
covariant derivatives of
of tensors
tensors with
with lower
lower indices;
indices; we
we simply
simply introduce
introduce aa minus
minus sign
sign and
and
change the
change the dummy
dummy index
index which
which is
is summed
summed over: over:

Vywy
∇ 2 ∂at)”
µ ων = —Γ
µ ων − µν ωλ ..
fauna;
λ
(34)
(34)
If there
If there are
are many
many indices,
indices, for
for each
each upper
upper index
index you
you introduce
introduce aa term
term with
with aa single
single +Γ,
+I‘, and
and
for each
for each lower
lower index
index aa term
term with
with aa single
single −Γ:
—F:
VUTH1H2"‘HkV1'/2mul
∇ µ1 µ2 ···µk : aaTl‘1H2u'Hk1/1V2---lll
µ1 µ2 ···µk
σT ν1 ν2 ···νl = ∂σ T ν1 ν2 ···νl

+F§:T*"2"‘“k,,1,,2...,,,
+Γ µ1
σλ T
λµ2 ···µk
+ Γr51:
ν1 ν2 ···νl +
µ2
T“1A"'“k,,1,,2...,,,
σλ T
µ1 λ···µk
+ ·- ·- ·-
ν1 ν2 ···νl +
—T‘)‘λ TMWmMA _ PimTyLuTU Hkl/lA-"Vl _ ... _ (35)
−Γ 01/1
σν 1
T µ1 µ2 ···µk λνV2"'Vl λ
2 ···νl − Γσν2 T
µ1 µ2 ···µ k
ν1 λ···νl − · · · . (35)

9
This is
This is the
the general
general expression
expression for
for the
the covariant
covariant derivative.
derivative.
What are
What are these
these mysterious
mysterious connection
connection coefficients?
coefficients? Fortunately
Fortunately they
they have
have a
a natural
natural
expression in
expression in terms
terms of
of the
the metric
metric and
and its
its derivatives:
derivatives:

σ(7
1 σρ 1 a
Γµν = g (∂µ gνρ + ∂ν gρµ − ∂ρ gµν ) . (36)
(36)
PM! 2 ”(3,,n + avg/m _ apglw) -
2 59

It is
It is left
left up
up toto you
you toto check
check that
that the
the mess
mess on
on the
the right
right really
really does
does have
have the
the desired
desired transfor-
transfor—
mation law.
mation law. You
You can
can also
also verify
verify that
that the
the connection
connection coefficients
coefficients are
are symmetric
symmetric in in their
their lower
lower
indices, Γ
indices, Ff“,
σ
µν =: ΓF3”.
σ
These coefficients
νµ . These coefiicients can
can bebe nonzero
nonzero even
even in
in flat
flat space,
space, if
if we
we have
have non-
non—
Cartesian coordinates.
Cartesian coordinates. In In principle
principle there
there can
can be
be other
other kinds
kinds of
of connection
connection coefficients,
coefiicients, but
but
we won’t worry
we won’t worry about
about that
that here;
here; the
the particular
particular choice
choice (36)
(36) are
are sometimes
sometimes called
called Christoffel
Christofi‘el
symbols, and
symbols, and are
are the
the ones
ones we
we always
always use
use in
in GR.
GR. With
With these
these connection
connection coefficients,
coefficients, we
we get
get
the nice
the nice feature
feature that
that the
the covariant
covariant derivative
derivative ofof the
the metric
metric and
and its
its inverse
inverse are
are always
always zero,
zero,
known as
known as metric
metric compatibility:
compatibility:

V09,”
∇ 2 00 ,,
σ gµν = Vgg’”
∇ σg
µν
=0
= 0 .. (37)
(37)

So, given
So, given any
any metric
metric g 9,”, we proceed
µν , we proceed toto calculate
calculate the
the connection
connection coefficients
coefficients so
so that
that
we can take
we can take covariant
covariant derivatives.
derivatives. Many
Many ofof the
the familiar
familiar equations
equations of
of physics
physics in
in flat
flat space
space
continue to
continue to hold
hold true
true in
in curved
curved space
space once
once we
we replace
replace partial
partial derivatives
derivatives by
by covariant
covariant ones.
ones.
For example,
For example, inin special
special relativity
relativity the
the electric
electric and
and magnetic
magnetic vector
vector fields
fields E
E and
~ and B
I? can
~ can be
be
collected into
collected into aa single
single two-index
two—index antisymmetric
antisymmetric tensor
tensor FFW:
µν :

00 —Emx
−E —Eyy
−E —EZz
−E
 

F =
EE,
 x 00 Bzz
B —Byy 
−B
,7 (38)
(38)

FMu
µν : 
EEy —Bz
−Bz 00 BBa; 
y x 
E2z
E Byy
B —Bxx
−B 00

and the
and the electric
electric charge
charge density
density ρ
p and
and current
current J
j into a
~ into a four-vector
four—vector J
J“:
µ
:

J” = (p, f) .
~ .
J µ = (ρ, J) (39)
(39)

In this
In this notation,
notation, Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s equations
equations

∇
V ×
X B−
— ∂tE =
BtE : 4πJ
47TJ

V ·- E
∇ E =
2 4πρ
47m
∇
V ×
X E+∂tB =
BtB : 0

V ·- B
∇ B =
= 00 (40)
(40)

shrink into
shrink into two
two relations,
relations,

∂BHFV"
µF
νµ
= 4πJ
= 47rJ"ν
∂amFuA]
[µ Fνλ] = 0 . (41)

10
10
These are
These are true
true inin Minkowski
Minkowski space,
space, but
but the
the generalization
generalization to
to aa curved
curved spacetime
spacetime is
is immediate;
immediate;
just replace ∂6,,µ →
just replace —> ∇
V“:
µ:

VMFV"
∇ µF
νµ
= 4πJ
= 4M”ν
WEN
∇ = 00..
[µ Fνλ] = (42)
(42)

These equations
These equations govern
govern the
the behavior
behavior of
of electromagentic
electromagentic fields
fields in
in general
general relativity.
relativity.

4 Curvature
We have
We have been
been loosely
loosely throwing
throwing aroundaround the the idea
idea of of “curvature”
“curvature” without
without giving
giving itit a
a care-
care—
ful definition.
ful definition. The The first
first step
step toward
toward a a better
better understanding
understanding begins begins with
with the
the notion
notion ofof aa
manifold. Basically,
manifold. Basically, aa manifold
manifold is is “a
“a possibly
possibly curved
curved space
space which,
which, in in small
small enough
enough regions
regions
(infinitesimal, really),
(infinitesimal, really), looks
looks like
like flat
flat space.”
space.” You You can can think
think of of the
the obvious
obvious example:
example: the the
Earth looks
Earth looks flat
flat because
because we we only
only seesee aa tiny
tiny part
part of of it,
it, even
even though
though it’sit’s round.
round. A A crucial
crucial
feature of
feature of manifolds
manifolds is is that
that they
they havehave the
the same
same dimensionality
dimensionality everywhere;
everywhere; if if you
you glue
glue the
the
end of
end of aa string
string to
to aa plane,
plane, thethe result
result is is not
not aa manifold
manifold sincesince it it is
is partly
partly one-dimensional
one—dimensional and and
partly two-dimensional.
partly two—dimensional.
The most
The most famous
famous examples
examples of of manifolds
manifolds are are n-dimensional
n—dimensional flat flat space
space R R”n (“R”
(“R” asas in
in real,
real,
as in
as in real
real numbers),
numbers), and and thethe n-dimensional
n—dimensional sphere sphere S S".. So,
n
So, RR1 is
1
is the
the real
real line,
line, RR2 is
2
is the
the
plane, and
plane, and soso on.
on. Meanwhile
Meanwhile S S1 is
1
is aa circle,
circle, SS2 is
2
is a a sphere,
sphere, etc.
etc. For
For future
future reference,
reference, the
the most
most
popular coordinates
popular coordinates on on S S2 are
2
are the
the usual
usual θ(9 and
and φ (25 angles.
angles. InIn these
these coordinates,
coordinates, the the metric
metric on on
S2 (with
S 2
(with radius
radius r7" =
= 1)
l) is
is
d322 =
ds 2 dθ
d622 +
+ sin
sin22 θ6 dφ
dc?2 .. (43)
(43)
The fact
The fact that
that manifolds
manifolds maymay be be curved
curved makes
makes life
life interesting,
interesting, as
as you
you may
may imagine.
imagine.
However, most
However, most of of the
the difficulties
difficulties encountered
encountered in in curved
curved spaces
spaces are
are also
also encountered
encountered in in flat
flat
space if
space if you
you use
use non-Cartesian
non—Cartesian coordinates.
coordinates. TheThe thing
thing about
about curved
curved space
space is,
is, you
you can
can never
never
use Cartesian
use Cartesian coordinates,
coordinates, because
because they
they only
only describe
describe flat flat spaces.
spaces. So
So the
the machinery
machinery we we
developed for
developed for non-Cartesian
non—Cartesian coordinates
coordinates will
will be
be crucial;
crucial; inin fact,
fact, we’ve
we’ve done
done most
most ofof the
the work
work
already.
already.
It should
It should come come as as no
no surprise
surprise that
that information
information aboutabout the the curvature
curvature ofof aa manifold
manifold isis
contained in
contained in the
the metric;
metric; the
the question
question is,
is, how
how toto extract
extract it?it? You can’t get
You can’t get it
it easily
easily from
from the
the
Ffw,
Γ ρ
for instance,
µν , for instance, since
since they
they can
can be
be zero
zero or
or nonzero
nonzero depending
depending on on the
the coordinate
coordinate system
system
(as we
(as we saw
saw for
for flat
flat space).
space). For
For reasons
reasons wewe won’t
won’t go go into,
into, thethe information
information about
about curvature
curvature
is contained
is contained in in aa four-component
four—component tensor
tensor known
known as as the
the Riemann
Riemann curvature
curvature tensor.
tensor. This
This
supremely important
supremely important object
object is
is given
given in
in terms
terms of of the
the Christoffel
Christoffel symbols
symbols by
by the
the formula
formula

R’Wfi
R σ
E ∂aargfl
µαβ ≡
σ
— ∂afirga
α Γµβ −
σ
+Γ
β Γµα + my),
σ λ
—Γ
αλ Γµβ − rggfm
βλ Γµα ..
σ λ
(44)
(44)

11
11
 (The overall
(The overall sign
sign of
of this
this is
is a
a matter
matter ofof convention,
convention, so so check
check carefully
carefully when
when you
you read
read anybody
anybody
else’s papers.
else’s papers. NoteNote also
also that
that the
the Riemann
Riemann tensor
tensor isis constructed
constructed from
from non-tensorial
non—tensorial elements
elements
7 partial derivatives
— partial derivatives andand Christoffel
Christoffel symbols
symbols 7 but they
— but they are
are carefully
carefully arranged
arranged soso that
that the
the
final result
final result transforms
transforms as as aa tensor,
tensor, as
as you
you can
can check.)
check.) This
This tensor
tensor has
has one
one nice
nice property
property that
that
aa measure
measure of of curvature
curvature should
should have:
have: all
all of
of the
the components
components of of R
Rawfi
σ
vanish if
µαβ vanish if and
and only
only if
if
the space
the space is
is flat. Operationally, “flat”
flat. Operationally, “fiat” means
means that
that there
there exists
exists a
a global
global coordinate
coordinate system
system inin
which the metric
which the metric components
components are are everywhere
everywhere constant.
constant.
There are
There are two
two contractions
contractions of of the
the Riemann
Riemann tensor
tensor which
which are
are extremely
extremely useful:
useful: the
the Ricci
Ricci
tensor and
tensor and the
the Ricci
Ricci scalar.
scalar. TheThe Ricci
Ricci tensor
tensor isis given
given by
by

Rug
R 2R
αβ = RAW,
λ
αλβ .. (45)
(45)

Although it
Although it may
may seem
seem as
as if
if other
other independent
independent contractions
contractions are
are possible
possible (using
(using other
other indices),
indices),
the symmetries
the symmetries ofof R
Romg
σ
(discussed below)
µαβ (discussed below) make
make this
this the
the only
only independent
independent contraction.
contraction. The
The
trace of
trace of the
the Ricci
Ricci tensor
tensor yields
yields the
the Ricci
Ricci scalar:
scalar:

R=
R =R
Rxλ
= ggWRW
λ =
µν
Rµν .. (46)
(46)

This is
This is another
another useful
useful item.
item.
Although the
Although the Riemann
Riemann tensor
tensor has
has many
many indices,
indices, andand therefore
therefore many
many components,
components, using
using
it is
it is vastly
vastly simplified
simplified by by the
the many
many symmetries
symmetries it it obeys.
obeys. InIn fact,
fact, only
only 20
20 of
of the
the 444 =
4
= 256
256
components of
components of R
Rawfl
σ
are independent.
µαβ are independent. Here
Here isis a
a list
list of
of some
some of
of the
the useful
useful properties
properties obeyed
obeyed
by the
by the Riemann
Riemann tensor,
tensor, which
which are
are most
most easily
easily expressed
expressed in in terms
terms of
of the
the tensor
tensor with
with all
all indices
indices
lowered, R
lowered, Rm,pa = ggMRAVW:
µνρσ =
λ
µλ R νρσ :

R
Rpupa‘ : −R
µνρσ = : −R
µνσρ =
_R,uua'p _Ruppo
νµρσ
R µνρσ =
Rut/pa : R
Rpauu
ρσµν
R µνρσ + R
Rut/pa µρσν + R
Rppau µσνρ =
Rpa’up : 0 .- (47)
(47)

These imply
These imply aa symmetry
symmetry of
of the
the Ricci
Ricci tensor,
tensor,

R W == RRνµ
Rµν up .- (48)
(48)

In addition
In addition to
to these
these algebraic
algebraic identities,
identities, the
the Riemann
Riemann tensor
tensor obeys
obeys a
a differential
differential identity:
identity:

∇ [λ Rµν]ρσ =
v[)\RpI/]po : 0 .- (49)
(49)

This is
This is sometimes
sometimes known
known as
as the
the Bianchi
Bianchi identity.
identity. If
If we
we define
define aa new
new tensor,
tensor, the
the Einstein
Einstein
tensor, by
tensor, by
11
G µν ≡
Gnu E R µν −
Rpl/ Rgµν ,7
_ iRguV (50)
(50)
2

12
12
then the
then the Bianchi
Bianchi identity
identity implies
implies that
that the
the divergence
divergence of
of this
this tensor
tensor vanishes
vanishes identically:
identically:

VHGW/
∇ µ =0
Gµν = () ._ (51)
(51)

This is
This is sometimes
sometimes called
called the
the contracted
contracted Bianchi
Bianchi identity.
identity.
Basically, there
Basically, there are
are only
only two
two things
things you
you have
have to
to know
know about
about curvature:
curvature: thethe Riemann
Riemann
tensor, and
tensor, and geodesics.
geodesics. YouYou now
now know
know the
the Riemann
Riemann tensor
tensor * lets move
– lets move onon to
to geodesics.
geodesics.
Informally, aa geodesic
Informally, geodesic is is “the
“the shortest
shortest distance
distance between
between two
two points.”
points.” More
More formally,
formally,
aa geodesic
geodesic is
is aa curve
curve which
which extremizes
extremizes the
the length
length functional
functional f ds.
d3. That
That is,
is, imagine
imagine aa path
path
R

parameterized by
parameterized by λ,
A, i.e.
i.e. xWOO.
µ
The infinitesimal
(λ). The infinitesimal distance
distance along
along this
this curve
curve is
is given
given by
by
v
dirt“ dac"

a. m)
µ dx ν
u
dx
d8 2 Wow
u
ds = tgµν  dλ . (52)

 dλ dλ 

So the
So the entire
entire length
length of
of the
the curve
curve is
is just
just

Lz/ds. (53)
Z
L = ds . (53)

To find
To find aa geodesic
geodesic of of aa given
given geometry,
geometry, we we would
would dodo aa calculus
calculus ofof variations
variations manipulation
manipulation
of this
of this object
object toto find
find an
an extremum
extremum of of L.
L. Luckily,
Luckily, stronger
stronger souls
souls than
than ourselves
ourselves have
have come
come
before and
before and done
done this
this for
for us.
us. The
The answer
answer is is that
that x x“()\)
µ
is aa geodesic
(λ) is geodesic ifif it
it satisfies
satisfies the
the famous
famous
geodesic equation:
geodesic equation:
dd%“
2 µ
x dx”ρ dx
µ dx dm"σ
d)\22
dλ
+
+ Γ “ ——
“7 dλ
ρσ
d)\ dλd)\
= 0.
= (54)
(54)
In fact
In fact this
this is
is only
only true
true ifif λ
A is
is an
an affine
affine parameter,
parameter, that that is
is if
if it
it is
is related
related to
to the
the proper
proper
time via
time via
AzaT+b.
λ = aτ + b . (55)
(55)
In practice,
In practice, the
the proper
proper time
time itself
itself is
is almost
almost always
always used
used as
as the
the affine
affine parameter
parameter (for
(for timelike
timelike
geodesics, at
geodesics, at least).
least). In
In that
that case,
case, the
the tangent
tangent vector
vector is
is the
the four-velocity
four—velocity U
Ul‘ =
µ
= dx
dxu/di',
µ
and
/dτ , and
the geodesic
the geodesic equation
equation can
can be
be written
written

iw+wmwza
d
dT
dτ
µ µ
U +Γ U U =0 .
”‘7 ρσ
ρ σ
(@
(56)

The physical
The physical reason
reason why
why geodesics
geodesics areare so
so important
important is
is simply
simply this:
this: in
in general
general relativity,
relativity,
test bodies move along geodesics. If the bodies are massless, these geodesics will be
test bodies move along geodesics. If the bodies are massless, these geodesics will be null
null
(ds2 = 0), and if they are massive the geodesics will be timelike (0332 < 0). Note that when
(ds 2
= 0), and if they are massive the geodesics will be timelike (ds 2
< 0). Note that when
we were
we were being
being formal
formal wewe kept
kept saying
saying “extremum”
“extremum” rather
rather than
than “minimum”
“minimum” length.
length. That’s
That’s
because, for massive test particles, the geodesics on which they move are curves of maximum
because, for massive test particles, the geodesics on which they move are curves of maximum
proper time.
proper time. (In
(In the
the famous
famous “twin
“twin paradox”,
paradox”, two
two twins
twins take
take two
two different
different paths
paths through
through
fiat spacetime,
flat spacetime, one
one staying
staying at
at home
home [thus
[thus on
on a
a geodesic],
geodesic], and
and the
the other
other traveling
traveling offoff into
into

13
13
space and
space and back.
back. The The stay-at-home
stay—at—home twin
twin is
is older
older when
when theythey reunite,
reunite, since
since geodesics
geodesics maximize
maximize
proper time.)
proper time.)
This is
This is an
an appropriate
appropriate place
place to
to talk
talk about
about the
the philosophy
philosophy ofof GR.
GR. InIn pre-GR
pre—GR days,
days, Newto-
Newto—
nian physics
nian physics said
said “particles
“particles move
move along
along straight
straight lines,
lines, until
until forces
forces knock
knock them
them off.”
off.” Gravity
Gravity
was one
was one force
force among
among many.
many. Now,
Now, inin GR,
GR, gravity
gravity is is represented
represented by by the
the curvature
curvature ofof space-
space—
time, not
time, not byby aa force.
force. From
From the
the GR
GR point
point of
of view,
View, “particles
“particles move
move along
along geodesics,
geodesics, until
until forces
forces
knock them
knock them off.”
off.” Gravity
Gravity doesn’t
doesn’t count
count as
as aa force.
force. If If you
you consider
consider the
the motion
motion ofof particles
particles
under the
under the influence
influence of of forces
forces other
other than
than gravity,
gravity, then
then they
they won’t
won’t move
move along
along geodesics
geodesics –* you
you
can still
can still use
use (54)
(54) toto describe
describe their
their motions,
motions, but
but you
you have
have to
to add
add aa force
force term
term to
to the
the right
right
hand side.
hand side. In In that
that sense,
sense, the
the geodesic
geodesic equation
equation isis something
something like
like the
the curved-space
curved—space expression
expression
for F
for F= 2 mama = 2 0. 0.

5
5 General Relativity
General Relativity
Moving from
Moving from math
math to
to physics
physics involves
involves the
the introduction
introduction of
of dynamical
dynamical equations
equations which
which relate
relate
matter and
matter and energy
energy to
to the
the curvature
curvature of
of spacetime.
spacetime. In
In GR,
GR, the
the “equation
“equation of
of motion”
motion” for
for the
the
metric is
metric is the
the famous
famous Einstein
Einstein equation:
equation:

11
R,”
R — 2ERQ’”
µν − = 8πGT
Rgµν = 87mm,”
µν .. (57)
(57)

Notice that
Notice that the
the left-hand
left—hand side side isis the
the Einstein
Einstein tensor
tensor G 0,“, from (50).
µν from (50). GG isis Newton’s
Newton’s constant
constant
of gravitation
of gravitation (not
(not the
the trace
trace ofof G GW).
µν ). TTm, is a
µν is a symmetric
symmetric two-index
two—index tensor
tensor called
called the
the energy-
energy-
momentum tensor,
momentum tensor, or or sometimes
sometimes the the stress-energy
stress—energy tensor.
tensor. It It encompasses
encompasses all all we
we need
need to
to
know about
know about the
the energy
energy and and momentum
momentum of of matter
matter fields,
fields, which
which act
act asas aa source
source for for gravity.
gravity.
Thus, the
Thus, the left
left hand
hand side
side ofof this
this equation
equation measures
measures the the curvature
curvature of of spacetime,
spacetime, and and the
the right
right
measures the
measures the energy
energy and and momentum
momentum contained contained in in it.
it. Truly
Truly glorious.
glorious.
The components
The components T TW of the
µν of the energy-momentum
energy—momentum tensor tensor areare “the
“the flux
flux ofof the
the µ
,uth
th
component of
component of
momentum in
momentum in the
the ν1/“ direction.”
th
direction.” This This definition
definition is is perhaps
perhaps not not very
very useful.
useful. More
More concretely,
concretely,
we can
we can consider
consider aa popular
popular formform of of matter
matter in in the
the context
context of of general
general relativity:
relativity: aa perfect
perfect fluid,
fluid,
defined to
defined to be
be aa fluid
fluid which
which is is isotropic
isotropic in in its
its rest
rest frame.
frame. This This means
means thatthat the
the fluid
fluid has
has no
no
Viscosity or
viscosity or heat
heat flow;
flow; as as aa result,
result, it it is
is specified
specified entirely
entirely in in terms
terms ofof the
the rest-frame
rest—frame energy
energy
density ρ
density p and
and rest-frame
rest—frame pressure
pressure p (isotropic, and
p (isotropic, and thus
thus equal
equal inin all
all directions).
directions). If If use
use UU"µ to
to
stand for
stand for the
the four-velocity
four—velocity of of aa fluid
fluid element,
element, thethe energy-momentum
energy—momentum tensor tensor takes
takes thethe form
form

T µν =
TIMI : (ρ
()0 + p)Uµ Uν +
+p)UpUV pgµν .'
+ pglfll (58)
(58)

If we
If we raise
raise one
one index
index and
and use
use the
the normalization
normalization ggWUHUu
µν
= −1,
Uµ Uν = —1, we
we get
get an
an even
even more
more under-
under—

14
14
standable version:
—p000
−ρ 0 0 0
 

V  001900

Tµ ν = 
p 0 0
T”  000190  .
(59)
(59)

0 p 0
0000])
0 0 p
If T
If Tm, encapsulates all
µν encapsulates all we
we need
need to
to know
know about
about energy
energy and
and momentum,
momentum, itit should
should be
be able
able
to characterize
to characterize the
the appropriate
appropriate conservation
conservation laws.
laws. In
In fact
fact these
these are
are formulated
formulated by
by saying
saying
that the
that the covariant
covariant divergence
divergence of
of T
TM vanishes:
µν vanishes:

V”T,,,,
∇ µ
= 00 ..
Tµν = (60)
(60)
Recall that
Recall that thethe contracted
contracted Bianchi
Bianchi identity
identity (51)
(51) guarantees
guarantees that
that the
the divergence
divergence of of the
the Ein-
Ein—
stein tensor
stein tensor vanishes
vanishes identically.
identically. So So Einstein’s
Einstein’s equation
equation (57)
(57) guarantees
guarantees energy-momentum
energy—momentum
conservation. Of
conservation. Of course,
course, this
this is
is a
a local
local relation;
relation; if
if we
we (for
(for example)
example) integrate
integrate the
the energy
energy den-
den—
sity ρ
sity p over
over aa spacelike
spacelike hypersurface,
hypersurface, thethe corresponding
corresponding quantity
quantity isis not
not constant
constant with
with time.
time. InIn
GR there
GR there isis nono global
global notion
notion of
of energy
energy conservation;
conservation; (60)
(60) expresses
expresses local
local conservation,
conservation, and and
the appearance
the appearance of of the
the covariant
covariant derivative
derivative allows
allows this
this equation
equation toto account
account for
for the
the transfer
transfer of of
energy back
energy back andand forth
forth between
between matter
matter andand the
the gravitational
gravitational field.
field.
The exotic
The exotic appearance
appearance of of Einstein’s
Einstein’s equation
equation should
should not
not obscure
obscure thethe fact
fact that
that it
it aa natural
natural
extension of
extension of Newtonian
Newtonian gravity.
gravity. ToTo see
see this,
this, consider
consider Poisson’s
Poisson’s equation
equation for
for the
the Newtonian
Newtonian
potential Φ:
potential (I):
We
∇ 2
2 4πGρ
Φ= 47e ,, (61)
(61)
where ρ
where p is
is the
the matter
matter density.
density. On On the
the left
left hand
hand side
side ofof this
this we
we see
see aa second-order
second—order differential
differential
operator acting
operator acting on
on the
the gravitational
gravitational potential
potential Φ. (I). This
This isis proportional
proportional to to the
the density
density of of
matter. Now,
matter. Now, GRGR isis aa fully
fully relativistic
relativistic theory,
theory, soso we we would
would expect
expect thatthat the
the matter
matter density
density
should be
should be replaced
replaced by by the
the full
full energy-momentum
energy—momentum tensor tensor T TW. To correspond
µν . To correspond toto (61),
(61), this
this
should be
should be proportional
proportional to to aa 2-index
2—index tensor
tensor which
which is is aa second-order
second—order differential
differential operator
operator acting
acting
on the
on the gravitational
gravitational field,
field, i.e.
i.e. the
the metric.
metric. IfIf you
you think
think about
about thethe definition
definition of of G
GWµν inin terms
terms
of gguy,
of this is
µν , this is exactly
exactly what
what the the Einstein
Einstein tensor
tensor is.
is. InIn fact,
fact, G0,“, is the
µν is the only
only two-index
two—index tensor,
tensor,
second order
second order in
in derivatives
derivatives of of the
the metric,
metric, for
for which
which the the divergence
divergence vanishes.
vanishes.
So the
So the GRGR equation
equation is is of
of the
the same
same essential
essential form
form as as the
the Newtonian
Newtonian one. one. We
We should
should ask ask
for something
for something more,more, however:
however: namely,namely, that
that Newtonian
Newtonian gravity
gravity is is recovered
recovered inin the
the appro-
appro—
priate limit,
priate limit, where
where the
the particles
particles are are moving
moving slowly
slowly (with
(with respect
respect to to the
the speed
speed of
of light),
light), the
the
gravitational field
gravitational field is
is weak
weak (can(can be be considered
considered aa perturbation
perturbation of of flat
flat space),
space), and
and the
the field
field isis
also static
also static (unchanging
(unchanging with with time).
time). WeWe consider
consider aa metric
metric which
which is is almost
almost Minkowski,
Minkowski, but but
with aa specific
with specific kind
kind ofof small
small perturbation:
perturbation:

d5?2 =
ds = −(1
—(1 +
+ 2Φ)dt
2<I>)alt22 +
+ (1
(1 −
— 2Φ)d~
2<I>)d5c’2
x2 ,, (62)
(62)
where Φ
where (I) is
is a
a function
function of
of the
the spatial
spatial coordinates
coordinates x
xi.
i
If we
. If we plug
plug this
this into
into the
the geodesic
geodesic equation
equation
and solve
and solve for
for the
the conventional
conventional three-velocity
three—velocity (using
(using that
that the
the particles
particles are
are moving
moving slowly),
slowly), we
we

15
15
obtain
obtain
dd2f
2
= −∇Φ
—V<I> ,, (63)
~x
= (63)
Edt2
where ∇
where V here
here represents
represents the
the ordinary
ordinary spatial
spatial divergence
divergence (not
(not aa covariant
covariant derivative).
derivative). This
This is
is
just the equation
just the equation for
for aa particle
particle moving
moving inin aa Newtonian
Newtonian gravitational
gravitational potential
potential Φ.
(1). Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,
we calculate
we calculate the
the 00
00 component
component of of the
the left-hand
left—hand sideside of
of Einstein’s
Einstein’s equation:
equation:
1 2
R 00 −
R00 Rg00 = 2∇
— §R900 2V2q)Φ. (64)
(64:)
2
The 00
The 00 component
component of
of the
the right-hand
right—hand side
side (to
(to first
first order
order in
in the
the small
small quantities
quantities Φ
(I) and
and ρ)
p) is
is
just
just
8πGT
87TGT0000 = 8πGρ
87TGp . (65)
So the
So the 00
00 component
component of
of Einstein’s
Einstein’s equation
equation applied
applied to
to the
the metric
metric (62)
(62) yields
yields

V2<I>
∇ 2
Φ== 4πGρ
47TGp ,, (66)
(66)

which is
which is precisely
precisely the
the Poisson
Poisson equation
equation (61).
(61). Thus,
Thus, in
in this
this limit
limit GR
GR does
does reduce
reduce to
to Newtonian
Newtonian
gravity.
gravity.
Although the
Although the full
full nonlinear
nonlinear Einstein
Einstein equation
equation (57)
(57) looks
looks simple,
simple, in
in applications
applications it
it is
is not.
not.
If you
If you recall
recall the
the definition
definition of of the
the Riemann
Riemann tensor
tensor in
in terms
terms ofof the
the Christoffel
Christoffel symbols,
symbols, and
and
the definition
the definition ofof those
those inin terms
terms ofof the
the metric,
metric, you
you realize
realize that
that Einstein’s
Einstein’s equation
equation for
for the
the
metric are
metric are complicated
complicated indeed!
indeed! ItIt is
is also
also highly
highly nonlinear,
nonlinear, and
and correspondingly
correspondingly very
very difficult
difficult
to solve.
to solve. If
If we
we take
take the
the trace
trace of
of (57),
(57), wewe obtain
obtain

—R =
−R = 8πGT
87TGT .. (67)
(67)

Plugging this
Plugging this into
into (57),
(57), we
we can
can rewrite
rewrite Einstein’s
Einstein’s equations
equations as
as
11
R,” = 8πG
87TG (Tm, — 5 T g9,”) .. (68)
 
R µν = Tµν − µν (68)
2
This form
This form is
is useful
useful when
when we
we consider
consider the
the case
case when
when we
we are
are in
in the
the vacuum
vacuum 7 no energy
– no energy or
or
momentum. In
momentum. In this
this case
case T
TW 2 00 and
µν = and (68)
(68) becomes
becomes Einstein’s
Einstein’s equation
equation in
in vacuum:
vacuum:

1—2,,”
R µν = = 00 .. (69)
(69)

This is
This is somewhat
somewhat easier
easier to
to solve
solve than
than the
the full
full equation.
equation.
One final word on Einstein’s equation: it may be
One final word on Einstein’s equation: it may be derived
derived from
from aa very
very simple
simple Lagrangian,
Lagrangian,
√
L = \/——gR (plus appropriate terms for the matter fields). In other words, the action
L = −gR (plus appropriate terms for the matter fields). In other words, the action for
for
GR is simply
GR is simply
4 √
s= = / dJIM—7R, (70)
Z
S x −gR , (70)
an Einstein’s
an Einstein’s equation
equation comes
comes from
from looking
looking for
for extrema
extrema of
of this
this action
action with
with respect
respect to
to variations
variations
of the metric gguy.
µν . What could be more elegant?

16
16
6 Schwarzschild solution
In order
In order to
to solve
solve Einstein’s
Einstein’s equation
equation we
we usually
usually need
need to
to make
make some
some simplifying
simplifying assumptions.
assumptions.
For example,
For example, inin many
many physical
physical situations,
situations, we
we have
have spherical
spherical symmetry.
symmetry. IfIf we
we want
want to
to solve
solve
for aa metric
for metric g9””, this fact
µν , this fact is
is very
very helpful,
helpful, because
because the
the most
most general
general spherically
spherically symmetric
symmetric
metric may
metric may bebe written
written (in
(in spherical
spherical coordinates)
coordinates) as
as

(1322 =
ds = −A(r,
—A(r, t)dt
t)dt22 +
+ B(r,
B(r, t)dr
t)dr22 +
+ rNew?
2
+ sin
(dθ2 + sin22 θdφ
m2)2
) ,, (71)
(71)

where A and
where A and B B are
are positive
positive functions
functions of
of (r,
(r, t),
t), and
and you
you will
will recognize
recognize the
the metric
metric on
on the
the sphere
sphere
from (43).
from (43). If
If we
we plug
plug this
this into
into Einstein’s
Einstein’s equation,
equation, we
we will
will get
get aa solution
solution for
for a
a spherically
spherically
symmetric matter
symmetric matter distribution.
distribution. To
To be
be even
even more
more restrictive,
restrictive, let’s
let’s consider
consider the
the equation
equation in
in
vacuum, (69). Then
vacuum, (69). Then there
there is
is aa unique
unique solution:
solution:
2 2 ‘1 2
ds22 == −— (11 −— %) dt2 + (1 — %) dr2 + rmas? + Sufism?)
θdφ2 ) ..
−1
2Gm 2Gm
(72)
   
2 2
ds dt + 1− dr + (dθ2 + sin 2
(72)
r r
This is
This is the
the celebrated
celebrated Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild metric metric solution
solution toto Einstein’s
Einstein’s equations.
equations. The The param-
param—
eter m,
eter m, ofof course,
course, measures
measures thethe amount
amount ofof mass
mass inside
inside the
the radius
radius rr under
under consideration.
consideration. A A
remarkable fact
remarkable fact is
is that
that the
the Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild metric
metric is is the
the unique
unique solution
solution toto Einstein’s
Einstein’s equation
equation
in vacuum
in vacuum withwith aa spherically
spherically symmetric
symmetric matter
matter distribution.
distribution. This
This fact,
fact, known
known as as Birkhoff
Birkhofi’s ’s
theorem, means that the matter can oscillate wildly, as long as it remains
theorem, means that the matter can oscillate wildly, as long as it remains spherically sym- spherically sym—
metric, and
metric, and the
the gravitational
gravitational field
field outside
outside will
will remain
remain unchanged.
unchanged.
Philosophy point:
Philosophy point: the
the metric
metric components
components in in (72)
(72) blow
blow upup at
at rr =
= 00 and
and rr =2 2Gm.
20m. Of-Of—
ficially, any
ficially, any point
point at at which
which the
the metric
metric components
components become become infinite,
infinite, oror exhibit
exhibit some
some other
other
pathological behavior,
pathological behavior, is is known
known as as a
a singularity.
singularity. These These beasts
beasts come
come in in two
two types:
types: “co-
“co—
ordinate” singularities
ordinate” singularities andand “true”
“true” singularities.
singularities. A A coordinate
coordinate singularity
singularity is is simply
simply aa result
result
of choosing
of choosing badbad coordinates;
coordinates; if if we
we change
change coordinates
coordinates we we can
can remove
remove the the singularity.
singularity. A A
true singularity
true singularity is is an
an actual
actual pathology
pathology of of the
the geometry,
geometry, aa point
point atat which
which thethe manifold
manifold is is
ill—defined. In
ill-defined. In the
the Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild geometry,
geometry, thethe point
point rr == 00 is
is aa real
real singularity,
singularity, an an unavoid-
unavoid—
able blowing-up.
able blowing—up. However,
However, thethe point
point rr =2 2Gm
20m is is merely
merely a a coordinate
coordinate singularity.
singularity. WeWe cancan
demonstrate this
demonstrate this by
by making
making aa transformation
transformation to to what
what are
are known
known as as Kruskal
Kruskal coordinates,
coordinates,
defined by
defined by

r7” 1/2
1/2
 
u=
u 2 (20m − — 11) eeT/4Gmcosh(t/4Gm)
r/4Gm
cosh(t/4Gm)
2Gm
 7. 1/2
v1} =
= (Mm — 11) eer/4Gmsinh(t/4Gm). (73)
1/2
r r/4Gm
− sinh(t/4Gm). (73)
2Gm
In these
In these coordinates,
coordinates, the
the metric
metric (72)
(72) takes
takes the
the form
form

6,322 =
2 fle—r/w mndfi + du
dzfi)2) ++ rmas?
2

+ sin
511122 θdφ
0M)2) ,,
3
ds
32(Gm)
r
e−r/2Gm (−dv 2 + 2
(dθ2 + (74)
(74)

17
17
where
where rr is
is considered
considered to
to be
be an
an implicit
implicit function
function of
of u
u and
and v2; defined
defined by
by

22 22 r 2Gm r7"
 
u—v
u —e/
−v = e r/2Gm
(m—l).−1 . (75)
(75)
2Gm
If we
If we look
look atat (74),
(74), we
we see
see that
that nothing
nothing blows
blows up
up at
at rr == 2Gm.
2Gm. The The mere
mere fact
fact that
that we
we could
could
choose coordinates
choose coordinates in in which
which this
this happens
happens assures
assures usus that
that rr = 2 2Gm
20m isis aa mere
mere coordinate
coordinate
singularity.
singularity.
The useful
The useful thing
thing about
about thethe Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild solution
solution is is that
that itit describes
describes both
both mundane
mundane
things like
things like the
the solar
solar system,
system, andand more
more exotic
exotic objects
objects like
like black
black holes.
holes. To
To get
get a
a feel
feel for
for it,
it,
let’s look
let’s look atat how
how particles
particles move
move in
in aa Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild geometry.
geometry. It It turns
turns out
out that
that we
we can
can cast
cast
the problem
the problem of of aa particle
particle moving
moving in in the
the plane
plane θ6 =
= π/2
7r/2 as
as aa one-dimensional
one—dimensional problem
problem forfor the
the
radial coordinate
radial coordinate r7‘ = = r(τ
7"(7'). In other
). In other words,
words, the
the distance
distance of of aa particle
particle from
from the
the point
point rr = = 00
is aa solution
is solution toto the
the equation
equation
11 drdr 2 11 22
!2
5 (E) + V (r) =
V0") 2 EE E . (76)
2 dτ 2
This is
This is just the equation
just the equation ofof motion
motion for
for a
a particle
particle of
of unit
unit mass
mass and
and energy
energy EE in
in aa one-
one—
dimensional potential
dimensional potential V
V(r). This potential,
(r). This potential, for
for the
the Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild geometry,
geometry, is
is given
given by
by

11 Gm L22 _ GmL
GmL22
.. (77)
Gm L
V (r) =  −  + 2− (77)
22 r7“ 2T2
2r r7‘33
Here, L
Here, L represents
represents the the angular
angular momentum
momentum (per (per unit
unit mass)
mass) of of the
the particle,
particle, and
and e is
is aa constant
constant
equal to
equal to 00 for
for massless
massless particles
particles andand +1 +1 for
for massive
massive particles.
particles. (Note
(Note that
that the
the proper
proper timetime
τ7' is
is zero
zero for
for massless
massless particles,
particles, soso wewe useuse some
some other
other parameter
parameter λ /\ in
in (76),
(76), but
but the
the equation
equation
itself looks
itself looks thethe same).
same). So,So, to
to find
find thethe orbits
orbits of of particles
particles in in aa Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild metric,metric, just solve
just solve
the motion
the motion of of aa particle
particle in in the
the potential
potential givengiven by by (77).
(77). Note
Note that
that thethe first
first term
term in in (77)
(77) is
is aa
constant, the
constant, the second
second term
term is is exactly
exactly whatwhat we we expect
expect fromfrom Newtonian
Newtonian gravity,
gravity, and
and the the third
third
term is
term is just
just thethe contribution
contribution of of the
the particle’s
particle’s angular
angular momentum,
momentum, which which isis also
also present
present in in
the Newtonian
the Newtonian theory.
theory. Only
Only thethe last
last term
term in in (77)
(77) is
is aa new
new addition
addition fromfrom GR.GR.
There are
There are two
two important
important effects
effects of of this
this extra
extra term.
term. First,
First, it
it acts
acts asas aa small
small perturbation
perturbation
on any
on any orbit
orbit 1 this is
– this is what
what leads
leads to to the
the precession
precession of of Mercury,
Mercury, for for instance.
instance. Second,
Second, for for r7“
very small,
very small, thethe GRGR potential
potential goes
goes to to −∞;
—00; this
this means
means thatthat aa particle
particle thatthat approaches
approaches too too
close to
close to r7" ==0 0 will
will fall
fall into
into the
the center
center and and never
never escape!
escape! EvenEven though
though this this is
is in
in the
the context
context
of unaccelerated
of unaccelerated test test particles,
particles, aa similar
similar statement
statement holdsholds true
true for
for particles
particles with
with thethe ability
ability
to accelerate themselves all they like 1 see below. However, not to worry; for a star such as
to accelerate themselves all they like – see below. However, not to worry; for a star such as
the Sun,
the Sun, for
for which
which the
the Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild metric metric onlyonly describes
describes points
points outside
outside thethe surface,
surface, youyou
would run
would run into
into the
the star
star long
long before
before you you approached
approached the the point
point where
where you you could
could notnot escape.
escape.
Nevertheless, we all know of the existence of more exotic objects: black holes. A
Nevertheless, we all know of the existence of more exotic objects: black holes. A
black hole
black hole is is a
a body
body in in which
which allall ofof the
the mass
mass hashas collapsed
collapsed gravitationally
gravitationally past past the the point
point
of possible
of possible escape.
escape. ThisThis point
point ofof nono return,
return, given
given byby the
the surface
surface r7" = = 2Gm,
2Gm, is is known
known as as

18
18
the event
the event horizon,
horizon, and and can can bebe thought
thought of of as as thethe “surface”
“surface” of of aa black
black hole.hole. Although
Although it it
is impossible
is impossible to to go go into
into much much detail
detail aboutabout the the host host of of interesting
interesting properties
properties of of the
the event
event
horizon, the
horizon, the basics
basics are are notnot difficult
difficult to to grasp.
grasp. From From the the point
point of of view
View of of anan outside
outside observer,
observer,
aa clock
clock falling
falling into into aa black
black holehole will
will appear
appear to to move
move more more andand moremore slowly
slowly as as itit approaches
approaches
the event
the event horizon.
horizon. In In fact,
fact, the
the external
external observerobserver will will never
never see see aa testtest particle
particle cross cross thethe
surface r7" =
surface 2 2Gm;
20m; they they will will just
just seesee thethe particle
particle get get closer
closer andand closer,
closer, and and movemove more more and and
more slowly.
more slowly.
Contrast this
Contrast this to to what
what you you would
would experience
experience as as aa test
test observer
observer actually
actually thrownthrown into into a a black
black
hole. To
hole. To you,
you, timetime always
always seems seems to to move
move at at thethe same
same rate; rate; since
since youyou and and your
your wristwatch
wristwatch are are
in the
in the same
same inertial
inertial frame,
frame, you you never
never “feel “feel time
time movingmoving more more slowly.”
slowly.” Therefore,
Therefore, rather rather than
than
taking an
taking an infinite
infinite amountamount of of time
time to to reach
reach the the event
event horizon,
horizon, you you zoom
zoom rightright pastpast 7 doesn’t
– doesn’t
take very
take very longlong at at all,
all, actually.
actually. You You then then proceed
proceed directly directly to to fall
fall to
to rr = = 0,
0, also
also in in aa very
very short
short
time. Once
time. Once you you pass
pass r7" = 2 2Gm,
20m, you you cannot
cannot help help but but hithit r7" =
= 0;0; itit is
is as
as inevitable
inevitable as as moving
moving
forward in
forward in time.
time. The The literal
literal truth
truth of of this
this statement
statement can can bebe seen
seen by by looking
looking at at the
the metric
metric
(72) and
(72) and noticing
noticing that that r7" becomes
becomes aa timeliketimelike coordinate
coordinate for for r1" << 2Gm;
20m; therefore
therefore your your voyage
voyage
to the
to the center
center of of the
the black
black holehole is is literally
literally moving
moving forward forward in in time!
time! What’s
What’s worse, worse, we we noted
noted
above that
above that aa geodesic
geodesic (unaccelerated
(unaccelerated motion) motion) maximizedmaximized the the proper
proper time time – i this
this means
means that that
the more
the more you you struggle,
struggle, the the sooner
sooner you you willwill get
get there.
there. (Of (Of course,
course, you you won’t
won’t struggle,
struggle, becausebecause
you would
you would have have been been ripped
ripped to to shreds
shreds by by tidal
tidal forces.
forces. The The grisly
grisly death
death of of anan astrophysicist
astrophysicist
who enters
who enters aa black black holehole is is detailed
detailed in in Misner,
Misner, Thorne, Thorne, and and Wheeler,
Wheeler, pp. pp. 860-862.)
860—862.)
The spacetime
The spacetime diagram diagram of of aa black
black hole hole in in Kruskal
Kruskal coordinates
coordinates (74) (74) is is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 2. 2.
Shown is
Shown is aa slice
slice through
through the the entire
entire spacetime,
spacetime, corresponding
corresponding to to angular
angular coordinates
coordinates θt9 = = π/2
7r/ 2
and φ
and gb == 0.0. There
There are are two
two asymptotic
asymptotic regions, regions, one one at at u u→ —> +∞+00 and and thethe other
other at at uu→ —> −∞;
—oo; in in
both regions
both regions the the metric
metric lookslooks approximately
approximately flat. flat. The The event
event horizon
horizon is is the
the surface
surface r1" = 2 2Gm,
20m,
or equivalently
or equivalently u u= = ±v.
in. In In this
this diagram
diagram all all light
light conescones are are atat ±45
i450.. Inside
◦
Inside the the event
event horizon,
horizon,
where rr <
where < 2Gm,
2Gm, all all timelike
timelike trajectories
trajectories lead lead inevitably
inevitably to t0 the
the singularity
singularity at at r7" == 0.0. ItIt should
should
be stressed
be stressed that that thisthis diagram
diagram represents
represents the the “maximally
“maximally extended” extended” Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild solution solution
7 a
— a complete
complete solution solution to to Einstein’s
Einstein’s equationequation in in vacuum,
vacuum, but but notnot an an especially
especially physically
physically
realistic one.
realistic one. In In aa realistic
realistic blackblack hole,
hole, formed
formed for for instance
instance from from the the collapse
collapse of of a a massive
massive
star, the
star, the vacuum
vacuum equationsequations do do notnot telltell the
the wholewhole story, story, and and there
there willwill not
not be be twotwo distinct
distinct
asymptotic regions,
asymptotic regions, only only the the one
one in in which
which the the star star originally
originally was was located.
located. (For (For that
that matter,
matter,
timelike trajectories
timelike trajectories cannot cannot travel
travel between
between the the two two regions,
regions, so so wewe could
could never
never tell tell whether
whether
another such
another such region
region did did exist.)
exist.)
In the
In the collapse
collapse to to a a black
black hole,
hole, all all the
the information
information about about the the detailed
detailed naturenature of of the
the col-
col—
lapsing object
lapsing object is is lost:
lost: whatwhat it it was
was made made of, of, itsits shape,
shape, etc. etc. The The only only information
information which which
is not
is not wiped
wiped out out is is the
the amount
amount of of mass,
mass, angular
angular momentum, momentum, and and electric
electric charge
charge in in the
the
hole. This
hole. This fact,fact, the the no-hair
no-hair theorem,
theorem, implies implies that that thethe mostmost general
general black-hole
black—hole metric metric
will be
will be a a function
function of of these
these three
three numbers
numbers only. only. However,
However, real-world
real—world black black holes
holes will will prob-
prob—

19
19
 v

rr=2GM
= 2GM \_[1'=2GM r = 2GM
tt=-°°
=- \_[t=
t=+oo
+

8
8

r=0

v /
X A

u
= const
tt2
= const
rI'ZCOI’ISZL‘
9
const

o,

r=2GM
r = 2GM r:
r=0
r=2GM
r = 2GM
t=+oo
t=+ t='°°
t=-
8
8

Figure 2:
Figure 2: The
The Kruskal
Kruskal diagram
diagram 7 the Schwarzschild
— the Schwarzschild solution
solution inin Kruskal
Kruskal coordinates
coordinates (74),
(74),
Where all
where all light
light cones
cones are
are at
at ±45
i45°.
◦
The surface
. The surface r7" =
2 2Gm
20m is is the
the event
event horizon;
horizon; inside
inside the
the
event horizon,
event horizon, all
all timelike
timelike paths
paths hit
hit the
the singularity
singularity at
at rr =
= 0.
0. The
The right-
right— and
and left-hand
left—hand side
side
of the
of the diagram
diagram represent
represent distinct
distinct asymptotically
asymptotically flat
flat regions
regions ofof spacetime.
spacetime.

20
20
ably be
ably be electrically
electrically neutral,
neutral, so
so we
we will
will not
not present
present the
the metric
metric for
for aa charged
charged black
black hole
hole (the
(the
Reissner—Nordstrom metric).
Reissner-Nordstrom metric). OfOf considerable
considerable astrophysical
astrophysical interest
interest are
are spinning
spinning black
black
holes, described
holes, described by
by the
the Kerr
Kerr metric:
metric:

d322— [A
∆−_ wgsm
ω 22 sin
" - 22 θ01dt2— [Almrsm
# - 22 θ6 dtd¢+§dr2+2d02
4ωmGr sin
"
Σ 2
#
2 2 2
ds = − dt − dtdφ + dr + Σdθ
Σ Σ ∆#
+ [(r
"
2
2
(r ++w)2
2 22_
ω ) −ZAw 2
22 - 2
s1n θ61sin26do2,
∆ω sin (78)
+ sin2 θdφ2 , (78)
Σ
where
where
ZEr2+w2cos26,
Σ ≡ r2 + ω 2 cos2 θ, AET2+w2—20mr,
∆ ≡ r2 + ω 2 − 2Gmr , (79)
(79)
and ω
and w is
is the
the angular
angular velocity
velocity ofof the
the body.
body.
Finally, among
Finally, among the
the many
many additional
additional possible
possible things
things to
to mention,
mention, there’s
there’s the
the cosmic
cosmic cen-
cen-
sorship conjecture.
sorship conjecture. Notice
Notice howhow the
the Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild singularity
singularity at
at rr == 00 is
is hidden,
hidden, in
in aa
sense i you can never get to it without crossing an horizon. It is conjectured that this is
sense – you can never get to it without crossing an horizon. It is conjectured that this is
always true,
always true, in
in any
any solution
solution to
to Einstein’s
Einstein’s equation.
equation. However,
However, some
some numerical
numerical work
work seems
seems to
to
contradict this conjecture, at least in special cases.
contradict this conjecture, at least in special cases.

7
7 Cosmology
Cosmology
Just as
Just as we
we were
were able
able to
to make
make great
great strides
strides with
with thethe Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild metric
metric on on the
the assumption
assumption
of sperical
of sperical symmetry,
symmetry, we we can
can make
make similar
similar progress
progress in in cosmology
cosmology by by assuming
assuming that that thethe
Universe is
Universe is homogeneous
homogeneous and and isotropic.
isotropic. That
That is is to
to say,
say, we
we assume
assume the the existence
existence of of aa “rest
“rest
frame for
frame for the
the Universe,”
Universe,” which
which defines
defines aa universal
universal timetime coordinate,
coordinate, and and singles
singles out
out three-
three—
dimensional surfaces
dimensional surfaces perpendicular
perpendicular to to this
this time
time coordinate.
coordinate. (In
(In the
the real
real Universe,
Universe, thisthis rest
rest
frame is
frame is the
the one
one in
in which
which galaxies
galaxies are
are atat rest
rest and
and the
the microwave
microwave background
background is is isotropic.)
isotropic.)
“Homogeneous” means
“Homogeneous” means that
that the
the curvature
curvature of of any
any two
two points
points atat aa given
given time
time tt is
is the
the same.
same.
“Isotropic” is
“Isotropic” is trickier,
trickier, but
but basically
basically means
means that
that the
the universe
universe looks
looks thethe same
same inin all
all directions.
directions.
Thus, the
Thus, the surface
surface of
of aa cylinder
cylinder isis homogeneous
homogeneous (every (every point
point is
is the
the same)
same) but but not
not isotropic
isotropic
(looking along
(looking along the
the long
long axis
axis of
of the
the cylinder
cylinder is
is aa preferred
preferred direction);
direction); a a cone
cone isis isotropic
isotropic around
around
its vertex,
its vertex, but
but not
not homogeneous.
homogeneous.
These assumptions
These assumptions narrow
narrow down
down the
the choice
choice of of metrics
metrics to
to precisely
precisely three
three forms,
forms, allall given
given
by the
by the Robertson-Walker
Robertson-Walker (RW) (RW) metric:
metric:

dr22
" #
dr
d3 =
ds =—dt
2
2
+a(t)1—kr2
−dt + 22
a (t) 22
+ r7‘22 (dθ
+ (d622 +
+ sin
sin22 θdφ
6d¢2)
2
) ,, (80)
(80)
1 − kr2

where the constant

where the constant kk; can
can be
be −1,
—1, 0,
0, or
or +1.
+1. The
The function
function a(t)
a(t) is
is known
known asas the
the scale
scale factor
factor
and tells
and tells us
us the
the relative
relative sizes
sizes of
of the
the spatial
spatial surfaces.
surfaces. The
The above
above coordinates
coordinates areare called
called
comoving coordinates,
comoving coordinates, since
since aa point
point which
which is
is at
at rest
rest in
in the
the preferred
preferred frame
frame ofof the
the universe
universe

21
21
will have
will have r, r, θ,
6, φ(15 =
= constant.
constant. The
The k k== −1—1 case
case is
is known
known as as an
an open
open universe,
universe, in
in which
which the
the
preferred three-surfaces
preferred three—surfaces are are “three-hyperboloids”
“three—hyperboloids” (saddles);
(saddles); k k==00 is
is aa flat
flat universe,
universe, in
in which
which
the preferred
the preferred three-surfaces
three—surfaces are are flat
flat space;
space; and
and kk; == +1
+1 isis aa closed
closed universe,
universe, in
in which
which the
the
preferred three-surfaces
preferred three—surfaces are are three-spheres.
three—spheres. Note Note that
that the
the terms
terms “open,”
“open,” “closed,”
“closed,” and
and “flat”
“flat”
refer to
refer to the
the spatial
spatial geometry
geometry of of three-surfaces,
three—surfaces, not not to
to whether
whether thethe universe
universe will
will eventually
eventually
recollapse. The
recollapse. The volume
volume ofof aa closed
closed universe
universe isis finite,
finite, while
while open
open andand flat
flat universes
universes have
have
infinite volume
infinite volume (or (or at
at least
least they
they can;
can; there
there are
are also
also versions
versions with
with finite
finite volume,
volume, obtained
obtained
from the
from the infinite
infinite onesones by
by performing
performing discrete
discrete identifications).
identifications).
There are
There are other
other coordinate
coordinate systems
systems in in which
which (8.1)
(8.1) is
is sometimes
sometimes written.
written. In
In particular,
particular, if
if
we set
we set rr =
= (sin
(sin ψ,
w, ψ,1b, sinhψ)
sinhw) for
for kk; =
= (+1,
(+1, 0,
0, −1)
—1) respectively,
respectively, wewe obtain
obtain
dw22 + + sin
sin22 ψ(dθ
1p(dt922 ++ sin
sin22 θdφ
66M?) (k: =
= +1)
+1)

2 


 dψ )  (k
d322 =
ds = −dt
—dt22 +
+aa2(t)
2
(t) drb2 +
dψ 2
+ ψ 1b2(d€2
2 2
(dθ + + sin
sin2 θdφ
2
an?))
2
(k; =
(k = 0)
0) (81)
(81)
dw2 +
2
+ sinh
sinh2rb(d€2
2 2
+ sin
sin2 θdφ
2
6d¢2)) (k
2 
(h == −1)
—1)
 

dψ ψ(dθ +
Further, the
Further, the flat
flat (k
(k =
= 0)
0) universe
universe also
also may
may be
be written
written in
in almost-Cartesian
almost—Cartesian coordinates:
coordinates:

ds22 =
ds = −dt
—ctt22 +
+ aa2(t)(d$2
2
(t)(dx2 + + dy
dy22 +
+ dz
d22)
2
)
= −a
= —a2(n)(—cln2
2
(η)(−dη + 2
+ dx
clan2 +
2
+ dy
dy2 +
2
+ dz
dz2).
2
). (82)
(82)

In this
In this last
last expression,
expression, η
17 is
is known
known as
as the
the conformal
conformal time
time and
and is
is defined
defined by
by

774a(t)
%.
dt
(83)
Z
η≡ . (83)

The coordinates
The coordinates (η,(n, x,
:t, y,
y, z)
z) are
are often
often called
called “conformal
“conformal coordinates.”
coordinates.”
Since the
Since the RW
RW metric
metric isis the
the only
only possible
possible homogeneous
homogeneous and and isotropic
isotropic metric,
metric, all
all we
we have
have
to do
to do is
is solve
solve for
for the
the scale
scale factor
factor a(t)
a(t) by
by using
using Einstein’s
Einstein’s equation.
equation. If If we
we use
use the
the vacuum
vacuum
equation (69),
equation (69), however,
however, we we find
find that
that the
the only
only solution
solution is
is just Minkowski space.
just Minkowski space. Therefore
Therefore
we have
we have to
to introduce
introduce some
some energy
energy and
and momentum
momentum to to find
find anything
anything interesting.
interesting. OfOf course
course
we shall
we shall choose
choose aa perfect
perfect fluid
fiuid specified
specified byby energy
energy density
density ρ p and
and pressure
pressure p. In this
p. In this case,
case,
Einstein’s equation
Einstein’s equation becomes
becomes two two differential
differential equations
equations for
for a(t),
a(t), known
known as as the
the Friedmann
Friedmann
equations:
equations:
 2
ȧ 8πG k
= ρ− 2
a 3 a
a
äa
— =
a
= −
47rG
4πG
3 (p + p)
—— (ρ + 3p)
3
3 .. < >
84
(84)

Since the
Since the Friedmann
Friedmann equations
equations govern
govern the
the evolution
evolution of
of RW
RW metrics,
metrics, one
one often
often speaks
speaks of
of
Friedman—Robertson—Walker (FRW)
Friedman-Robertson-Walker (FRW) cosmology.
cosmology.
The expansion
The expansion rate
rate of
of the
the universe
universe is
is measured
measured by
by the
the Hubble
Hubble parameter:
parameter:
ȧ
QIQ-

a , (85)
HE
H ≡ , (85)

22
22
and the
and the change
change of
of this
this quantity
quantity with
with time
time is
is parameterized
parameterized by
by the
the deceleration
deceleration parameter:
parameter:

am H
!
äa Ḣ
q ≡− 2 =− 1+ 2 . (86)
ȧ H
The Friedmann
The Friedmann equations
equations can
can be
be solved
solved once
once we
we choose
choose an
an equation
equation of
of state,
state, but
but the
the
solutions can
solutions can get
get messy.
messy. ItIt is
is easy,
easy, however,
however, toto write
write down
down the
the solutions
solutions for
for the
the k
k == 00
universes. If
universes. If the
the equation
equation of
of state
state is
is p
p== 0,
0, the
the universe
universe is
is matter
matter dominated,
dominated, and and

a(t) ∝
a(t) QC t152/3
2/3
.. (87)
(87)

In aa matter
In matter dominated
dominated universe,
universe, the
the energy
energy density
density decreases
decreases as
as the
the volume increases, so
volume increases, so
−3
matter ∝
ρpmatter OC a
61—3 .- (88)
(88)

If p
If p== 31ép, the universe
ρ, the universe is
is radiation
radiation dominated,
dominated, and
and

a(t) ∝
a(t) 0: t151/2
1/2
.. (89)
(89)

In aa radiation
In radiation dominated
dominated universe,
universe, the
the number
number of
of photons
photons decreases
decreases as
as the
the volume
volume increases,
increases,
and the
and the energy
energy of
of each
each photon
photon redshifts
redshifts and
and amount
amount proportional
proportional to
to a(t),
a(t), so
so
−4
ρpmd QC a
rad ∝ (1—4 . (90)
(90)

If p
If p== −ρ,
—p, the
the universe
universe is
is vacuum
vacuum dominated,
dominated, and
and

a(t) ∝
a(t) oc ee1”
Ht
.. (91)
(91)

The vacuum
The vacuum dominated
dominated universe
universe is
is also
also known
known as
as de
de Sitter
Sitter space.
space. In
In de
de Sitter
Sitter space,
space, the
the
energy density
energy density is
is constant,
constant, as
as is
is the
the Hubble
Hubble parameter,
parameter, and
and they
they are
are related
related by
by
s
8πGρvac
2 ll% = = constant
constant .. (92)
8 G vac
H= (92)
3
Note that as a → —> 0, ρ
pm;
rad grows the fastest; therefore, if we go back far enough in the history
of the
of the universe
universe we
we should
should come
come toto aa radiation
radiation dominated
dominated phase.
phase. Similarly,
Similarly, ρ
pmc stays constant
vac stays constant
as the
as the universe
universe expands;
expands; therefore,
therefore, ifif ρ
pmc is not
vac is not zero,
zero, and
and the
the universe
universe lasts
lasts long
long enough,
enough, we
we
will eventually
will eventually reach
reach aa vacuum-dominated
vacuum—dominated phase. phase.
Given that our Universe is presently expanding, we
Given that our Universe is presently expanding, we may
may ask
ask whether
whether it it will
will continue
continue to
to
do so forever, or eventually begin to recontract. For energy sources with p/p Z 0 (including
do so forever, or eventually begin to recontract. For energy sources with p/ρ ≥ 0 (including
both matter
both matter and
and radiation
radiation dominated
dominated universes),
universes), closed
closed (k
(k; =
= +1)
+1) universes
universes will
will eventually
eventually
recontract, while open and flat universes will expand forever. When we let p/p < 00 things
recontract, while open and flat universes will expand forever. When we let p/ρ < things
get messier;
get messier; just keep in
just keep in mind
mind that
that spatially
spatially closed/open
closed/open does
does not
not necessarily
necessarily correspond
correspond to
to
temporally finite/infinite.
temporally finite/infinite.

23
23
 The question
The question of
of whether
whether the
the Universe
Universe is
is open
open or
or closed
closed can
can be
be answered
answered observationally.
observationally.
In aa flat
In flat universe,
universe, the
the density
density is
is equal
equal to
to the
the critical
critical density,
density, given
given by
by

3H22
3H
ρPcritt = 87rG . ( )
(93)
8πG
Note that
Note that this
this changes
changes with
with time;
time; in
in the
the present
present Universe
Universe it’s
it’s about
about 55 ×
X 10
10—30
−30
grams per
grams per
cubic centimeter.
cubic centimeter. The The universe
universe will
will be
be open
open ifif the
the density
density is
is less
less than
than this
this critical
critical value,
value,
closed if
closed if it
it is
is greater.
greater. Therefore,
Therefore, it
it is
is useful
useful to
to define
define aa density
density parameter
parameter viavia

ρp _ 8πGρ
87rG'p _ kk
Q ≡
Ω _
= = 11+.—,
+ 2 , (94)
(94)
ρpcrit
crit 3H 2
3H2 ȧa2
aa quantity
quantity which
which will
will generally
generally change
change with
with time
time unless
unless it
it equals
equals unity.
unity. An
An open
open universe
universe
has Ω
has 9<< 1,
1, aa closed
closed universe
universe has
has ΩQ>> 1.
1.
We mentioned
We mentioned in in passing
passing the
the redshift
redshift ofof photons
photons in in an
an expanding
expanding universe.
universe. In
In terms
terms of
of
the wavelength
the wavelength λ A11 of
of aa photon
photon emitted
emitted at
at time
time tt1, the wavelength
1 , the wavelength λA00 observed
observed at
at aa time
time tto0
is given
is given by
by
λ
A0 a(t 0)
(1(t0)
—= = .. 95
0
(95)
λ
A11 a(t 1)
(1(t1) ( )

We therefore
We therefore define
define the
the redshift
redshift zz to
to be
be the
the fractional
fractional increase
increase in
in wavelength
wavelength

λ
A00−
— λ A1 a(t 0)
01050)
E = — 11 ..
1
z≡ = − 96
(96)
λ
A11 a(t 1)
0,051) ( )

Keep in
Keep in mind
mind that
that this
this only
only measures
measures the
the net
net expansion
expansion of of the
the universe
universe between
between times
times tt11 and
and
tto, not the
0 , not the relative
relative speed
speed ofof the
the emitting
emitting andand observing
observing objects,
objects, especially
especially since
since thethe latter
latter
is not
is not well-defined
well—defined in in GR.
GR. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, it it is
is common
common to to speak
speak as
as if
if the
the redshift
redshift isis due
due to
to a
a
Doppler shift
Doppler shift induced
induced byby aa relative
relative velocity
velocity between
between the the bodies;
bodies; although
although nonsensical
nonsensical from
from aa
strict standpoint,
strict standpoint, itit is
is an
an acceptable
acceptable bit
bit of
of sloppiness
sloppiness for for small
small values
values ofof z.
2. Then
Then thethe Hubble
Hubble
constant relates
constant relates the
the redshift
redshift to
to the
the distance
distance s3 (measured
(measured alongalong aa spacelike
spacelike hypersurface)
hypersurface)
between the
between the observer
observer and
and emitter:
emitter:
zz == H(t
H(t0)s
0 )s .. (97)
(97)
This, of
This, of course,
course, is
is the
the linear
linear relationship
relationship discovered
discovered by
by Hubble.
Hubble.

24
24