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DC power vs AC power for mobile mining equipment

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DC power vs AC power for mobile mining
equipment
Mohsen Ghaffarpour Jahromi, Galina Mirzaeva, Member, IEEE, Steven.D.Mitchell, Member, IEEE, David Gay
Abstract—An important objective in mining applications is
to minimize the cost per ton of material moved to achieve
higher profitability. This leads to the use of more efficient mining
machines and systems. Amongst open cut excavating machines,
preference is often given to electric draglines and rope shovels
due to their high productivity and efficiency. Since they are the
biggest machines in a mine then any efficiency improvement of
their electric systems would result in significant energy savings.
DC distribution has been historically known as an effective
method of power delivery. Due to the recent developments
in power electronics, DC distribution systems are now being
seriously considered for various medium voltage applications. In
this paper, it is proposed to use a DC distribution system to supply
power to mobile mining equipment. A case study is based around
an open cut mine site employing a number of draglines. Several
DC configurations are proposed, which accommodate both DC
and AC draglines. The paper shows that, by replacing traditional
AC by a DC distribution system, significant improvements can
be achieved in terms of power throughput, efficiency, length
of trailing cables, etc. Moreover, renewable energy resources
and energy storage devices can be easily incorporated into
the proposed DC system to further improve its stability and
energy efficiency. The paper also discusses potential issues to be
addressed to fully realize the advantages of the DC distribution
systems in mining.
Index Terms—DC distribution systems, MVDC microgrids,
DC microgrids, mobile mining equipment.
I. I NTRODUCTION
A C power has been widely used in both generation and
transmission due to the ease of stepping up and stepping
down voltage by means of transformers. Various aspects of
AC power, such as load flow, harmonics, transients, stability,
efficiency, etc. have been extensively studied and solutions to
the existing issues have been developed. AC power standards
are well-known to both equipment manufacturers and end
users. Consequently, AC power is the default option for most
industrial applications.
Power delivery in DC form has been previously limited
to High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission, which
has been in use since 1950s. HVDC is a viable option for
interconnection of two separate asynchronous AC networks
with either different frequencies or phase angles [1], as well
as for underwater power lines. When delivering power over
long distances, HVDC lines may have cost advantages over
AC transmission lines of the same capacity. Fig. 1 shows that
for above a certain distance (600-800 km) the HVDC option is
cheaper than HVAC. Another advantage of HVDC is extended
Mohsen Ghaffarpour Jahromi, Galina Mirzaeva, Steven.D.Mitchell and
David Gay are with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of Newcastle, Callaghan, N.S.W 2308, Australia.
1
transmission capacity due to the lack of reactive power, which
is important for bulk power delivery [2], [3]. Lower losses
and smaller footprint of HVDC lines result in their reduced
environmental impact [4]. More recent applications of HVDC-
links include connection of large off-shore wind farms to land
power networks [5], [6]. Integration of renewable sources is
becoming more flexible due to introduction of high reliability
and low cost power electronic converters for transmission
purposes [7].
With recent developments in power electronic technolo-
gies, application of DC transmission has been expanded to
new areas, for example, to DC power distribution at medium
and low voltage levels. Limitations of point-to-point delivery
are presently overcome in multi-terminal DC networks [8].
An increasing share of renewable sources in power generation
brought forward the concept of Distributed Generation (DG),
where DC systems have been found as effective solutions [9]–
[11].
Fig. 1. HVDC-HVAC cost
Currently, the most common applications of DC distribu-
tion systems are Aircraft and Spacecraft, Data Centers and
Telecommunication, Traction and Shipboard power networks
[12], [13]. The reasons for using DC distribution in the above
systems include requirement of high efficiency, presence of
sensitive loads and the use of local power sources.
Most of the existing converter topologies include a DC
bus, which voltage is converted to other AC or DC voltages.
Thus, by choosing a DC system, one stage of power con-
version can be eliminated, which can result in 2.5% energy
saving [14]. Further increase of energy conversion efficiency
is achieved through optimization of converter topologies and
control strategies [15], [16].
One additional consideration is associated with power ca-
bles. Combination of equivalent impedances of power system
elements gives rise to natural series and/or parallel resonances.
Potential for harmonic resonant interactions is particularly
high in long AC cables. Devices included in resonance cir-
cuits may experience large overvoltages and/or overcurrents.
Another drawback for AC cables is their lower permissible
currents. It have been shown in [17] that permissible current
is higher by about 1% to 3% under DC use for a single-core
cable.
DC power transmission, on the other hand, has been
adopting high Tc superconducting (HTS) cables, which are
compact, have extremely high transport capacity and very
lower resistive losses. The world bank institution is forecasting
that 80 percent of the conventional cables could be replaced
with HTS cables in 2020 [18].
In this paper we study a prospective application of a DC
distribution system to an open cut mine site with mobile
electric excavators. The vast majority of draglines and a big
share of electric rope shovels are driven by high power DC
motors. This alone creates a big incentive for using a DC
distribution network so that one or more steps of power
conversion can be avoided. A common DC bus inside an
electric excavator can serve a mix of DC/DC and DC/AC
converters which allows for flexible refurbishment options.
Power delivery to an excavator via a flexible trailing cable may
also benefit from the DC option. Remote mine sites are likely
to integrate renewable sources, in which case a DC distribution
system may again be preferable.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. In
section 2 we discuss the advantages of DC power systems. In
section 3 we present the open cut mine scenario to illustrate
DC power application. Section 4 discusses the proposed DC
grid at mine site level, while section 5 proposes various
strategies for internal DC grids inside large excavators. In
section 6 we present a summary of findings and conclusions.
II. A DVANTAGES OF DC POWER SYSTEMS
The benefits of DC power systems include the following:
1) Better stability than with AC systems, due to in-
dependency of DC power on phase and frequency. Further
stability improvement is achieved by using advanced control
strategies for power electronic devices [19], [20].
2) Improved power quality, since only DC voltage level
needs to be controlled, in contrast to AC systems where
magnitude as well as frequency and phase shift need to
be controlled. In addition, sustainable resources and energy
storage devices (batteries) can improve power quality of DC
power [21]. High quality power can be achieved by DC
microgrid despite short circuits of the load, sags of the bulk
power system and sudden load variations [22]. Consequently,
applications that require high quality of power were the first to
adopt DC systems. These include aircrafts, telecommunication
systems, data centers, military applications, etc.
3) Higher level of efficiency due to less losses in DC
distribution systems than in AC systems of the same active
power throughput. This results from the absence of reactive
power component, which takes a significant part of line
capacity in AC systems. Additionally, DC system do not suffer
from proximity and skin effects which lowers its resistance.
In many cases, a DC system eliminates the need for at least
one stage of energy conversion (e.g. DC to AC).
4) Related to the previous point is smaller voltage drop in
DC systems because of significantly smaller line impedance.
Therefore, a better voltage regulation can be achieved in DC
systems than in equivalent AC systems.
5) Related to the previous two points, power delivery
to much longer distances can be achieved when using DC
power. This is due to less voltage drops and power losses,
on one hand, and elimination of over voltages and transients,
which are the main obstacles for transmitting power via long
AC power lines. Cable capacitances form resonant circuits
with inductances present in the system. Resulting resonance
phenomenon plays a major role in generating overvoltages in
AC systems [23] but can be avoided in DC systems.
6) DC systems are generally more economical due to
less required material and equipment. Normally, for equal
power delivery, DC system consumes around one forth of
conductor material needed for an equivalent AC system [24],
[25]. Furthermore, in a DC system there is no need for reactive
power compensation.
7) When using the same power infrastructure, transmittable
power can be significantly increased by moving from a three-
phase AC system to a three line DC system [26].
Despite considerable advantages of DC systems, they still
face many challenges, such as DC fault diagnostics, DC
protection, as well as the general lack of guidelines, standards
and experience.
DC protection is complicated due to the lack of natu-
ral current or voltage zero-crossing, which are useful for
prevention of circuit breakers from arcing [27], [28]. One
way to tackle this problem is a Z-Source DC breaker which
forces a current zero-crossing in the SCR by passing the
fault current through Z-source capacitors [29]. Also, solid-
state circuit breakers (SSCB) can be used to satisfy DC current
interruption problem, as well as overcurrent limitation [30].
III. D ESCRIPTION OF THE CASE STUDY SCENARIO
For our case study, we consider an open cut mine site
employing a number of draglines. The typical application of
an electric dragline is removal of blasted overburden from a
coal seam into a de-coaled area. Being the largest machines on
Fig. 2. Single line Diagram of a Ward-Leonard System
 Fig. 3. DC (Ward-Leonard) dragline layout Fig. 4. AC Dragline layout

a mine site, draglines consume a significant amount of power,

which makes them an important subject of energy saving,
power quality and other power studies [31].
With respect to electric motors employed with a dragline,
three main types of draglines are used in mines: DC draglines,
AC with conventional gearing and AC gearless draglines. In
Australia, the vast majority of draglines are of DC type,
with DC motor powered via a Ward-Leonard system. The
structure of the Ward-Leonard system is shown in Fig. 3 and
includes three stages of energy conversion: a synchronous
motor powered from AC network is mechanically coupled
with multiple DC generators, forming what is called a motor-
generator (MG) set. Each DC generator drives one or more
DC motors which perform the main motions. They are hoist,
drag, swing and propel. Same motors can be used for either
Fig. 5. AC Dragline Gearless layout
propel or drag motions, which is illustrated in Fig. 6
Control of the motions is implemented via control of
the DC generators and DC motors. The main advantage of
on size and mechanical design of machine. Table I shows
the Ward-Leonard system is a smooth harmonics-free power
typical numbers of motors for each motion for a 25 MW (peak
supplied to the DC motors, which extends the motor life given
power) dragline. All motors for the same motion are identical
their high power and high dynamics operation. However, the
and are controlled in a synchronized manner. Different parts
overall efficiency for this system is only 74%. Fig. 2 shows the
of a working cycle include coordinated action of different
layout of motors and generators inside a DC (Ward-Leonard)
motions. Therefore, both input power and power factor are
dragline.
constantly changing during a cycle. Input power factors for
New generation draglines are equipped by AC motors AC or DC draglines can be both leading and lagging. A typical
controlled via power electronic drives. IGBT drives of the power factor of 0.8 lagging is chosen for this discussion.
required power and reliability level have become available
only recently [32]. In an IGBT drive only two stages of Table I. Dragline specification
energy conversion are present, namely, AC to DC, and DC
Motion Number of Motors Rating Power (KW)
to controlled AC. Therefore, efficiency of AC draglines is
Hoist 7 1230
higher than that of DC draglines and reaches above 80%. The Drag 7 1230
added advantages include fast dynamic control and integration Swing 6 1230
of computer-based monitoring and supervisory systems. The Propel(Walk) 4 1230
layout of an AC Dragline with conventional gearing is shown
in Fig. 4. Layout for the alternative, gearless, AC dragline It can be easily seen that both DC and AC draglines include
option is illustrated in Fig. 5. a DC power stage. In a DC dragline, the input AC power is
The number of motors in either DC or AC dragline depends first converted into mechanical and then into controlled DC
 Table II. Cable specification
parameter Value
Nominal Conductor Area 300mm2
Rdc 0.0644Ω/km
Rac 0.0847Ω/km
Inductive Reactance 0.086Ω/km
Nominal Current, IL 350A
Nominal Voltage, VLL 22kV

earthed. Fig. 8 and 9 show the two configurations, respectively.

Given the insulation and power loss limits, further calculations
are identical for both options.

Fig. 6. Single line Diagram of One Hoist, Drag, Propel and

Swing Cabinet

electric power. If the input power is supplied in DC form,

then only one stage is needed instead of three, namely, DC to
controlled DC power. In an AC dragline, the input AC power
is converted into DC and then into controlled AC power. If
the input power is supplied in DC form then only one stage is
needed instead of two, namely, DC to controlled AC power. Fig. 8. DC two-wire system
In both cases, potential savings are expected due to reduced
number of electronic devices and reduced losses.
In the sequel, the advantages of DC power will be argued
at two levels. First, DC power can be delivered from a
substantion to draglines via trailing cables, resulting in a
medium voltage DC (MVDC) mine site distribution system.
Apart from the main supply, MVDC system may include
renewable energy sources and/or diesel generators. Second,
inside a dragline, multiple motors can be supplied from a
common DC bus, resulting in an internal dragline microgrid.
The latter may include battery storage and renewable energy
sources.

IV. MVDC SYSTEM AT MINE SITE LEVEL

We illustrate advantages of moving towards MVDC distri-
bution system on a simple example shown in Fig. 7. A dragline Fig. 9. DC two-wire with mid-point earthed
is supplied from a substation by a three-core AC 22kV-rated
cable with 300mm2 conductor cross-section area. Table II We first select the appropriate DC voltage level. The AC
shows cable specifications. This cable provides capacity for cable voltage rating of VLL = 22kV means that voltage
√
carrying 10MW power in continuous operation. between any two lines should not exceed 2 × 22 = 31.1kV
peak value. In case of DC power, this peak value can be used
as maximum DC voltage between the two lines. Current rating
of the cable is based on heating, which depends on power
losses [24]. In the case of AC power, the power losses can be
calculated as:
! "2
2 PAC P 2 RAC
Ploss = 3IL R = 3 √ R = 2AC 2 (1)
Fig. 7. Single line Diagram of Network VLL 3 cos ϕ VLL cos ϕ
In the case of DC power, the power losses can be calculated
as
A. Trailing Cable Options ! "2
PDC P 2 RDC
As alternatives to AC power, we consider two DC power Ploss = 2IL2 R = 2 √ R = DC 2 (2)
VLL 2 VLL
configurations, namely, a DC two-wire system with one con-
ductor earthed and a DC two-wire system with mid-point where PAC and PDC are powers delivered to the load in
AC and DC forms, respectively; RAC and RDC are the
corresponding resistances for one line.
From comparison of (1) and (2), it follows that for the same
power losses and insulation limitations, power delivered in DC
relates to the power delivered in AC form via the following
expression #
PAC RAC
PDC =
cos ϕ RDC
For the given power factor cos ϕ = 0.8 and the given cable re-
sistances from Table II, this corresponds to: PDC = 1.43PAC ,
or by 43% more power is delivered through the same cable in
DC form using only two lines than in AC form using all three
lines. The third (spare) line in the DC power option can be
used for other purposes, such as earthing or communication,
or can be omitted in a new cable design.
B. Voltage drop calculation
Voltage drop in the AC cable can be calculated as:
∆V̄AC = V̄S − V¯L = Z " I¯ (3)
where V̄S and V̄L are source and load voltage phasors, Z is
the per phase complex impedance of the cable and I¯ is load
current phasor.
Similarly, voltage drop for DC distribution system can be
presented as:
∆VDC = vS − vL = RDC " i (4)
where vS and vL are DC source and load voltages, R is the
per phase resistance and i is the DC load current. For the
cable parameters given in Table II, the voltage drops at rated
10MW power are equal to 180V and 112V for AC and DC,
respectively. In other words, at rated power delivered to the
load, voltage drops in the cable by 0.82% for the AC option,
and by 0.36% for the DC option.
C. Cable length
Another important parameter that should be taken into
account is the maximum length of cable that satisfies standard
limitations for voltage drop. The maximum length for desired
voltage drop can be calculated using (3) and (4). Normally,
10% voltage drop is acceptable in industrial networks. When
delivering the rated power in AC form, 10% voltage drop
corresponds to 30.6km cable length. For the DC option, 10%
voltage drop corresponds to 68.9 km cable length, or more
than twice longer.
In reality, transient overvoltages and resonance effects pre-
vent from using long AC cables. Fig. 10 shows the relationship
between the observed impedance from the source side of cable
and the cable length. It can be easily seen that increasing the
length of cable shifts the resonant frequency towards lower
end. This increases the chance of exciting a resonance by one
of the existing harmonics. The practical AC cable length are
in the range of 2.5...5 km. The practical DC cable length is at
least twice as long. This property is very important in order to
extend the reach of mobile mining equipment and to reduce
the number of relocations of the power substation.
Fig. 10. Frequency Responce of cable and load
D. Efficiency
As mentioned in section II the use of DC distribution sys-
tems improves the power transfer efficiency. From expressions
(1) and (2), the power transfer efficiencies for the AC and DC
options can be derived as:
PAC 1
ηAC = = PAC RAC
(5)
PAC + Ploss 1+ 2 cos2 ϕ
VLL
PDC 1
ηDC = = (6)
PDC + Ploss 1 + PDC
V2
RDC
LL
If the same power of 10MW is delivered in both cases
via a 5-km long cable, then the efficiency of the AC power
transfer is 98.65% and the efficiency of the DC power transfer
is 99.34%. The efficiency gain is 0.69%. The overall system
efficiency will be further improved due to elimination of one
or two stages of power conversion inside the dragline.
E. Renewable energy integration
In the existing dragline designs shown in Fig.3 to Fig.5,
the weight distribution is such that no extra space or weight
allowance is available for any other major equipment. If,
as a result of a refurbishment, either MG-sets or on-board
transformers and AC/DC rectifiers are removed, then the same
space and weight can be taken by on-board batteries. Charging
of the batteries during low power consumption periods, would
help to shave the peak power demand.
It is typical for dragline to have peak-to-average power
ratio around 3:1. Therefore, battery installation can potentially
reduce by three times the power ratings of the supply and the
cables. If regenerative power is also absorbed by the batteries,
then bi-directional converter configuration can be replaced by
uni-directional, resulting in cost reduction up to two times.
V. I NTERNAL DC MICROGRID OPTIMIZATION
A. DC dragline
The efficiency of the existing DC (Ward-Leonard) dragline
configuration can be improved in the following ways. First, the
MG sets can be replaced by more energy efficient bidirectional
power electronics converters, which will continue to supply
the existing DC motors. Fig. 11 explores the option when
the dragline is supplied by AC power. In Fig. 11a each DC
motor is supplied by an individual bidirectional controlled
rectifier. This corresponds, for example, to the existing DC
electric rope shovel configurations where AC/DC converters
are implemented by four-quadrant thyristor rectifiers.
Alternatively, each motor can be controlled by a bidirec-
tional IGBT DC/DC converter supplied from a common IGBT
or thyristor rectifier, either bidirectional or unidirectional, as
shown in Fig. 11b. This may reduce the cost of the system
but increase the complexity of the DC bus voltage control.
(a) Individual 4-quadrant AC/DC for each motion
(b) Common rectifier with individual bidirectional DC/DC converters
Fig. 11. DC dragline optimization
Further cost reduction, along with benefits discussed in
section IV, will be achieved if the rectifier is placed at the
substation side of the feeder, as shown in Fig. 12. This
configuration relaxes the length limitations of the AC cable
and allows multiple draglines to be connected to the same DC
source. Note that, with this option, the existing fleet of DC
motors may continue to be utilized. However, in future, the DC
motors they may be gradually replaced by AC motors which
will be connected to the internal DC bus via bidirectional
DC/AC IGBT converters. DC and AC motors may coexist on
the same DC grid resulting in a hybrid, or mixed, topology.
B. AC dragline
Similar ideas can be implemented with the modern AC
draglines. Supplying a dragline with DC power would elim-
inate the AC/DC converter step, which is currently being
performed by an Active Front End (AFE) rectifier. Significant
cost reductions may result. Fig. 13 illustrates the proposed DC
distribution system for AC motor based draglines.
Fig. 12. Full DC system for DC dragline with thyristor rectifier
and bidirectional DC/DC converters
Fig. 13. Full AC system for AC dragline with AFE technology
C. Ring-type DC microgrid
Adding the energy storage devices and renewable sources
to the dragline system based on a common DC bus, would turn
the internal dragline power network into a classical microgrid.
While the mine site level MVDC grid is most likely to
have a radial topology, the internal dragline microgrid can
be implemented as a ring topology, as shown in Fig. 14. This
would improve the system reliability and reduce the size of DC
bus conductor. Such a system would need additional hardware
and software to control voltage and power flows between
loads, sources and energy storage devices. Other important
aspects of this system to be addressed in future research are
voltage stability and protection strategies. Fig. 14 also shows
that renewable energy sources, such as photovoltaic devices,
can be beneficially incorporated into the microgrid.
VI. C ONCLUSION
Historically, open cut mines use AC distribution systems.
In this paper, we discussed and demonstrated prominent
advantages of DC power application to open cut mines, at
both mine site level and inside large electric excavators. A
DC-based grid can utilize the existing infrastructure such as
trailing cables. The advantages of the proposed DC power
distribution system include higher power transfer, reduced
voltage drop, higher efficiency and/or longer trailing cables.
The latter is particularly important to extend the reach of the
electric excavators.
The paper has also discussed several options for the
internal DC microgrid inside electric excavators and has shown
that all existing excavator systems (DC- or AC-motor based)
can be beneficially converted into a system with a common
DC-bus. Exclusion of unnecessary power conversion stages
improves the overall system efficiency. The internal microgrid

Fig. 14. Ring-type DC microgrid toplogy inside a dragline
can be further enhanced by including energy storage devices
and renewable sources.
The paper has outlined directions of future research, such
as control of DC voltage and power flow, system stability,
control strategies, protection issues, etc.
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