Acknowledgement

We take sincere efforts to acknowledge the guidance and the advice of

all the people who have helped us in completing this project
successfully. We grab this opportunity to thank our revered principal
Mr.XYZ, for providing us with an opportunity to carry on with the
project . We are greatly obliged to Mr. , Head of Department,
Electronics Engineering for his guidance and constant encouragement
throughout the whole duration of our project. We express our
gratitude to our guide …., Lecturer, Department of Electronics
Engineering, for his guidance and timely suggestions that helped us go
through the touch times in our project work.
 Introduction

We use DC Motors & Fans in many systems in our day to day life. For
example, CPU fans, fume extinguishers and many more appliances which
we make use of are operated by DC. Most of the times we will have a need
to adjust the speed of the motors to our requirement. Although some
systems have an automatic adjustment system for fan speed, not all
systems possess this functionality. So, we will have to adjust the speed of
our fan ourselves occasionally.
To adjust the speed of our fan manually, there are multiple ways to do that.
We can adjust the speed by using a resistance in series with the motor.
This is the simplest of all ways but it is not usually preferred because if we
want to use any devices like microcontrollers or any other digital equipment
for automating our DC fan speed, then this method will not work in general.
A more efficient way to proceed is by using pulse width modulation
technique to manage the speed of our DC motor.
Contents
1. Circuit diagram of the project
2. Working of the Project
3. LED
4. DC Motor
5. 555 Timer IC
6. PWM
7. PN Junction Diode
8. PN Junction Theory
9. Bridge Rectifier

10. Step Down Transformer

11. Resistors
12. Capacitors
13. Reference
Circuit Diagram of the Project
 Working
In this circuit, the DC motor is operated by a 555 integrated circuit. The IC
555 in this circuit is being operated in astable mode. In this mode, the
circuit can be used as a pulse width modulator with a few small
adjustments to the circuit. The frequency of operation of the circuit is
provided by the passive parameters of resistances and capacitances
attached to it. The resistance between pin-7 and pin-8, the resistance
between pin-6 and pin-7 and the capacitance between pin-2 and the
ground govern the frequency of operation and duty cycle of the ic 555 in
astable mode. The duty cycle is governed by the resistor which is in
between pin-6 and pin-7 of the IC 555 timer. So, by taking advantage of the
circuits working, we can change the 555 astable multivibrator into a pulse
width modulator by using a variable resistor instead of a constant resistor in
between pin-6 and pin-7.
One of the best things about this circuit is that we can make it work as an
astable multivibrator with little hardware and by little cost which can save
both the cost involved in making it as well as the space on the printed
circuit board is saved. if we want a sophisticated pulse width modulator
which works more accurately and which can have more adjusting
capabilities, then it is better to use a microcontroller based pulse width
modulator than the one which we are using now. However, the circuit or the
application for which we are using a pulse width modulator is not so
sensitive and hence does not demand so much of accuracy. In such a
case, the circuit which we are using with a bare IC 555 is better as it saves
our monetary as well as space resources in building the circuit.
The duty cycle of the circuit can be changed by changing the resistance
between pin-7 and pin-6. If we increase the duty cycle, the speed of the
motor increases and if we decrease the duty cycle, the speed of the motor
decreases.
 Light-emitting diode

Blue, green, and red LEDs in 5 mm diffused case

Working principle Electroluminescence

Invented Oleg Losev (1927)[1]

James R. Biard (1961)[2]
Nick Holonyak (1962)[3]

First production October 1962

Pin configuration Anode and cathode

Electronic symbol
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is ap–n
junction diode, which emits light when activated.[4] When a suitable voltageis
applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holeswithin
the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
calledelectroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical
components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[5]

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,[6] the earliest LEDs

emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as
transmitting elements in remote-control circuits, such as those in remote
controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs
were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available
across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high
brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices,
replacing small incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric
readouts in the form of seven-segment displays, and were commonly seen in
digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and

task lighting. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources
including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical
robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now
used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising,general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes and lighted wallpaper.
As of 2015, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting remain somewhat more
expensive, and require more precise current and heat management, than
compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

DC motor

Workings of a brushed electric motor with a two-pole rotor (armature) and permanent magnet stator. "N" and
"S" designate polarities on the inside axis faces of the magnets; the outside faces have opposite polarities.
The + and - signs show where the DC current is applied to the commutator which supplies current to
the armaturecoils

The Pennsylvania Railroad's class DD1 locomotive running gear was a semi-permanently coupled pair of third
rail direct current electric locomotive motors built for the railroad's initial New York-area electrification when
steam locomotives were banned in the city (locomotive cab removed here).

A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that converts direct current electrical
energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely on the forces produced by magnetic
fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or
electronic, to periodically change the direction of current flow in part of the motor.
DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from existing direct-current
lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can be controlled over a wide range, using
either a variable supply voltage or by changing the strength of current in its field windings. Small DC
motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances. The universal motor can operate on direct current but
is a lightweight motor used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger DC motors are used in
propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of
power electronics has made replacement of DC motors with AC motors possible in many
applications.
Electromagnetic motors[edit]
A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an electromagnetic field aligned with the
center of the coil. The direction and magnitude of the magnetic field produced by the coil can be
changed with the direction and magnitude of the current flowing through it.
A simple DC motor has a stationary set of magnets in the stator and an armature with one or more
windings of insulated wire wrapped around a soft iron core that concentrates the magnetic field. The
windings usually have multiple turns around the core, and in large motors there can be several
parallel current paths. The ends of the wire winding are connected to a commutator. The
commutator allows each armature coil to be energized in turn and connects the rotating coils with
the external power supply through brushes. (Brushless DC motors have electronics that switch the
DC current to each coil on and off and have no brushes.)
The total amount of current sent to the coil, the coil's size and what it's wrapped around dictate the
strength of the electromagnetic field created.
The sequence of turning a particular coil on or off dictates what direction the effective
electromagnetic fields are pointed. By turning on and off coils in sequence a rotating magnetic field
can be created. These rotating magnetic fields interact with the magnetic fields of the magnets
(permanent or electromagnets) in the stationary part of the motor (stator) to create a force on the
armature which causes it to rotate. In some DC motor designs the stator fields use electromagnets
to create their magnetic fields which allow greater control over the motor.
At high power levels, DC motors are almost always cooled using forced air.
Different number of stator and armature fields as well as how they are connected provide different
inherent speed/torque regulation characteristics. The speed of a DC motor can be controlled by
changing the voltage applied to the armature. The introduction of variable resistance in the armature
circuit or field circuit allowed speed control. Modern DC motors are often controlled by power
electronics systems which adjust the voltage by "chopping" the DC current into on and off cycles
which have an effective lower voltage.
Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is often used in
traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams. The DC motor was the mainstay of
electric traction drives on both electric and diesel-electric locomotives, street-cars/trams and diesel
electric drilling rigs for many years. The introduction of DC motors and an electrical grid system to
run machinery starting in the 1870s started a new second Industrial Revolution. DC motors can
operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive power for the first electric vehicles
and today's hybrid cars and electric cars as well as driving a host of cordless tools. Today DC
motors are still found in applications as small as toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate
steel rolling mills and paper machines. Large DC motors with separately excited fields were
generally used with winder drives for mine hoists, for high torque as well as smooth speed control
using thyristor drives. These are now replaced with large AC motors with variable frequency drives.
If external mechanical power is applied to a DC motor it acts as a DC generator, a dynamo. This
feature is used to slow down and recharge batteries on hybrid car and electric cars or to return
electricity back to the electric grid used on a street car or electric powered train line when they slow
down. This process is called regenerative braking on hybrid and electric cars. In diesel electric
locomotives they also use their DC motors as generators to slow down but dissipate the energy in
resistor stacks. Newer designs are adding large battery packs to recapture some of this energy.

Brushed[edit]
Main article: Brushed DC electric motor
A brushed DC electric motor generating torque from DC power supply by using an internal mechanical
commutation. Stationary permanent magnets form the stator field. Torque is produced by the principle that any
current-carrying conductor placed within an external magnetic field experiences a force, known as Lorentz
force. In a motor, the magnitude of this Lorentz force (a vector represented by the green arrow), and thus the
output torque,is a function for rotor angle, leading to a phenomenon known as torque ripple) Since this is a two-
pole motor, the commutator consists of a split ring, so that the current reverses each half turn ( 180 degrees).

The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the motor by
using internal commutation, stationary magnets (permanent or electromagnets), and rotating
electromagnets.
Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple control of
motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high intensity uses.
Maintenance involves regularly replacing the carbon brushes and springs which carry the electric
current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These components are necessary for
transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings of the rotor inside
the motor.
Brushes are usually made of graphite or carbon, sometimes with added dispersed copper to improve
conductivity. In use, the soft brush material wears to fit the diameter of the commutator, and
continues to wear. A brush holder has a spring to maintain pressure on the brush as it shortens. For
brushes intended to carry more than an ampere or two, a flying lead will be molded into the brush
and connected to the motor terminals. Very small brushes may rely on sliding contact with a metal
brush holder to carry current into the brush, or may rely on a contact spring pressing on the end of
the brush. The brushes in very small, short-lived motors, such as are used in toys, may be made of a
folded strip of metal that contacts the commutator.

Brushless[edit]
Main articles: Brushless DC electric motor and Switched reluctance motor
Typical brushless DC motors use one or more permanent magnets in the rotor
and electromagnets on the motor housing for the stator. A motor controller converts DC to AC. This
design is mechanically simpler than that of brushed motors because it eliminates the complication of
transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor. The motor controller can sense the
rotor's position via Hall effect sensors or similar devices and can precisely control the timing, phase,
etc., of the current in the rotor coils to optimize torque, conserve power, regulate speed, and even
apply some braking. Advantages of brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance,
and high efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor speed
controllers. Some such brushless motors are sometimes referred to as "synchronous motors"
although they have no external power supply to be synchronized with, as would be the case with
normal AC synchronous motors.

Uncommutated[edit]
Other types of DC motors require no commutation.

 Homopolar motor – A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the axis of rotation and an
electric current that at some point is not parallel to the magnetic field. The name homopolar
refers to the absence of polarity change. Homopolar motors necessarily have a single-turn coil,
which limits them to very low voltages. This has restricted the practical application of this type of
motor.
 Ball bearing motor – A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor that consists of two ball
bearing-type bearings, with the inner races mounted on a common conductive shaft, and the
outer races connected to a high current, low voltage power supply. An alternative construction
fits the outer races inside a metal tube, while the inner races are mounted on a shaft with a non-
conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on an insulating rod). This method has the advantage that
the tube will act as a flywheel. The direction of rotation is determined by the initial spin which is
usually required to get it going.

Permanent magnet stators[edit]

Main article: Permanent-magnet electric motor
A PM motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on PMs to provide the
magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque. Compensating windings in
series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under load. Because
this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are convenient in
miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are
of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings. Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high
flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the needed amount of
flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors
wound fields for large machines.
To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets made
with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With their
higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with all optimally
designed singly fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors resemble the
structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles (to ensure starting,
regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that magnetically links the
exteriors of the curved field magnets.

Wound stators[edit]

A field coil may be connected in shunt, in series, or in compound with the armature of a DC machine (motor or
generator)

Main article: universal motor

See also: Excitation (magnetic)
There are three types of electrical connections between the stator and rotor possible for DC electric
motors: series, shunt/parallel and compound (various blends of series and shunt/parallel) and each
has unique speed/torque characteristics appropriate for different loading torque profiles/signatures.[1]

Series connection[edit]
A series DC motor connects the armature and field windings in series with a common D.C. power
source. The motor speed varies as a non-linear function of load torque and armature current; current
is common to both the stator and rotor yielding current squared (I^2) behavior[citation needed]. A series
motor has very high starting torque and is commonly used for starting high inertia loads, such as
trains, elevators or hoists.[2] This speed/torque characteristic is useful in applications such as dragline
excavators, where the digging tool moves rapidly when unloaded but slowly when carrying a heavy
load.
A series motor should never be started at no load. With no mechanical load on the series motor, the
current is low, the counter-Electro motive force produced by the field winding is weak, and so the
armature must turn faster to produce sufficient counter-EMF to balance the supply voltage. The
motor can be damaged by overspeed. This is called a runaway condition.
Series motors called universal motors can be used on alternating current. Since the armature
voltage and the field direction reverse at the same time, torque continues to be produced in the
same direction. However they run at a lower speed with lower torque on AC supply when compared
to DC due to reactance voltage drop in AC which is not present in DC.[3]Since the speed is not
related to the line frequency, universal motors can develop higher-than-synchronous speeds, making
them lighter than induction motors of the same rated mechanical output. This is a valuable
characteristic for hand-held power tools. Universal motors for commercial utility are usually of small
capacity, not more than about 1 kW output. However, much larger universal motors were used for
electric locomotives, fed by special low-frequency traction power networks to avoid problems with
commutation under heavy and varying loads.

Shunt connection[edit]
A shunt DC motor connects the armature and field windings in parallel or shunt with a common D.C.
power source. This type of motor has good speed regulation even as the load varies, but does not
have the starting torque of a series DC motor.[4] It is typically used for industrial, adjustable speed
applications, such as machine tools, winding/unwinding machines and tensioners.

Compound connection[edit]
A compound DC motor connects the armature and fields windings in a shunt and a series
combination to give it characteristics of both a shunt and a series DC motor.[5] This motor is used
when both a high starting torque and good speed regulation is needed. The motor can be connected
in two arrangements: cumulatively or differentially. Cumulative compound motors connect the series
field to aid the shunt field, which provides higher starting torque but less speed regulation.
Differential compound DC motors have good speed regulation and are typically operated at constant
speed
555 Timer IC

555 timer

Signetics NE555 in 8-pin DIP package

Type Active, Integrated circuit

Invented Hans Camenzind

First production 1971

Pin configuration GND, TRIG, OUT, RESET, CTRL, THR, DIS,

VCC

Electronic symbol
 Internal block diagram[1]

The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation,
and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator, and as
a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide two (556) or four (558) timing circuits in one package.[2]
Introduced in 1972[3] by Signetics,[4] the 555 is still in widespread use due to its low price, ease of
use, and stability. It is now made by many companies in the original bipolar and in low-
power CMOS technologies. As of 2003, it was estimated that 1 billion units were manufactured every
year.[5] The 555 is the most popular integrated circuit ever manufactured.[6][7]

History[edit]

Die of the first 555 chip (1971)

The IC was designed in 1971 by Hans R. Camenzind under contract to Signetics (later acquired
by Philips Semiconductors, and now NXP).[3]
In 1962, Camenzind joined PR Mallory's Laboratory for Physical Science in Burlington,
Massachusetts.[5] He designed a pulse-width modulation (PWM) amplifier for audio applications,[8] but
it was not successful in the market because there was no power transistor included. He became
interested in tuners such as a gyrator and a phase-locked loop (PLL). He was hired by Signetics to
develop a PLL IC in 1968. He designed an oscillator for PLLs such that the frequency did not
depend on the power supply voltage or temperature. However, Signetics laid off half of its
employees, and the development was frozen due to a recession.[9]
Camenzind proposed the development of a universal circuit based on the oscillator for PLLs, and
asked that he would develop it alone, borrowing their equipment instead of having his pay cut in half.
Other engineers argued the product could be built from existing parts, but the marketing manager
bought the idea. Among 5xx numbers that were assigned for analogue ICs, the special number "555"
was chosen.[5][9]
Camenzind also taught circuit design at Northeastern University in the morning, and went to the
same university at night to get a master's degree in Business Administration.[10] The first design was
reviewed in the summer of 1971. There was no problem, so it proceeded to layout design. A few
days later, he got the idea of using a direct resistance instead of a constant current source, and
found that it worked. The change decreased the required 9 pins to 8, so the IC could be fit in an 8-
pin package instead of a 14-pin package. This design passed the second design review, and the
prototype was completed in October 1971. Its 9-pin copy had been already released by another
company founded by an engineer who attended the first review and retired from Signetics, but they
withdrew it soon after the 555 was released. The 555 timer was manufactured by 12 companies in
1972 and it became the best selling product.[9]
Part name[edit]
It has been falsely hypothesized that the 555 got its name from the three 5 kΩ resistors used
within,[11] but Hans Camenzind has stated that the part number was arbitrary,[5] thus it's just a
coincidence they matched. The "NE" and "SE" letters of the original parts numbers (NE555 and
SE555) were temperature designations for analog chips from Signetics, where "NE" was commercial
temperature family and "SE" was military temperature family.

Design[edit]
Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes 25 transistors, 2 diodes and
15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin dual in-line package (DIP-8).[12]Variants available
include the 556 (a DIP-14 combining two complete 555s on one chip),[13] and 558 / 559 (both a DIP-
16 combining four reduced-functionality timers on one chip).[2]
The NE555 parts were commercial temperature range, 0 °C to +70 °C, and the SE555 part number
designated the military temperature range, −55 °C to +125 °C. These were available in both high-
reliability metal can (T package) and inexpensive epoxy plastic (V package) packages. Thus the full
part numbers were NE555V, NE555T, SE555V, and SE555T.
Low-power CMOS versions of the 555 are also available, such as the Intersil ICM7555 and Texas
Instruments LMC555, TLC555, TLC551.[14][15] [16][17] CMOS timers use significantly less power than
bipolar timers, also CMOS timers cause less supply noise than bipolar version when the output
switches states. The ICM7555 datasheet claims that it usually doesn't require a "control" capacitor
and in many cases does not require a decoupling capacitor across the power supply pins. For good
design practices, a decoupling capacitor should be included, however, because noise produced by
the timer or variation in power supply voltage might interfere with other parts of a circuit or influence
its threshold voltages.
Internal schematic[edit]
The internal block diagram and schematic of the 555 timer are highlighted with the same color
across all three drawings to clarify how the chip is implemented:[2]

 Green: Between the positive supply voltage VCC and the ground GND is a voltage
divider consisting of three identical resistors, which create two reference voltages at 1⁄3 VCCand
2
⁄3 VCC. The latter is connected to the "Control Voltage" pin. All three resistors have the same
resistance, 5 kΩ for bipolar timers, 40 kΩ (or other higher resistance values) for CMOS timers. It
is a false myth that the 555 IC got its name from these three 5 kΩ resistors.[5]
 Yellow: The comparator negative input is connected to the higher-reference voltage divider of
2
⁄3 VCC (and "Control" pin), and comparator positive input is connected to the "Threshold" pin.
 Red: The comparator positive input is connected to the lower-reference voltage divider of 1⁄3 VCC,
and comparator negative input is connected to the "Trigger" pin.
 Purple: An SR flip-flop stores the state of the timer and is controlled by the two comparators.
The "Reset" pin overrides the other two inputs, thus the flip-flop (and therefore the entire timer)
can be reset at any time.
 Pink: The output of the flip-flop is followed by an output stage with push-pull (P.P.) output
drivers that can load the "Output" pin with up to 200 mA (varies by device).
 Cyan: Also, the output of the flip-flop turns on a transistor that connects the "Discharge" pin to
ground.

555 internal block diagram [1]

555 internal schematic of bipolar version

 

555 internal schematic of CMOS version

Pinout[edit]
The typical pinout of the 555 and 556 IC packages are as follows:[2][1][18]

555 556 Pin Pin

Pin purpose[2]
Pin# Pin# name direction

1 7 GND Power Ground supply: this pin is the ground reference voltage (zero volts).

Trigger: when the voltage at this pin falls below 1⁄2 of CTRL pin
voltage (1⁄3 VCC except when CTRL is driven by an external signal), the
2 6, 8 TRIG Input
OUT pin goes high and a timing interval starts. As long as this pin
continues to be kept at a low voltage, the OUT pin will remain high.

Output: this is a push-pull (P.P.) output that is driven to either a low

state (ground supply at GND pin) or a high state (positive
3 5,9 OUT Output
supply at VCC pin minus approximately 1.7 Volts). (Note: For CMOS
timers, the high state is driven to VCC.)

Reset: a timing interval may be reset by driving this pin to GND, but
the timing does not begin again until this pin rises above
4 4,10 RESET Input approximately 0.7 Volts. This pin overrides TRIG (trigger), which
overrides THR (threshold). If this pin is not used, it should be
connected to VCC to prevent electrical noise causing a reset.

Control (or Control Voltage or CV): this pin provides "control"

access to the internal voltage divider (by default is 2⁄3 VCC). By
5 3,11 CTRL Input
applying a voltage to the Control Voltage input one can alter the
timing characteristics of the device. In most applications this pin is not
used, thus a 10 nFdecoupling capacitor (film or C0G) should be
 connected between this pin and ground pin to ensure electrical noise
isn't added to the higher reference voltage.[2] This control pin input can
be used to build an astable multivibrator with a frequency-modulated
output.

Threshold: when the voltage at this pin is greater than the voltage at
6 2,12 THR Input CTRL pin (2⁄3 VCC except when CTRL is driven by an external signal),
then the timing (OUT high) interval ends.

Discharge: this is an open-collector output (CMOS timers are open-

7 1,13 DIS Output drain), which can be used to discharge a capacitor between intervals,
in phase with output.

Positive supply: the guaranteed voltage range of bipolar timers is

typically 4.5 to 15 Volts (some timers are spec'ed for up to 16 Volts or
18 Volts), though most will operate as low as 3 Volts. (Note: CMOS
8 14 VCC Power
timers have a lower minimum voltage rating, which varies depending
on the part number.) See the supply min and max columns in
the Derivatives section below.

Pinout of 555 single timer (8 pins)[1][2]

Pinout of 556 dual timer (14 pins) (conceptually two 555 timers) [18][2]
Modes[edit]
The IC 555 has three operating modes:

1. Astable (free-running) mode – the 555 can operate as an electronic oscillator. Uses
include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security
alarms, pulse position modulation and so on. The 555 can be used as a simple ADC,
converting an analog value to a pulse length (e.g., selecting a thermistor as timing resistor
allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor and the period of the output pulse is
determined by the temperature). The use of a microprocessor-based circuit can then convert
the pulse period to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration means.
2. Monostable mode – in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator.
Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce-free switches, touch switches,
frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) and so on.
3. Bistable (schmitt trigger) mode – the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not
connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.
Astable[edit]

Schematic of a 555 in astable mode

Waveform in astable mode (french)

See also: Electronic oscillator

In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a specified
frequency. Resistor R1 is connected between VCC and the discharge pin (pin 7) and another resistor
(R2) is connected between the discharge pin (pin 7), and the trigger (pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins
that share a common node. Hence the capacitor is charged through R1 and R2, and discharged only
through R2, since pin 7 has low impedance to ground during output low intervals of the cycle,
therefore discharging the capacitor.
In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the values of R1, R2 and C:

[19]

The high time from each pulse is given by:

and the low time from each pulse is given by:

where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value of the
capacitor in farads.

The power capability of R1 must be greater than .

Particularly with bipolar 555s, low values of must be avoided so that the output
stays saturated near zero volts during discharge, as assumed by the above equation.
Otherwise the output low time will be greater than calculated above. The first cycle will
take appreciably longer than the calculated time, as the capacitor must charge from 0V
to 2⁄3 of VCC from power-up, but only from 1⁄3 of VCC to 2⁄3 of VCC on subsequent cycles.
To have an output high time shorter than the low time (i.e., a duty cycle less than 50%)
a fast diode (i.e. 1N4148 signal diode) can be placed in parallel with R2, with the
cathode on the capacitor side. This bypasses R2 during the high part of the cycle so that
the high interval depends only on R1 and C, with an adjustment based the voltage drop
across the diode. The voltage drop across the diode slows charging on the capacitor so
that the high time is a longer than the expected and often-cited ln(2)*R1C = 0.693 R1C.
The low time will be the same as above, 0.693 R2C. With the bypass diode, the high
time is

where Vdiode is when the diode's "on" current is 1⁄2 of Vcc/R1 which can be determined
from its datasheet or by testing. As an extreme example, when Vcc= 5 and Vdiode=
0.7, high time = 1.00 R1C which is 45% longer than the "expected" 0.693 R1C. At the
other extreme, when Vcc= 15 and Vdiode= 0.3, the high time = 0.725 R1C which is
closer to the expected 0.693 R1C. The equation reduces to the expected 0.693 R1C
if Vdiode= 0.
The operation of RESET in this mode is not well-defined. Some manufacturers'
parts will hold the output state to what it was when RESET is taken low, others will
send the output either high or low.
The astable configuration, with two resistors, cannot produce a 50% duty cycle. To
produce a 50% duty cycle, eliminate R1, disconnect pin 7 and connect the supply
end of R2 to pin 3, the output pin. This circuit is similar to using an inverter gate as
an oscillator, but with fewer components than the astable configuration, and a much
higher power output than a TTL or CMOS gate. The duty cycle for either the 555 or
inverter-gate timer will not be precisely 50% and will change depending on the load
that the output is also driving while high (longer duty cycles for greater loads) due to
the fact the timing network is supplied from the device's output pin, which has
different internal resistances depending on whether it is in the high or low state (high
side drivers tend to be more resistive). An alternate method to set the duty cycle
practically, is to connect a diode parallel to pin 6 & 7. The operation of the diode
when connected is explained above. The resultant duty cycle is given as
D=R2/(R1+R2). If a potentiometer is used to supply R1 and R2, R1 + R2 is
constant. The duty cycle then varies with the potentiometer at a constant frequency.
A series resistor of 100 ohms must be added to each R1 and R2 to limit peak
current of the transistor(within) when R1 and R2 are at minimum level. This method
of adding a diode has a restriction of choosing R1 and R2 values. An alternate way
is to add a JK flip-flop to the output of non-symmetrical square wave generator. But,
with this the output frequency is one half of the timer.
Monostable[edit]

Schematic of a 555 in monostable mode

Waveform in monostable mode

See also: RC circuit

In monostable mode, the output pulse ends when the voltage on the capacitor
equals 2⁄3 of the supply voltage. The output pulse width can be lengthened or
shortened to the need of the specific application by adjusting the values of R and
C.[20]
Assume initially the output of the monostable is zero, the output of flip-flop(Q bar) is
1 so that the discharging transistor is on and voltage across capacitor is zero. One
of the input of upper comparator is at 2/3 of supply voltage and other is connected
to capacitor. For lower comparator, one of the input is trigger pulse and other is
connected at 1/3 of supply voltage. Now the capacitor charges towards supply
voltage(Vcc). when the trigger input is applied at trigger pin the output of lower
comparator is 0 and upper comparator is 0. The output of flip-flop remains
unchanged therefore the output is 0. when the voltage across capacitor crosses the
1/3 of the vcc the output of lower comparator changes from 0 to 1. Therefore, the
output of monostable is one and the discharging transistor is still off and voltage
across capacitor charges towards vcc from 1/3 of vcc,
When the voltage across capacitor crosses 2/3 of VCC, the output of upper
comparator changes from 0 to 1, therefore the output of monostable is 0 and the
discharging transistor is on and capacitor discharges through this transistor as it
offers low resistance path. The cycle repeats continuously. The charging and
discharging of capacitor depends on the time constant RC.
The voltage across capacitor is given by vc = Vcc(1-e^(-t/RC)) at t=T, vc =(2/3)Vcc
therefore, 2/3Vcc=Vcc(1-e^(-T/RC)), T=RC ln(1/3), T=1.1 RC (seconds)
The output pulse width of time t, which is the time it takes to charge C to 2⁄3 of the
supply voltage, is given by

where t is in seconds, R is in ohms (resistance) and C is

in farads (capacitance).
While using the timer IC in monostable mode, the main disadvantage is that the
time span between any two triggering pulses must be greater than the RC time
constant.[21]Conversely, ignoring closely spaced pulses is done by setting the
RC time constant to be larger than the span between spurious triggers.
(Example: ignoring switch contact bouncing.)
Bistable[edit]

Schematic of a 555 in bistable mode

See also: Schmitt trigger

In bistable mode, the 555 timer acts as a basic flip-flop. The trigger and reset
inputs (pins 2 and 4 respectively on a 555) are held high via pull-up
resistors while the threshold input (pin 6) is simply floating. Thus configured,
 pulling the trigger momentarily to ground acts as a 'set' and transitions the
output pin (pin 3) to VCC (high state). Pulling the reset input to ground acts as a
'reset' and transitions the output pin to ground (low state). No timing capacitors
are required in a bistable configuration. Pin 7 (discharge) is left unconnected, or
may be used as an open-collector output.[22]
A 555 timer can be used to create a Schmitt trigger which converts a noisy input
into a clean digital output. The input signal should be connected through a
series capacitor which then connects to the trigger and threshold pins. A
resistor divider, from VCC to GND, is connected to the previous tied pins. The
reset pin is tied to VCC.

PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)

An example of PWM in an idealized inductor driven by a ■voltage source modulated as a series of pulses,
resulting in a ■sine-like current in the inductor. The rectangular voltage pulses nonetheless result in a more and
more smooth current waveform, as the switching frequency increases. Note that the current waveform is the
integral of the voltage waveform.

Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a modulation technique

used to encode a message into a pulsing signal. Although this modulation technique can be used to
encode information for transmission, its main use is to allow the control of the power supplied to
electrical devices, especially to inertial[definition needed] loads such as motors. In addition, PWM is one of
the two principal algorithms used in photovoltaic solar battery chargers,[1]the other being maximum
power point tracking.
The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch
between supply and load on and off at a fast rate. The longer the switch is on compared to the off
periods, the higher the total power supplied to the load.
The PWM switching frequency has to be much higher than what would affect the load (the device
that uses the power), which is to say that the resultant waveform perceived by the load must be as
smooth as possible. The rate (or frequency) at which the power supply must switch can vary greatly
depending on load and application, for example
Switching has to be done several times a minute in an electric stove; 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer;
between a few kilohertz (kHz) and tens of kHz for a motor drive; and well into the tens or hundreds
of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer power supplies.

The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or 'period' of time; a
low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most of the time. Duty cycle is
expressed in percent, 100% being fully on.
The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low. When a switch
is off there is practically no current, and when it is on and power is being transferred to the load,
there is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the product of voltage and
current, is thus in both cases close to zero. PWM also works well with digital controls, which,
because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle.
PWM has also been used in certain communication systems where its duty cycle has been used to
convey information over a communications channel.

History[edit]
Some machines (such as a sewing machine motor) require partial or variable power. In the past,
control (such as in a sewing machine's foot pedal) was implemented by use of a rheostat connected
in series with the motor to adjust the amount of current flowing through the motor. It was an
inefficient scheme, as this also wasted power as heat in the resistor element of the rheostat, but
tolerable because the total power was low. While the rheostat was one of several methods of
controlling power (see autotransformers and Variac for more info), a low cost and efficient power
switching/adjustment method was needed. This mechanism also needed to be able to drive motors
for fans, pumps and robotic servos, and needed to be compact enough to interface with lamp
dimmers. PWM emerged as a solution for this complex problem.
One early application of PWM was in the Sinclair X10, a 10 W audio amplifier available in kit form in
the 1960s. At around the same time PWM started to be used in AC motor control.[2]
Of note, for about a century, some variable-speed electric motors have had decent efficiency, but
they were somewhat more complex than constant-speed motors, and sometimes required bulky
external electrical apparatus, such as a bank of variable power resistors or rotating converters such
as the Ward Leonard drive.

Principle[edit]

Fig. 1: a pulse wave, showing the definitions of , and D.

Pulse-width modulation uses a rectangular pulse wave whose pulse width is modulated resulting in

the variation of the average value of the waveform. If we consider a pulse waveform , with

period , low value , a high value and a duty cycle D (see figure 1), the average value
of the waveform is given by:

As is a pulse wave, its value is for and for . The above expression
then becomes:

This latter expression can be fairly simplified in many cases where as . From this,

it is obvious that the average value of the signal ( ) is directly dependent on the duty
cycle D.

Fig. 2: A simple method to generate the PWM pulse train corresponding to a given signal is the
intersective PWM: the signal (here the red sine wave) is compared with a sawtooth waveform
(blue). When the latter is less than the former, the PWM signal (magenta) is in high state (1).
Otherwise it is in the low state (0).

The simplest way to generate a PWM signal is the intersective method, which requires only
a sawtooth or a trianglewaveform (easily generated using a simple oscillator) and
a comparator. When the value of the reference signal (the red sine wave in figure 2) is more
than the modulation waveform (blue), the PWM signal (magenta) is in the high state,
otherwise it is in the low state.
Delta[edit]
Main article: Delta modulation
In the use of delta modulation for PWM control, the output signal is integrated, and the result
is compared with limits, which correspond to a Reference signal offset by a constant. Every
time the integral of the output signal reaches one of the limits, the PWM signal changes
state.[3] Figure 3

Fig. 3 : Principle of the delta PWM. The output signal (blue) is compared with the limits (green).
These limits correspond to the reference signal (red), offset by a given value. Every time the
output signal (blue) reaches one of the limits, the PWM signal changes state.

Delta-sigma[edit]
Main article: Delta-sigma modulation
In delta-sigma modulation as a PWM control method, the output signal is subtracted from a
reference signal to form an error signal. This error is integrated, and when the integral of the
error exceeds the limits, the output changes state. Figure 4

Fig. 4 : Principle of the sigma-delta PWM. The top green waveform is the reference signal, on
which the output signal (PWM, in the bottom plot) is subtracted to form the error signal (blue, in
top plot). This error is integrated (middle plot), and when the integral of the error exceeds the
limits (red lines), the output changes state.
Space vector modulation[edit]
Main article: Space vector modulation
Space vector modulation is a PWM control algorithm for multi-phase AC generation, in
which the reference signal is sampled regularly; after each sample, non-zero active
switching vectors adjacent to the reference vector and one or more of the zero switching
vectors are selected for the appropriate fraction of the sampling period in order to synthesize
the reference signal as the average of the used vectors.
Direct torque control (DTC)[edit]
Main article: Direct torque control
Direct torque control is a method used to control AC motors. It is closely related with the
delta modulation (see above). Motor torque and magnetic flux are estimated and these are
controlled to stay within their hysteresis bands by turning on new combination of the device's
semiconductor switches each time either of the signal tries to deviate out of the band.
Time proportioning[edit]
Many digital circuits can generate PWM signals (e.g., many microcontrollers have PWM
outputs). They normally use a counter that increments periodically (it is connected directly or
indirectly to the clock of the circuit) and is reset at the end of every period of the PWM.
When the counter value is more than the reference value, the PWM output changes state
from high to low (or low to high).[4] This technique is referred to as time
proportioning, particularly as time-proportioning control[5] – which proportion of a fixed
cycle time is spent in the high state.
The incremented and periodically reset counter is the discrete version of the intersecting
method's sawtooth. The analog comparator of the intersecting method becomes a simple
integer comparison between the current counter value and the digital (possibly digitized)
reference value. The duty cycle can only be varied in discrete steps, as a function of the
counter resolution. However, a high-resolution counter can provide quite satisfactory
performance.
Types[edit]

Fig. 5 : Three types of PWM signals (blue): leading edge modulation (top), trailing edge
modulation (middle) and centered pulses (both edges are modulated, bottom). The green lines are
 the sawtooth waveform (first and second cases) and a triangle waveform (third case) used to
generate the PWM waveforms using the intersective method.

Three types of pulse-width modulation (PWM) are possible:

1. The pulse center may be fixed in the center of the time window and both edges of
the pulse moved to compress or expand the width.
2. The lead edge can be held at the lead edge of the window and the tail edge
modulated.
3. The tail edge can be fixed and the lead edge modulated.
Spectrum[edit]
The resulting spectra (of the three cases) are similar, and each contains a dc component—a
base sideband containing the modulating signal and phase modulated carriers at
each harmonic of the frequency of the pulse. The amplitudes of the harmonic groups are

restricted by a envelope (sinc function) and extend to infinity. The infinite bandwidth is
caused by the nonlinear operation of the pulse-width modulator. In consequence, a digital
PWM suffers from aliasingdistortion that significantly reduce its applicability for
modern communications system. By limiting the bandwidth of the PWM kernel, aliasing
effects can be avoided.[6]
On the contrary, the delta modulation is a random process that produces continuous
spectrum without distinct harmonics.
PWM sampling theorem[edit]
The process of PWM conversion is non-linear and it is generally supposed that low pass
filter signal recovery is imperfect for PWM. The PWM sampling theorem[7] shows that PWM
conversion can be perfect. The theorem states that "Any bandlimited baseband signal within
±0.637 can be represented by a pulsewidth modulation (PWM) waveform with unit
amplitude. The number of pulses in the waveform is equal to the number of Nyquist samples
and the peak constraint is independent of whether the waveform is two-level or three-level."
• Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem:[8] “If you have a signal that is perfectly band limited to
a bandwidth of f0 then you can collect all the information there is in that signal by sampling it
at discrete times, as long as your sample rate is greater than 2f0.”

Applications[edit]
Servos[edit]
PWM is used to control servomechanisms; see servo control.
Telecommunications[edit]
In telecommunications, PWM is a form of signal modulation where the widths of the pulses
correspond to specific data values encoded at one end and decoded at the other.
Pulses of various lengths (the information itself) will be sent at regular intervals (the carrier
frequency of the modulation).

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Clock | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
__| |____| |____| |____| |____| |____| |____| |____| |____

_ __ ____ ____ _
PWM signal | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
_________| |____| |___| |________| |_| |___________

Data 0 1 2 4 0 4 1 0

The inclusion of a clock signal is not necessary, as the leading edge of the data signal can
be used as the clock if a small offset is added to the data value in order to avoid a data
value with a zero length pulse.

_ __ ___ _____ _ _____ __ _

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
PWM signal | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
__| |____| |___| |__| |_| |____| |_| |___|
|_____

Data 0 1 2 4 0 4 1 0

Power delivery[edit]
PWM can be used to control the amount of power delivered to a load without incurring the
losses that would result from linear power delivery by resistive means. Drawbacks to this
technique are that the power drawn by the load is not constant but rather discontinuous
(see Buck converter), and energy delivered to the load is not continuous either. However,
the load may be inductive, and with a sufficiently high frequency and when necessary using
additional passive electronic filters, the pulse train can be smoothed and average analog
waveform recovered. Power flow into the load can be continuous. Power flow from the
supply is not constant and will require energy storage on the supply side in most cases. (In
the case of an electrical circuit, a capacitor to absorb energy stored in (often parasitic)
supply side inductance.)
High frequency PWM power control systems are easily realisable with semiconductor
switches. As explained above, almost no power is dissipated by the switch in either on or off
state. However, during the transitions between on and off states, both voltage and current
are nonzero and thus power is dissipated in the switches. By quickly changing the state
between fully on and fully off (typically less than 100 nanoseconds), the power dissipation in
the switches can be quite low compared to the power being delivered to the load.
Modern semiconductor switches such as MOSFETs or insulated-gate bipolar
transistors (IGBTs) are well suited components for high-efficiency controllers. Frequency
converters used to control AC motors may have efficiencies exceeding 98%. Switching
power supplies have lower efficiency due to low output voltage levels (often even less than 2
V for microprocessors are needed) but still more than 70–80% efficiency can be achieved.
Variable-speed fan controllers for computers usually use PWM, as it is far more efficient
when compared to a potentiometer or rheostat. (Neither of the latter is practical to operate
electronically; they would require a small drive motor.)
Light dimmers for home use employ a specific type of PWM control. Home-use light
dimmers typically include electronic circuitry which suppresses current flow during defined
portions of each cycle of the AC line voltage. Adjusting the brightness of light emitted by a
light source is then merely a matter of setting at what voltage (or phase) in the AC half-cycle
the dimmer begins to provide electric current to the light source (e.g. by using an electronic
switch such as a triac). In this case the PWM duty cycle is the ratio of the conduction time to
the duration of the half AC cycle defined by the frequency of the AC line voltage (50 Hz or
60 Hz depending on the country).
These rather simple types of dimmers can be effectively used with inert (or relatively slow
reacting) light sources such as incandescent lamps, for example, for which the additional
modulation in supplied electrical energy which is caused by the dimmer causes only
negligible additional fluctuations in the emitted light. Some other types of light sources such
as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), however, turn on and off extremely rapidly and would
perceivably flicker if supplied with low frequency drive voltages. Perceivable flicker effects
from such rapid response light sources can be reduced by increasing the PWM frequency. If
the light fluctuations are sufficiently rapid (faster than the flicker fusion threshold), the human
visual system can no longer resolve them and the eye perceives the time average intensity
without flicker.
In electric cookers, continuously variable power is applied to the heating elements such as
the hob or the grill using a device known as a simmerstat. This consists of a thermal
oscillator running at approximately two cycles per minute and the mechanism varies the duty
cycle according to the knob setting. The thermal time constant of the heating elements is
several minutes, so that the temperature fluctuations are too small to matter in practice.
Voltage regulation[edit]
Main article: Switched-mode power supply
PWM is also used in efficient voltage regulators. By switching voltage to the load with the
appropriate duty cycle, the output will approximate a voltage at the desired level. The
switching noise is usually filtered with an inductor and a capacitor.
One method measures the output voltage. When it is lower than the desired voltage, it turns
on the switch. When the output voltage is above the desired voltage, it turns off the switch.
Audio effects and amplification[edit]
PWM is sometimes used in sound (music) synthesis, in particular subtractive synthesis, as it
gives a sound effect similar to chorus or slightly detuned oscillators played together. (In fact,
PWM is equivalent to the difference of two sawtooth waves with one of them inverted.[1])
The ratio between the high and low level is typically modulated with a low frequency
oscillator. In addition, varying the duty cycle of a pulse waveform in a subtractive-synthesis
instrument creates useful timbral variations. Some synthesizers have a duty-cycle trimmer
for their square-wave outputs, and that trimmer can be set by ear; the 50% point (true
square wave) was distinctive, because even-numbered harmonics essentially disappear at
50%. Pulse waves, usually 50%, 25%, and 12.5%, make up the soundtracks of classic video
games.
A new class of audio amplifiers based on the PWM principle is becoming popular.
Called class-D amplifiers, they produce a PWM equivalent of the analog input signal which
is fed to the loudspeaker via a suitable filter network to block the carrier and recover the
original audio. These amplifiers are characterized by very good efficiency figures (≥ 90%)
and compact size/light weight for large power outputs. For a few decades, industrial and
military PWM amplifiers have been in common use, often for driving servo motors. Field-
gradient coils in MRI machines are driven by relatively high-power PWM amplifiers.
Historically, a crude form of PWM has been used to play back PCM digital sound on the PC
speaker, which is driven by only two voltage levels, typically 0 V and 5 V. By carefully timing
the duration of the pulses, and by relying on the speaker's physical filtering properties
(limited frequency response, self-inductance, etc.) it was possible to obtain an approximate
playback of mono PCM samples, although at a very low quality, and with greatly varying
results between implementations.
In more recent times, the Direct Stream Digital sound encoding method was introduced,
which uses a generalized form of pulse-width modulation called pulse density modulation, at
a high enough sampling rate (typically in the order of MHz) to cover the
whole acoustic frequencies range with sufficient fidelity. This method is used in
the SACD format, and reproduction of the encoded audio signal is essentially similar to the
method used in class-D amplifiers.
Electrical[edit]
SPWM (Sine–triangle pulse width modulation) signals are used in micro-inverter design
(used in solar and wind power applications). These switching signals are fed to
the FETs that are used in the device. The device's efficiency depends on the harmonic
content of the PWM signal. There is much research on eliminating unwanted harmonics and
improving the fundamental strength, some of which involves using a modified carrier signal
instead of a classic sawtooth signal [9][10][11] in order to decrease power losses and improve
efficiency. Another common application is in robotics where PWM signals are used to control
the speed of the robot by controlling the motors.

PN Junction Diode
The effect described in the previous tutorial is achieved without any external voltage
being applied to the actual PN junction resulting in the junction being in a state of
equilibrium. However, if we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both
the N-type and the P-type materials and then connect them to a battery source, an
additional energy source now exists to overcome the potential barrier.

The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being
able to cross the depletion region from one side to the other. The behaviour of the PN
junction with regards to the potential barrier’s width produces an asymmetrical
conducting two terminal device, better known as the PN Junction Diode.

A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which
has the characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a
resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the
diode has an exponential current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we can not
described its operation by simply using an equation such as Ohm’s law.
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN
junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to
cross the junction as the width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is
decreased.

By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled
away from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has
the effect of increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself
allowing or blocking current flow through the diode.

Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse
voltage and narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is
due to the differences in the electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction
resulting in physical changes taking place. One of the results produces rectification as
seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage) characteristics.
Rectification is shown by an asymmetrical current flow when the polarity of bias
voltage is altered as shown below.

Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics.

But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device
we need to firstly bias the junction, ie connect a voltage potential across it. On the
voltage axis above, “Reverse Bias” refers to an external voltage potential which
increases the potential barrier. An external voltage which decreases the potential
barrier is said to act in the “Forward Bias” direction.

There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the
standard Junction Diode and these are:

 1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.

 2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-

type material and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which
has the effect of Increasing the PN junction diode’s width.
 3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-
type material and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which
has the effect of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.

Zero Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is

applied to the PN junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a
few holes (majority carriers) in the P-type material with enough energy to overcome
the potential barrier will move across the junction against this barrier potential. This is
known as the “Forward Current” and is referenced as IF

Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation
favourable and move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as
the “Reverse Current” and is referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes
back and forth across the PN junction is known as diffusion, as shown below.

Zero Biased PN Junction Diode

The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority
carriers across the junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers
(few free electrons in the P-region and few holes in the N-region) to drift across the
junction.

Then an “Equilibrium” or balance will be established when the majority carriers are
equal and both moving in opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current
flowing in the circuit. When this occurs the junction is said to be in a state of
“Dynamic Equilibrium“.

The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so this state of
equilibrium can be broken by raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an
increase in the generation of minority carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in
leakage current but an electric current cannot flow since no circuit has been connected
to the PN junction.

Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied

to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.

The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the
positive electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are
also attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode.

The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and
holes and presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high
potential barrier is created thus preventing current from flowing through the
semiconductor material.

Increase in the Depletion Layer due to Reverse Bias

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically
zero current flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage.
However, a very small leakage current does flow through the junction which can be
measured in micro-amperes, ( μA ).

One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a
sufficiently high enough value, it will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and
fail due to the avalanche effect around the junction. This may cause the diode to
become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current, and this shown
as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilising
circuits where a series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse
breakdown current to a preset maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage
output across the diode. These types of diodes are commonly known as Zener
Diodesand are discussed in a later tutorial.

Forward Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied

to the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this
external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7
volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be
overcome and current will start to flow.

This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction
giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the
opposite direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a
characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the “knee”
on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little increase
in the external voltage as shown below.

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the
depletion layer becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance
path through the junction thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at which
this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on the static I-V
characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.

Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing
very large currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias
voltage. The actual potential difference across the junction or diode is kept constant
by the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium and
approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.

Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it effectively
becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its
current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current specification causes the device
to dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for resulting in a very
quick failure of the device.

Junction Diode Summary

The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important

characteristics:
 Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge
carriers, Holes andElectrons.

 The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.

 A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-

type doping), so that it contains mobile charges which are primarily electrons.

 A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type

doping), so that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.

 The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion
region.

 The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the
applied voltage.

 When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a

natural Potential Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is
approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for silicon diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for
germanium diodes.

 When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region
reduces and the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full current to flow.

 When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region
increases and the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current flow, (only
a very small leakage current).

We have also seen above that the diode is two terminal non-linear device whose I-V
characteristic are polarity dependent as depending upon the polarity of the applied
voltage, VD the diode is either Forward Biased, VD > 0 or Reverse Biased, VD < 0.
Either way we can model these current-voltage characteristics for both an ideal diode
and for a real diode.

Junction Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics

In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at the small signal diode sometimes
called a switching diode which is used in general electronic circuits. As its name
implies, the signal diode is designed for low-voltage or high frequency signal
applications such as in radio or digital switching circuits.

Signal diodes, such as the 1N4148 only pass very small electrical currents as opposed
to the high-current mains rectification diodes in which silicon diodes are usually used.
Also in the next tutorial we will examine the Signal Diode static current-voltage
characteristics curve and parameters.

PN Junction Theory
The PN junction
In the previous tutorial we saw how to make an N-type semiconductor material by
doping a silicon atom with small amounts of Antimony and also how to make a P-
type semiconductor material by doping another silicon atom with Boron. This is all
well and good, but these newly doped N-type and P-type semiconductor materials do
very little on their own as they are electrically neutral.
However, if we join (or fuse) these two semiconductor materials together they behave
in a very different way merging together and producing what is generally known as a
“PN Junction“.
When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined
together a very large density gradient exists between both sides of the PN junction.
The result is that some of the free electrons from the donor impurity atoms begin to
migrate across this newly formed junction to fill up the holes in the P-type material
producing negative ions.
However, because the electrons have moved across the PN junction from the N-type
silicon to the P-type silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor ions ( ND ) on
the negative side and now the holes from the acceptor impurity migrate across the
junction in the opposite direction into the region where there are large numbers of free
electrons.
As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with negatively
charged acceptor ions ( NA ), and the charge density of the N-type along the junction
becomes positive. This charge transfer of electrons and holes across the PN junction is
known as diffusion. The width of these P and N layers depends on how heavily each
side is doped with acceptor density NA, and donor density ND, respectively.
This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons which have
crossed the junction
have a large enough electrical charge to repel or prevent any more charge carriers
from crossing over the junction. Eventually a state of equilibrium (electrically neutral
situation) will occur producing a “potential barrier” zone around the area of the
junction as the donor atoms repel the holes and the acceptor atoms repel the electrons.
Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential barrier,
the regions on either sides of the junction now become completely depleted of any
more free carriers in comparison to the N and P type materials further away from the
junction. This area around the PN Junction is now called the Depletion Layer.

The PN junction

The total charge on each side of a PN Junction must be equal and opposite to maintain
a neutral charge condition around the junction. If the depletion layer region has a
distance D, it therefore must therefore penetrate into the silicon by a distance of Dpfor
the positive side, and a distance of Dn for the negative side giving a relationship
between the two of Dp.NA = Dn.ND in order to maintain charge neutrality also called
equilibrium.

PN Junction Distance
As the N-type material has lost electrons and the P-type has lost holes, the N-type
material has become positive with respect to the P-type. Then the presence of impurity
ions on both sides of the junction cause an electric field to be established across this
region with the N-side at a positive voltage relative to the P-side. The problem now is
that a free charge requires some extra energy to overcome the barrier that now exists
for it to be able to cross the depletion region junction.
This electric field created by the diffusion process has created a “built-in potential
difference” across the junction with an open-circuit (zero bias) potential of:

Where: Eo is the zero bias junction voltage, VT the thermal voltage of 26mV at room
temperature, ND and NA are the impurity concentrations and ni is the intrinsic
concentration.
A suitable positive voltage (forward bias) applied between the two ends of the PN
junction can supply the free electrons and holes with the extra energy. The external
voltage required to overcome this potential barrier that now exists is very much
dependent upon the type of semiconductor material used and its actual temperature.
Typically at room temperature the voltage across the depletion layer for silicon is
about 0.6 – 0.7 volts and for germanium is about 0.3 – 0.35 volts. This potential
barrier will always exist even if the device is not connected to any external power
source, as seen in diodes.
The significance of this built-in potential across the junction, is that it opposes both
the flow of holes and electrons across the junction and is why it is called the potential
barrier. In practice, a PN junction is formed within a single crystal of material rather
than just simply joining or fusing together two separate pieces.
The result of this process is that the PN junction has rectifying current–voltage (IV or
I–V) characteristics. Electrical contacts are fused onto either side of the
semiconductor to enable an electrical connection to be made to an external circuit.
The resulting electronic device that has been made is commonly called a PN junction
Diode or simply Signal Diode.
Then we have seen here that a PN junction can be made by joining or diffusing
together differently doped semiconductor materials to produce an electronic device
called a diode which can be used as the basic semiconductor structure of rectifiers, all
types of transistors, LED’s, solar cells, and many more such solid state devices.
In the next tutorial about the PN junction, we will look at one of the most interesting
applications of the PN junction is its use in circuits as a diode. By adding connections
to each end of the P-type and the N-type materials we can produce a two terminal
device called a PN Junction Diode which can be biased by an external voltage to
either block or allow the flow of current through it.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

This method may be suitable for low power applications it is unsuitable to
applications which need a “steady and smooth” DC supply voltage. One method to
improve on this is to use every half-cycle of the input voltage instead of every other
half-cycle. The circuit which allows us to do this is called a Full Wave Rectifier.

Like the half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit produces an output voltage or
current which is purely DC or has some specified DC component. Full wave rectifiers
have some fundamental advantages over their half wave rectifier counterparts. The
average (DC) output voltage is higher than for half wave, the output of the full wave
rectifier has much less ripple than that of the half wave rectifier producing a smoother
output waveform.

In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half of the
cycle. A multiple winding transformer is used whose secondary winding is split
equally into two halves with a common centre tapped connection, (C). This
configuration results in each diode conducting in turn when its anode terminal is
positive with respect to the transformer centre point C producing an output during
both half-cycles, twice that for the half wave rectifier so it is 100% efficient as shown
below.
Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load
resistance (RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. When
point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point C, diode D1 conducts in the
forward direction as indicated by the arrows.

When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C,
diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor Ris
in the same direction for both half-cycles. As the output voltage across the resistorR is
the phasor sum of the two waveforms combined, this type of full wave rectifier circuit
is also known as a “bi-phase” circuit.

As the spaces between each half-wave developed by each diode is now being filled in
by the other diode the average DC output voltage across the load resistor is now
double that of the single half-wave rectifier circuit and is about 0.637Vmax of the peak
voltage, assuming no losses.

Where: VMAX is the maximum peak value in one half of the secondary winding
andVRMS is the rms value.

The peak voltage of the output waveform is the same as before for the half-wave
rectifier provided each half of the transformer windings have the same rms voltage
value. To obtain a different DC voltage output different transformer ratios can be
used. The main disadvantage of this type of full wave rectifier circuit is that a larger
transformer for a given power output is required with two separate but identical
secondary windings making this type of full wave rectifying circuit costly compared
to the “Full Wave Bridge Rectifier” circuit equivalent.

The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave
rectifier circuit above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single
phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop
“bridge” configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of this
bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby
reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of
the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes
conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the
supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased
and the current flows through the load as shown below.

The Positive Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but
diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing
through the load is the same direction as before.

The Negative Half-cycle

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed
across the load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave
rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax.

Typical Bridge Rectifier

However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes
instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2 x 0.7
= 1.4V ) less than the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the
supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply or 120Hz for a 60Hz supply.)

Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave bridge
rectifier, pre-made bridge rectifier components are available “off-the-shelf” in a range
of different voltage and current sizes that can be soldered directly into a PCB circuit
board or be connected by spade connectors.
The image to the right shows a typical single phase bridge rectifier with one corner
cut off. This cut-off corner indicates that the terminal nearest to the corner is the
positive or +ve output terminal or lead with the opposite (diagonal) lead being the
negative or -ve output lead. The other two connecting leads are for the input
alternating voltage from a transformer secondary winding.

The Smoothing Capacitor

We saw in the previous section that the single phase half-wave rectifier produces an
output wave every half cycle and that it was not practical to use this type of circuit to
produce a steady DC supply. The full-wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a
greater mean DC value (0.637 Vmax) with less superimposed ripple while the output
waveform is twice that of the frequency of the input supply frequency. We can
therefore increase its average DC output level even higher by connecting a suitable
smoothing capacitor across the output of the bridge circuit as shown below.

Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a
smooth DC output voltage. Generally for DC power supply circuits the smoothing
capacitor is an Aluminium Electrolytic type that has a capacitance value of 100uF or
more with repeated DC voltage pulses from the rectifier charging up the capacitor to
peak voltage.

However, their are two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable
smoothing capacitor and these are its Working Voltage, which must be higher than the
no-load output value of the rectifier and its Capacitance Value, which determines the
amount of ripple that will appear superimposed on top of the DC voltage.

Too low a capacitance value and the capacitor has little effect on the output
waveform. But if the smoothing capacitor is sufficiently large enough (parallel
capacitors can be used) and the load current is not too large, the output voltage will be
almost as smooth as pure DC. As a general rule of thumb, we are looking to have a
ripple voltage of less than 100mV peak to peak.

The maximum ripple voltage present for a Full Wave Rectifier circuit is not only
determined by the value of the smoothing capacitor but by the frequency and load
current, and is calculated as:

Bridge Rectifier Ripple Voltage

Where: I is the DC load current in amps, ƒ is the frequency of the ripple or twice the
input frequency in Hertz, and C is the capacitance in Farads.
The main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that it has a smaller AC ripple
value for a given load and a smaller reservoir or smoothing capacitor than an
equivalent half-wave rectifier. Therefore, the fundamental frequency of the ripple
voltage is twice that of the AC supply frequency (100Hz) where for the half-wave
rectifier it is exactly equal to the supply frequency (50Hz).

The amount of ripple voltage that is superimposed on top of the DC supply voltage by
the diodes can be virtually eliminated by adding a much improved π-filter (pi-filter) to
the output terminals of the bridge rectifier. This type of low-pass filter consists of two
smoothing capacitors, usually of the same value and a choke or inductance across
them to introduce a high impedance path to the alternating ripple component

Another more practical and cheaper alternative is to use an off the shelf 3-terminal
voltage regulator IC, such as a LM78xx (where “xx” stands for the output voltage
rating) for a positive output voltage or its inverse equivalent the LM79xx for a
negative output voltage which can reduce the ripple by more than 70dB (Datasheet)
while delivering a constant output current of over 1 amp.

In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at the Zener Diode which takes
advantage of its reverse breakdown voltage characteristic to produce a constant and
fixed output voltage across itself.
 Resistors

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a

circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage
levels within circuits. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal
levels, biasactive elements, and terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power
resistors, that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used as part of motor
controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have
resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors
can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing
devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuitsand are ubiquitous
in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various
compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are
manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the
resistance will fall within a manufacturing tolerance.

Two typical schematic diagram symbols are as follows:

(a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and (c) potentiometer

IEC resistor symbol

The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies. The European notation BS
1852 avoids using a decimal separator, and replaces the decimal separator with the SI prefix symbol
for the particular value. For example, 8k2 in a circuit diagram indicates a resistor value of 8.2 kΩ.
Additional zeros imply tighter tolerance, for example 15M0. When the value can be expressed
without the need for an SI prefix, an "R" is used instead of the decimal separator.
For example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 Ω, and 18R indicates 18 Ω. The use of a SI prefix symbol or the
letter "R" circumvents the problem that decimal separators tend to "disappear" when photocopying a
printed circuit diagram.

Resistors, ( R ) are the most fundamental and commonly used of all the electronic components, to
the point where they are almost taken for granted. There are many different Types of
Resistor available for the electronics constructor to choose from, from very small surface mount
chip resistors up to large wirewound power resistors.

The principal job of a resistor within an electrical or electronic circuit is to “resist” (hence the nameResistor),
regulate or to set the flow of electrons (current) through them by using the type of conductive material from
which they are composed. Resistors can also be connected together in various series and parallel
combinations to form resistor networks which can act as voltage droppers, voltage dividers or current
limiters within a circuit.

A Typical Resistor
Resistors are what are called “Passive Devices“, that is they contain no source of power or amplification
but only attenuate or reduce the voltage or current signal passing through them. This attenuation results in
electrical energy being lost in the form of heat as the resistor resists the flow of electrons through it.

Then a potential difference is required between the two terminals of a resistor for current to flow. This
potential difference balances out the energy lost. When used in DC circuits the potential difference, also
known as a resistors voltage drop, is measured across the terminals as the circuit current flows through the
resistor.

Most types of resistor are linear devices that produce a voltage drop across themselves when an electrical
current flows through them because they obey Ohm’s Law, and different values of resistance produces
different values of current or voltage. This can be very useful in Electronic circuits by controlling or reducing
either the current flow or voltage produced across them we can produce a voltage-to-current and current-
to-voltage converter.

There are many thousands of different Types of Resistor and are produced in a variety of forms because
their particular characteristics and accuracy suit certain areas of application, such as High Stability, High
Voltage, High Current etc, or are used as general purpose resistors where their characteristics are less of
a problem.

Some of the common characteristics associated with the humble resistor are; Temperature Coefficient,
Voltage Coefficient, Noise, Frequency Response, Power as well as a resistorsTemperature Rating,
Physical Size and Reliability.

In all Electrical and Electronic circuit diagrams and schematics, the most commonly used symbol for a fixed
value resistor is that of a “zig-zag” type line with the value of its resistance given in Ohms, Ω. Resistors
have fixed resistance values from less than one ohm, ( <1Ω ) to well over tens of millions of ohms,
( >10MΩ ) in value.

Fixed resistors have only one single value of resistance, for example 100Ω’s but variable resistors
(potentiometers) can provide an infinite number of resistance values between zero and their maximum
value.

Standard Resistor Symbols

The symbol used in schematic and electrical drawings for a Resistor can either be a “zig-zag” type line or
a rectangular box.

All modern fixed value resistors can be classified into four broad groups;

 Carbon Composition Resistor – Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage values

 Film or Cermet Resistor – Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage values

 Wire-wound Resistor – Metallic bodies for heatsink mounting, very high wattage ratings

 Semiconductor Resistor – High frequency/precision surface mount thin film technology

There are a large variety of fixed and variable resistor types with different construction styles available for
each group, with each one having its own particular characteristics, advantages and disadvantages
compared to the others. To include all types would make this section very large so I shall limit it to the most
commonly used, and readily available general purpose types of resistors.

Composition Types of Resistor

Carbon Resistors are the most common type of Composition Resistors. Carbon resistors are a cheap
general purpose resistor used in electrical and electronic circuits. Their resistive element is manufactured
from a mixture of finely ground carbon dust or graphite (similar to pencil lead) and a non-conducting ceramic
(clay) powder to bind it all together.
 Carbon Resistor
The ratio of carbon dust to ceramic (conductor to insulator) determines the overall resistive value of the
mixture and the higher the ratio of carbon, the lower the overall resistance. The mixture is moulded into a
cylindrical shape with metal wires or leads are attached to each end to provide the electrical connection as
shown, before being coated with an outer insulating material and colour coded markings to denote its
resistive value.

Carbon Resistor

The Carbon Composite Resistor is a low to medium type power resistor which has a low inductance
making them ideal for high frequency applications but they can also suffer from noise and stability when
hot. Carbon composite resistors are generally prefixed with a “CR” notation (eg, CR10kΩ ) and are
available in E6 ( ± 20% tolerance (accuracy) ), E12 ( ± 10% tolerance) and E24 ( ± 5% tolerance)
packages with power ratings from 0.125 or 1/4 of a Watt up to 5 Watts.

Carbon composite resistor types are very cheap to make and are therefore commonly used in electrical
circuits. However, due to their manufacturing process carbon type resistors have very large tolerances so
for more precision and high value resistances, film type resistors are used instead.

Film Type Resistors

The generic term “Film Resistor” consist of Metal Film, Carbon Film and Metal Oxide Film resistor types,
which are generally made by depositing pure metals, such as nickel, or an oxide film, such as tin-oxide,
onto an insulating ceramic rod or substrate.
 Film Resistor
The resistive value of the resistor is controlled by increasing the desired thickness of the deposited film
giving them the names of either “thick-film resistors” or “thin-film resistors”.

Once deposited, a laser is used to cut a high precision spiral helix groove type pattern into this film. The
cutting of the film has the effect of increasing the conductive or resistive path, a bit like taking a long length
of straight wire and forming it into a coil.

This method of manufacture allows for much closer tolerance resistors (1% or less) as compared to the
simpler carbon composition types. The tolerance of a resistor is the difference between the preferred value
(i.e, 100 ohms) and its actual manufactured value i.e, 103.6 ohms, and is expressed as a percentage, for
example 5%, 10% etc, and in our example the actual tolerance is 3.6%. Film type resistors also achieve a
much higher maximum ohmic value compared to other types and values in excess of 10MΩ (10 Million Ω´s)
are available.

Film Resistor

Metal Film Resistors have much better temperature stability than their carbon equivalents, lower noise
and are generally better for high frequency or radio frequency applications. Metal Oxide Resistors have
better high surge current capability with a much higher temperature rating than the equivalent metal film
resistors.

Another type of film resistor commonly known as a Thick Film Resistor is manufactured by depositing a
much thicker conductive paste of CERamic and METal, called Cermet, onto an alumina ceramic substrate.
Cermet resistors have similar properties to metal film resistors and are generally used for making small
surface mount chip type resistors, multi-resistor networks in one package for pcb’s and high frequency
resistors. They have good temperature stability, low noise, and good voltage ratings but low surge current
properties.

Metal Film Resistors are prefixed with a “MFR” notation (eg, MFR100kΩ) and a CF for Carbon Film types.
Metal film resistors are available in E24 (±5% & ±2% tolerances), E96 (±1% tolerance) and E192(±0.5%,
±0.25% & ±0.1% tolerances) packages with power ratings of 0.05 (1/20th) of a Watt up to 1/2 Watt.
Generally speaking Film resistors are precision low power components.

Wirewound Types of Resistor

Another type of resistor, called a Wirewound Resistor, is made by winding a thin metal alloy wire
(Nichrome) or similar wire onto an insulating ceramic former in the form of a spiral helix similar to the film
resistor above.

Wirewound Resistor
These types of resistor are generally only available in very low ohmic high precision values
(from 0.01 to 100kΩ) due to the gauge of the wire and number of turns possible on the former making them
ideal for use in measuring circuits and Whetstone bridge type applications.

They are also able to handle much higher electrical currents than other resistors of the same ohmic value
with power ratings in excess of 300 Watts. These high power resistors are moulded or pressed into an
aluminium heat sink body with fins attached to increase their overall surface area to promote heat loss and
cooling.

These special types of resistor are called “Chassis Mounted Resistors” because they are designed to be
physically mounted onto heatsinks or metal plates to further dissipate the generated heat. The mounting of
the resistor onto a heatsink increases their current carrying capabilitie.

Another type of wirewound resistor is the Power Wirewound Resistor. These are high temperature, high
power non-inductive resistor types generally coated with a vitreous or glass epoxy enamel for use in
resistance banks or DC motor/servo control and dynamic braking applications. They can even be used as
low wattage space or cabinet heaters.

The non-inductive resistance wire is wound around a ceramic or porcelain tube covered with mica to prevent
the alloy wires from moving when hot. Wirewound resistors are available in a variety of resistance and
power ratings with one main use of power wirewound resistor is in the electrical heating elements of an
electric fire which converts the electrical current flowing through it into heat with each element dissipating
up to 1000 Watts, (1kW) of energy.

Because the wire of standard wire wound resistors is wound into a coil inside the resistors body, it acts like
an inductor causing them to have inductance as well as resistance. This affects the way the resistor
behaves in AC circuits by producing a phase shift at high frequencies especially in the larger size resistors.
The length of the actual resistance path in the resistor and the leads contributes inductance in series with
the “apparent” DC resistance resulting in an overall impedance path of Z Ohms.

Impedance ( Z ) is the combined effect of resistance ( R ) and inductance ( X ), measured in ohms and for
a series AC circuit is given as, Z 2 = R 2 + X 2.
When used in AC circuits this inductance value changes with frequency (inductive reactance,XL = 2πƒL)
and therefore, the overall value of the resistor changes. Inductive reactance increases with frequency but
is zero at DC (zero frequency). Then, wirewound resistors must not be designed or used in AC or amplifier
type circuits where the frequency across the resistor changes. However, special non-inductive wirewound
resistors are also available.

Wirewound Resistor

Wirewound resistor types are prefixed with a “WH” or “W” notation (eg WH10Ω) and are available in
the WH aluminium clad package (±1%, ±2%, ±5% & ±10% tolerance) or the W vitreous enamelled package
(±1%, ±2% & ±5% tolerance) with power ratings from 1W to 300W or more.
Resistance Color Code
Capacitor
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminalelectrical component used
to store electrical energy temporarily in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary
widely, but all contain at least twoelectrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e.
an insulator that can store energy by becoming polarized). The conductors can be thin films, foils or
sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase
the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics
include glass, ceramic, plastic film, air,vacuum, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely
used as parts ofelectrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal
capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic
field between its plates.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached across
a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collect on
one plate and negative charge −Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been attached to a
capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor. However, if a
time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, its capacitance. Capacitance is

defined as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential difference V between
them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V).
Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to about 1 mF (10−3 F).

The larger the surface area of the "plates" (conductors) and the narrower the gap between them, the
greater the capacitance is. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount
of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductanceand resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating
current to pass. Inanalog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant
circuits they tune radios to particularfrequencies. In electric power transmission systems, they
stabilize voltage and power flow.
Capacitor History
In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania, Germany, found that charge could be stored
by connecting a high-voltage electrostatic generator by a wire to a volume of water in a hand-held
glass jar.[2] Von Kleist's hand and the water acted as conductors, and the jar as a dielectric (although
details of the mechanism were incorrectly identified at the time). Von Kleist found that touching the
wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained from an electrostatic
machine. The following year, the Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek invented a similar
capacitor, which was named theLeyden jar, after the University of Leiden where he worked.[3] He
also was impressed by the power of the shock he received, writing, "I would not take a second shock
for the kingdom of France."[4]

Daniel Gralath was the first to combine several jars in parallel into a "battery" to increase the charge
storage capacity. Benjamin Franklin investigated the Leyden jar and came to the conclusion that the
charge was stored on the glass, not in the water as others had assumed. He also adopted the term
"battery",[5][6] (denoting the increasing of power with a row of similar units as in a battery of cannon),
subsequently applied to clusters of electrochemical cells.[7] Leyden jars were later made by coating
the inside and outside of jars with metal foil, leaving a space at the mouth to prevent arcing between
the foils.[citation needed] The earliest unit of capacitance was the jar, equivalent to about 1.11nanofarads.[8]

Leyden jars or more powerful devices employing flat glass plates alternating with foil conductors
were used exclusively up until about 1900, when the invention of wireless (radio) created a demand
for standard capacitors, and the steady move to higher frequencies required capacitors with
lower inductance. More compact construction methods began to be used, such as a flexible
dielectric sheet (like oiled paper) sandwiched between sheets of metal foil, rolled or folded into a
small package.

Early capacitors were also known as condensers, a term that is still occasionally used today,
particularly in high power applications, like automotive systems. The term was first used for this
purpose by Alessandro Volta in 1782, with reference to the device's ability to store a higher density
of electric charge than a normal isolated conductor.[9]

Since the beginning of the study of electricity non conductive materials

like glass, porcelain, paper and mica have been used as insulators. These materials some decades
later were also well-suited for further use as the dielectric for the first capacitors. Paper
capacitors made by sandwiching a strip of impregnated paper between strips of metal, and rolling
the result into a cylinder were commonly used in the late 19century; their manufacture started in
1876,[10] and they were used from the early 20th century as decoupling capacitors in
telecommunications (telephony). Porcelain was the precursor in case of all capacitors now belonging
to the family of ceramic capacitors. Even in the early years of Marconi`s wireless transmitting
apparatus porcelain capacitors were used for high voltage and high frequency application in
the transmitters.

On receiver side the smaller mica capacitors were used for resonant circuits. Mica dielectric
capacitors were invented in 1909 by William Dubilier. Prior to World War II, mica was the most
common dielectric for capacitors in the United States,[10]see Ceramic capacitor#History

Charles Pollak (born Karol Pollak), the inventor of Aluminum electrolytic capacitors, found out that
that the oxide layer on an aluminum anode remained stable in a neutral or alkaline electrolyte, even
when the power was switched off. In 1896 he filed a patent for an "Electric liquid capacitor with
aluminum electrodes" based on his idea of using the oxide layer in a polarized capacitor in
combination with a neutral or slightly alkaline electrolyte, see Electrolytic capacitor#History.

With the development of plastic materials by organic chemists during the Second World War, the
capacitor industry began to replace paper with thinner polymer films. One very early development in
film capacitors was described in British Patent 587,953 in 1944,[10] see Film capacitor#History

Solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors were invented by Bell Laboratories in the early 1950s as a
miniaturized and more reliable low-voltage support capacitor to complement their newly
invented transistor, see Tantalum capacitor#History.

Last but not least the electric double-layer capacitor (now Supercapacitors) were invented. In 1957
H. Becker developed a "Low voltage electrolytic capacitor with porous carbon electrodes".[10][11][12] He
believed that the energy was stored as a charge in the carbon pores used in his capacitor as in the
pores of the etched foils of electrolytic capacitors. Because the double layer mechanism was not
known by him at the time, he wrote in the patent: "It is not known exactly what is taking place in the
component if it is used for energy storage, but it leads to an extremely high capacity"
 Theory of Capacitor operation

A capacitor consists of two conductorsseparated by a non-conductive region.[13]The non-conductive

region is called thedielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples
of dielectric media are glass, air, paper,vacuum, and even a semiconductordepletion
region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and
isolated, with no netelectric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors
thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces,[14] and the dielectric develops an
electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that onecoulomb of charge on each
conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.[15]

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:[13]

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors
attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for a
given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large capacitance.

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary.
In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Hydraulic analogy

In the hydraulic analogy, a capacitor is analogous to a rubber membrane sealed inside a pipe. This
animation illustrates a membrane being repeatedly stretched and un-stretched by the flow of water,
which is analogous to a capacitor being repeatedly charged and discharged by the flow of charge.

In the hydraulic analogy, charge carriers flowing through a wire are analogous to water
flowing through a pipe. A capacitor is like a rubber membrane sealed inside a pipe. Water
molecules cannot pass through the membrane, but some water can move by stretching the
membrane. The analogy clarifies a few aspects of capacitors:
 The current alters the charge on a capacitor, just as the flow of water changes the
position of the membrane. More specifically, the effect of an electric current is to
increase the charge of one plate of the capacitor, and decrease the charge of the other
plate by an equal amount. This is just as when water flow moves the rubber membrane,
it increases the amount of water on one side of the membrane, and decreases the
amount of water on the other side.
 The more a capacitor is charged, the larger its voltage drop; i.e., the more it "pushes
back" against the charging current. This is analogous to the fact that the more a
membrane is stretched, the more it pushes back on the water.
 Charge can flow "through" a capacitor even though no individual electron can get from
one side to the other. This is analogous to the fact that water can flow through the pipe
even though no water molecule can pass through the rubber membrane. Of course, the
flow cannot continue in the same direction forever; the capacitor will
experience dielectric breakdown, and analogously the membrane will eventually break.
 The capacitance describes how much charge can be stored on one plate of a capacitor
for a given "push" (voltage drop). A very stretchy, flexible membrane corresponds to a
higher capacitance than a stiff membrane.
 A charged-up capacitor is storing potential energy, analogously to a stretched
membrane.
 Types of Capacitors

There are a very, very large variety of different types of

capacitor available in the market place and each one has its own set
of characteristics and applications, from very small delicate trimming
capacitors up to large power metal-can type capacitors used in high
voltage power correction and smoothing circuits.

The comparisons between the the different types of capacitor is generally

made with regards to the dielectric used between the plates. Like resistors,
there are also variable types of capacitors which allow us to vary their
capacitance value for use in radio or “frequency tuning” type circuits.
Commercial types of Capacitor are made from metallic foil interlaced with thin
sheets of either paraffin-impregnated paper or Mylar as the dielectric material.
Some capacitors look like tubes, this is because the metal foil plates are rolled
up into a cylinder to form a small package with the insulating dielectric
material sandwiched in between them.
Small capacitors are often constructed from ceramic materials and then
dipped into an epoxy resin to seal them. Either way, capacitors play an
important part in electronic circuits so here are a few of the more “common”
types of capacitor available.

Dielectric Capacitor

Dielectric Capacitors are usually of the variable type were a continuous

variation of capacitance is required for tuning transmitters, receivers and
transistor radios. Variable dielectric capacitors are multi-plate air-spaced
types that have a set of fixed plates (the stator vanes) and a set of movable
plates (the rotor vanes) which move in between the fixed plates.
The position of the moving plates with respect to the fixed plates determines
the overall capacitance value. The capacitance is generally at maximum when
the two sets of plates are fully meshed together. High voltage type tuning
capacitors have relatively large spacings or air-gaps between the plates with
breakdown voltages reaching many thousands of volts.

Variable Capacitor Symbols

As well as the continuously variable types, preset type variable capacitors are
also available calledTrimmers. These are generally small devices that can be
adjusted or “pre-set” to a particular capacitance value with the aid of a small
screwdriver and are available in very small capacitance’s of 500pF or less and
are non-polarized.

Film Capacitor

Film Capacitors are the most commonly available of all types of capacitors,
consisting of a relatively large family of capacitors with the difference being in
their dielectric properties. These include polyester (Mylar), polystyrene,
polypropylene, polycarbonate, metalised paper, Teflon etc. Film type
capacitors are available in capacitance ranges from as small as 5pF to as large
as 100uF depending upon the actual type of capacitor and its voltage rating.
Film capacitors also come in an assortment of shapes and case styles which
include:
 • Wrap & Fill (Oval & Round) – where the capacitor is wrapped in a tight
plastic tape and have the ends filled with epoxy to seal them.
 • Epoxy Case (Rectangular & Round) – where the capacitor is encased
in a moulded plastic shell which is then filled with epoxy.
 • Metal Hermetically Sealed (Rectangular & Round) – where the
capacitor is encased in a metal tube or can and again sealed with epoxy.
with all the above case styles available in both Axial and Radial Leads.
Film Capacitors which use polystyrene, polycarbonate or Teflon as their
dielectrics are sometimes called “Plastic capacitors”. The construction of
plastic film capacitors is similar to that for paper film capacitors but use a
plastic film instead of paper. The main advantage of plastic film capacitors
compared to impregnated-paper types is that they operate well under
conditions of high temperature, have smaller tolerances, a very long service
life and high reliability. Examples of film capacitors are the rectangular
metalised film and cylindrical film & foil types as shown below.

Radial Lead Type

Axial Lead Type

The film and foil types of capacitors are made from long thin strips of thin
metal foil with the dielectric material sandwiched together which are wound
into a tight roll and then sealed in paper or metal tubes.

Film Capacitor

These film types require a much thicker dielectric film to reduce the risk of
tears or punctures in the film, and is therefore more suited to lower
capacitance values and larger case sizes.
Metalised foil capacitors have the conductive film metalised sprayed directly
onto each side of the dielectric which gives the capacitor self-healing
properties and can therefore use much thinner dielectric films. This allows for
higher capacitance values and smaller case sizes for a given capacitance. Film
and foil capacitors are generally used for higher power and more precise
applications.

Ceramic Capacitors

Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally called, are

made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and
are then stacked together to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance
values a single ceramic disc of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic capacitors have
a high dielectric constant (High-K) and are available so that relatively high
capacitance’s can be obtained in a small physical size.

Ceramic Capacitor
They exhibit large non-linear changes in capacitance against temperature and
as a result are used as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors as they are also non-
polarized devices. Ceramic capacitors have values ranging from a few
picofarads to one or two microfarads, ( μF ) but their voltage ratings are
generally quite low.
Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto their
body to identify their capacitance value in pico-farads. Generally the first two
digits indicate the capacitors value and the third digit indicates the number of
zero’s to be added. For example, a ceramic disc capacitor with the
markings 103 would indicate 10 and 3 zero’s in pico-farads which is equivalent
to 10,000 pF or 10nF.
Likewise, the digits 104 would indicate 10 and 4 zero’s in pico-farads which is
equivalent to 100,000 pFor 100nF and so on. So on the image of the ceramic
capacitor above the numbers 154 indicate 15 and 4 zero’s in pico-farads which
is equivalent to 150,000 pF or 150nF or 0.15uF. Letter codes are sometimes
used to indicate their tolerance value such as: J = 5%, K = 10% or M =
20% etc.

Electrolytic Capacitors

Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used when very large capacitance

values are required. Here instead of using a very thin metallic film layer for
one of the electrodes, a semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly
or paste is used which serves as the second electrode (usually the cathode).
The dielectric is a very thin layer of oxide which is grown electro-chemically in
production with the thickness of the film being less than ten microns. This
insulating layer is so thin that it is possible to make capacitors with a large
value of capacitance for a small physical size as the distance between the
plates, d is very small.

Electrolytic Capacitor
The majority of electrolytic types of capacitors are Polarised, that is the DC
voltage applied to the capacitor terminals must be of the correct polarity, i.e.
positive to the positive terminal and negative to the negative terminal as an
incorrect polarisation will break down the insulating oxide layer and
permanent damage may result.
All polarised electrolytic capacitors have their polarity clearly marked with a
negative sign to indicate the negative terminal and this polarity must be
followed.
Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used in DC power supply circuits due
to their large capacitance’s and small size to help reduce the ripple voltage or
for coupling and decoupling applications. One main disadvantage of
electrolytic capacitors is their relatively low voltage rating and due to the
polarisation of electrolytic capacitors, it follows then that they must not be
used on AC supplies. Electrolytic’s generally come in two basic
forms; Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors and Tantalum Electrolytic
Capacitors.

Electrolytic Capacitor

1. Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors

There are basically two types of Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitor, the
plain foil type and the etched foil type. The thickness of the aluminium oxide
film and high breakdown voltage give these capacitors very high capacitance
values for their size.
The foil plates of the capacitor are anodized with a DC current. This
anodizing process sets up the polarity of the plate material and determines
which side of the plate is positive and which side is negative.

The etched foil type differs from the plain foil type in that the aluminium oxide
on the anode and cathode foils has been chemically etched to increase its
surface area and permittivity. This gives a smaller sized capacitor than a plain
foil type of equivalent value but has the disadvantage of not being able to
withstand high DC currents compared to the plain type. Also their tolerance
range is quite large at up to 20%. Typical values of capacitance for an
aluminium electrolytic capacitor range from 1uF up to 47,000uF.
Etched foil electrolytic’s are best used in coupling, DC blocking and by-pass
circuits while plain foil types are better suited as smoothing capacitors in
power supplies. But aluminium electrolytic’s are “polarised” devices so
reversing the applied voltage on the leads will cause the insulating layer within
the capacitor to become destroyed along with the capacitor. However, the
electrolyte used within the capacitor helps heal a damaged plate if the damage
is small.
Since the electrolyte has the properties to self-heal a damaged plate, it also
has the ability to re-anodize the foil plate. As the anodizing process can be
reversed, the electrolyte has the ability to remove the oxide coating from the
foil as would happen if the capacitor was connected with a reverse polarity.
Since the electrolyte has the ability to conduct electricity, if the aluminium
oxide layer was removed or destroyed, the capacitor would allow current to
pass from one plate to the other destroying the capacitor, “so be aware”.

2. Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors

Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors and Tantalum Beads, are available in
both wet (foil) and dry (solid) electrolytic types with the dry or solid tantalum
being the most common. Solid tantalum capacitors use manganese dioxide as
their second terminal and are physically smaller than the equivalent
aluminium capacitors.
The dielectric properties of tantalum oxide is also much better than those of
aluminium oxide giving a lower leakage currents and better capacitance
stability which makes them suitable for use in blocking, by-passing,
decoupling, filtering and timing applications.
Also, Tantalum Capacitors although polarised, can tolerate being connected
to a reverse voltage much more easily than the aluminium types but are rated
at much lower working voltages. Solid tantalum capacitors are usually used in
circuits where the AC voltage is small compared to the DC voltage.
However, some tantalum capacitor types contain two capacitors in-one,
connected negative-to-negative to form a “non-polarised” capacitor for use in
low voltage AC circuits as a non-polarised device. Generally, the positive lead
is identified on the capacitor body by a polarity mark, with the body of a
tantalum bead capacitor being an oval geometrical shape. Typical values of
capacitance range from 47nF to 470uF.

Aluminium & Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitor

Electrolytic’s are widely used capacitors due to their low cost and small size
but there are three easy ways to destroy an electrolytic capacitor:

 • Over-voltage – excessive voltage will cause current to leak through

the dielectric resulting in a short circuit condition.
 • Reversed Polarity – reverse voltage will cause self-destruction of the
oxide layer and failure.
 • Over Temperature – excessive heat dries out the electrolytic and
shortens the life of an electrolytic capacitor.
In the next tutorial about Capacitors, we will look at some of the main
characteristics to show that there is more to the Capacitor than just voltage
and capacitator.

Reference
1. http://www.buildcircuit.com
2. http://www.wikihow.com
3. http://www.alldatasheets.com
4 http://www.wikipedia.org.

5.http://www.google.co.in

6.http://www.fadooengineers.com
Books:
Electronic Circuits by Sedra & Smith (Oxford University Press)

M. D. Felder, J. C. Mason, and B. L. Evans, \E_cient ITU-compliant dual-tone multiple-

frequency detectionusing the non-uniform discrete Fourier transform." IEEE Signal
Processing Letters, To Appear.