SEMICONDUCTORS

A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a conductor, such as metallic
copper, and an insulator, such as glass. Its resistance decreases as its temperature increases, which is behaviour
opposite to that of a metal. Its conducting properties may be altered in useful ways by the deliberate, controlled
introduction of impurities ("doping") into the crystal structure. Where two differently-doped regions exist in the same
crystal, a semiconductor junction is created. The behavior of charge carrierswhich
include electrons, ions and electron holes at these junctions is the basis of diodes, transistors and all
modern electronics. Some examples of semiconductors are silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, and elements near
the so-called "metalloid staircase" on the periodic table. After silicon, gallium arsenide is the second most common
semiconductor[citation needed] and is used in laser diodes, solar cells, microwave-frequency integrated circuits and others.
Silicon is a critical element for fabricating most electronic circuits.
Semiconductor devices can display a range of useful properties such as passing current more easily in one direction
than the other, showing variable resistance, and sensitivity to light or heat. Because the electrical properties of a
semiconductor material can be modified by doping, or by the application of electrical fields or light, devices made
from semiconductors can be used for amplification, switching, and energy conversion.
The conductivity of silicon is increased by adding a small amount (of the order of 1 in 108) of pentavalent
(antimony, phosphorus, or arsenic) or trivalent (boron, gallium, indium) atoms. This process is known as doping and
resulting semiconductors are known as doped or extrinsic semiconductors. Apart from doping, the conductivity of a
semiconductor can equally be improved by increasing its temperature. This is contrary to the behaviour of a metal in
which conductivity decreases with increase in temperature.
The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on quantum physics to explain the movement
of charge carriers in a crystal lattice.[1] Doping greatly increases the number of charge carriers within the crystal.
When a doped semiconductor contains mostly free holes it is called "p-type", and when it contains mostly free
electrons it is known as "n-type". The semiconductor materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise
conditions to control the concentration and regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can
have many p- and n-type regions; the p–n junctions between these regions are responsible for the useful electronic
behavior.
Some of the properties of semiconductor materials were observed throughout the mid 19th and first decades of the
20th century. The first practical application of semiconductors in electronics was the 1904 development of the cat's-
whisker detector, a primitive semiconductor diode used in early radio receivers. Developments in quantum physics in
turn allowed the development of the transistor in 1947[2] and the integrated circuit in 1958.

Properties
Variable electrical conductivity
Semiconductors in their natural state are poor conductors because a current requires the flow of electrons, and
semiconductors have their valence bands filled, preventing the entry flow of new electrons. There are several
developed techniques that allow semiconducting materials to behave like conducting materials, such
as doping or gating. These modifications have two outcomes: n-type and p-type. These refer to the excess or
shortage of electrons, respectively. An unbalanced number of electrons would cause a current to flow through the
material.[3]
Heterojunctions
Heterojunctions occur when two differently doped semiconducting materials are joined together. For example, a
configuration could consist of p-doped and n-doped germanium. This results in an exchange of electrons and holes
between the differently doped semiconducting materials. The n-doped germanium would have an excess of
electrons, and the p-doped germanium would have an excess of holes. The transfer occurs until equilibrium is
reached by a process called recombination, which causes the migrating electrons from the n-type to come in contact
with the migrating holes from the p-type. A product of this process is charged ions, which result in an electric field.[1][3]
Excited electrons
A difference in electric potential on a semiconducting material would cause it to leave thermal equilibrium and create
a non-equilibrium situation. This introduces electrons and holes to the system, which interact via a process
called ambipolar diffusion. Whenever thermal equilibrium is disturbed in a semiconducting material, the number of
holes and electrons changes. Such disruptions can occur as a result of a temperature difference or photons, which
can enter the system and create electrons and holes. The process that creates and annihilates electrons and holes
are called generation and recombination.[3]
Light emission
In certain semiconductors, excited electrons can relax by emitting light instead of producing heat.[4] These
semiconductors are used in the construction of light-emitting diodesand fluorescent quantum dots.
High thermal conductivity
Semiconductors with high thermal conductivity can be used for heat dissipation and improving thermal management
of electronics.[5]
Thermal energy conversion
Semiconductors have large thermoelectric power factors making them useful in thermoelectric generators, as well as
high thermoelectric figures of merit making them useful in thermoelectric coolers.[6]

Materials
Main article: List of semiconductor materials

Silicon crystals are the most common semiconducting materials used in microelectronics and photovoltaics.

A large number of elements and compounds have semiconducting properties, including:[7]

 Certain pure elements are found in Group 14 of the periodic table; the most commercially important of these
elements are silicon and germanium. Silicon and germanium are used here effectively because they have 4 valence
electrons in their outermost shell which gives them the ability to gain or lose electrons equally at the same time.
 Binary compounds, particularly between elements in Groups 13 and 15, such as gallium arsenide, Groups 12
and 16, groups 14 and 16, and between different group 14 elements, e.g. silicon carbide.
 Certain ternary compounds, oxides and alloys.
 Organic semiconductors, made of organic compounds.
Most common semiconducting materials are crystalline solids, but amorphous and liquid semiconductors are also
known. These include hydrogenated amorphous silicon and mixtures of arsenic, selenium and tellurium in a variety of
proportions. These compounds share with better known semiconductors the properties of intermediate conductivity
and a rapid variation of conductivity with temperature, as well as occasional negative resistance. Such disordered
materials lack the rigid crystalline structure of conventional semiconductors such as silicon. They are generally used
in thin film structures, which do not require material of higher electronic quality, being relatively insensitive to
impurities and radiation damage.

Preparation of semiconductor materials

Almost all of today's electronic technology involves the use of semiconductors, with the most important aspect being
the integrated circuit (IC), which are found in laptops, scanners, cell-phones, etc. Semiconductors for ICs are mass-
produced. To create an ideal semiconducting material, chemical purity is paramount. Any small imperfection can
have a drastic effect on how the semiconducting material behaves due to the scale at which the materials are used.[3]
A high degree of crystalline perfection is also required, since faults in crystal structure (such as dislocations, twins,
and stacking faults) interfere with the semiconducting properties of the material. Crystalline faults are a major cause
of defective semiconductor devices. The larger the crystal, the more difficult it is to achieve the necessary perfection.
Current mass production processes use crystal ingots between 100 and 300 mm (3.9 and 11.8 in) in diameter which
are grown as cylinders and sliced into wafers.
There is a combination of processes that is used to prepare semiconducting materials for ICs. One process is
called thermal oxidation, which forms silicon dioxide on the surface of the silicon. This is used as a gate
insulator and field oxide. Other processes are called photomasks and photolithography. This process is what creates
the patterns on the circuity in the integrated circuit. Ultraviolet light is used along with a photoresist layer to create a
chemical change that generates the patterns for the circuit.[3]
Etching is the next process that is required. The part of the silicon that was not covered by the photoresist layer from
the previous step can now be etched. The main process typically used today is called plasma etching. Plasma
etching usually involves an etch gas pumped in a low-pressure chamber to create plasma. A common etch gas
is chlorofluorocarbon, or more commonly known Freon. A high radio-frequency voltage between
the cathode and anode is what creates the plasma in the chamber. The silicon waferis located on the cathode, which
causes it to be hit by the positively charged ions that are released from the plasma. The end result is silicon that is
etched anisotropically.[1][3]
The last process is called diffusion. This is the process that gives the semiconducting material its desired
semiconducting properties. It is also known as doping. The process introduces an impure atom to the system, which
creates the p-n junction. In order to get the impure atoms embedded in the silicon wafer, the wafer is first put in a
1,100 degree Celsius chamber. The atoms are injected in and eventually diffuse with the silicon. After the process is
completed and the silicon has reached room temperature, the doping process is done and the semiconducting
material is ready to be used in an integrated circuit.[1][3]

Physics of semiconductors
Energy bands and electrical conduction
Main articles: Electronic band structure and Electrical conduction

Filling of the electronic states in various types of materials at equilibrium. Here, height is energy while width is the density of
available states for a certain energy in the material listed. The shade follows the Fermi–Dirac distribution (black = all states
filled,white = no state filled). In metals and semimetals the Fermi level EF lies inside at least one band.
In insulators and semiconductors the Fermi level is inside a band gap; however, in semiconductors the bands are near enough to
the Fermi level to be thermally populated with electrons or holes.
edit

Semiconductors are defined by their unique electric conductive behavior, somewhere between that of a conductor
and an insulator.[8] The differences between these materials can be understood in terms of the quantum states for
electrons, each of which may contain zero or one electron (by the Pauli exclusion principle). These states are
associated with the electronic band structure of the material. Electrical conductivity arises due to the presence of
electrons in states that are delocalized (extending through the material), however in order to transport electrons a
state must be partially filled, containing an electron only part of the time.[9] If the state is always occupied with an
electron, then it is inert, blocking the passage of other electrons via that state. The energies of these quantum states
are critical, since a state is partially filled only if its energy is near the Fermi level(see Fermi–Dirac statistics).
High conductivity in a material comes from it having many partially filled states and much state delocalization. Metals
are good electrical conductors and have many partially filled states with energies near their Fermi level. Insulators, by
contrast, have few partially filled states, their Fermi levels sit within band gaps with few energy states to occupy.
Importantly, an insulator can be made to conduct by increasing its temperature: heating provides energy to promote
some electrons across the band gap, inducing partially filled states in both the band of states beneath the band gap
(valence band) and the band of states above the band gap (conduction band). An (intrinsic) semiconductor has a
band gap that is smaller than that of an insulator and at room temperature significant numbers of electrons can be
excited to cross the band gap.[10]
A pure semiconductor, however, is not very useful, as it is neither a very good insulator nor a very good conductor.
However, one important feature of semiconductors (and some insulators, known as semi-insulators) is that their
conductivity can be increased and controlled by doping with impurities and gating with electric fields. Doping and
gating move either the conduction or valence band much closer to the Fermi level, and greatly increase the number
of partially filled states.
Some wider-band gap semiconductor materials are sometimes referred to as semi-insulators. When undoped,
these have electrical conductivity nearer to that of electrical insulators, however they can be doped (making them as
useful as semiconductors). Semi-insulators find niche applications in micro-electronics, such as substrates for HEMT.
An example of a common semi-insulator is gallium arsenide.[11] Some materials, such as titanium dioxide, can even
be used as insulating materials for some applications, while being treated as wide-gap semiconductors for other
applications.

Charge carriers (electrons and holes)

Main article: Electron hole
The partial filling of the states at the bottom of the conduction band can be understood as adding electrons to that
band. The electrons do not stay indefinitely (due to the natural thermal recombination) but they can move around for
some time. The actual concentration of electrons is typically very dilute, and so (unlike in metals) it is possible to think
of the electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor as a sort of classical ideal gas, where the electrons fly
around freely without being subject to the Pauli exclusion principle. In most semiconductors the conduction bands
have a parabolic dispersion relation, and so these electrons respond to forces (electric field, magnetic field, etc.)
much like they would in a vacuum, though with a different effective mass.[10] Because the electrons behave like an
ideal gas, one may also think about conduction in very simplistic terms such as the Drude model, and introduce
concepts such as electron mobility.
For partial filling at the top of the valence band, it is helpful to introduce the concept of an electron hole. Although the
electrons in the valence band are always moving around, a completely full valence band is inert, not conducting any
current. If an electron is taken out of the valence band, then the trajectory that the electron would normally have
taken is now missing its charge. For the purposes of electric current, this combination of the full valence band, minus
the electron, can be converted into a picture of a completely empty band containing a positively charged particle that
moves in the same way as the electron. Combined with the negative effective mass of the electrons at the top of the
valence band, we arrive at a picture of a positively charged particle that responds to electric and magnetic fields just
as a normal positively charged particle would do in vacuum, again with some positive effective mass.[10] This particle
is called a hole, and the collection of holes in the valence band can again be understood in simple classical terms (as
with the electrons in the conduction band).
Carrier generation and recombination
Main article: Carrier generation and recombination
When ionizing radiation strikes a semiconductor, it may excite an electron out of its energy level and consequently
leave a hole. This process is known as electron–hole pair generation. Electron-hole pairs are constantly generated
from thermal energy as well, in the absence of any external energy source.
Electron-hole pairs are also apt to recombine. Conservation of energy demands that these recombination events, in
which an electron loses an amount of energy larger than the band gap, be accompanied by the emission of thermal
energy (in the form of phonons) or radiation (in the form of photons).
In some states, the generation and recombination of electron–hole pairs are in equipoise. The number of electron-
hole pairs in the steady state at a given temperature is determined by quantum statistical mechanics. The
precise quantum mechanical mechanisms of generation and recombination are governed by conservation of
energy and conservation of momentum.
As the probability that electrons and holes meet together is proportional to the product of their numbers, the product
is in steady state nearly constant at a given temperature, providing that there is no significant electric field (which
might "flush" carriers of both types, or move them from neighbour regions containing more of them to meet together)
or externally driven pair generation. The product is a function of the temperature, as the probability of getting enough
thermal energy to produce a pair increases with temperature, being approximately exp(−EG/kT),
where k is Boltzmann's constant, T is absolute temperature and EG is band gap.
The probability of meeting is increased by carrier traps—impurities or dislocations which can trap an electron or hole
and hold it until a pair is completed. Such carrier traps are sometimes purposely added to reduce the time needed to
reach the steady state.[12]

Doping
Main article: Doping (semiconductor)
The conductivity of semiconductors may easily be modified by introducing impurities into their crystal lattice. The
process of adding controlled impurities to a semiconductor is known as doping. The amount of impurity, or dopant,
added to an intrinsic (pure) semiconductor varies its level of conductivity. Doped semiconductors are referred to
as extrinsic. By adding impurity to the pure semiconductors, the electrical conductivity may be varied by factors of
thousands or millions.
A 1 cm3 specimen of a metal or semiconductor has of the order of 1022 atoms. In a metal, every atom donates at least
one free electron for conduction, thus 1 cm3 of metal contains on the order of 1022 free electrons, whereas a
1 cm3 sample of pure germanium at 20 °C contains about 4.2×1022 atoms, but only 2.5×1013 free electrons
and 2.5×1013 holes. The addition of 0.001% of arsenic (an impurity) donates an extra 1017 free electrons in the same
volume and the electrical conductivity is increased by a factor of 10,000.
The materials chosen as suitable dopants depend on the atomic properties of both the dopant and the material to be
doped. In general, dopants that produce the desired controlled changes are classified as either
electron acceptors or donors. Semiconductors doped with donor impurities are called n-type, while those doped
with acceptor impurities are known as p-type. The n and p type designations indicate which charge carrier acts as the
material's majority carrier. The opposite carrier is called the minority carrier, which exists due to thermal excitation at
a much lower concentration compared to the majority carrier.
For example, the pure semiconductor silicon has four valence electrons which bond each silicon atom to its
neighbors. In silicon, the most common dopants are group III and group V elements. Group III elements all contain
three valence electrons, causing them to function as acceptors when used to dope silicon. When an acceptor atom
replaces a silicon atom in the crystal, a vacant state (an electron "hole") is created, which can move around the
lattice and functions as a charge carrier. Group V elements have five valence electrons, which allows them to act as
a donor; substitution of these atoms for silicon creates an extra free electron. Therefore, a silicon crystal doped
with boron creates a p-type semiconductor whereas one doped with phosphorus results in an n-type material.
During manufacture, dopants can be diffused into the semiconductor body by contact with gaseous compounds of
the desired element, or ion implantation can be used to accurately position the doped regions.

Amorphous semiconductors
Some materials, when rapidly cooled to a glassy amorphous state, have semiconducting properties. These include
B, Si, Ge, Se, Te and there are multiple theories to explain them.[13][14]

Early history of semiconductors

Further information: Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering
The history of the understanding of semiconductors begins with experiments on the electrical properties of materials.
The properties of negative temperature coefficient of resistance, rectification, and light-sensitivity were observed
starting in the early 19th century.
Thomas Johann Seebeck was the first to notice an effect due to semiconductors, in 1821.[15] In 1833, Michael
Faraday reported that the resistance of specimens of silver sulfidedecreases when they are heated. This is contrary
to the behavior of metallic substances such as copper. In 1839, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel reported observation
of a voltage between a solid and a liquid electrolyte when struck by light, the photovoltaic effect. In 1873 Willoughby
Smith observed that selenium resistors exhibit decreasing resistance when light falls on them. In 1874 Karl
Ferdinand Braun observed conduction and rectification in metallic sulfides, although this effect had been discovered
much earlier by Peter Munck af Rosenschold (sv) writing for the Annalen der Physik und Chemie in
1835,[16] and Arthur Schuster found that a copper oxide layer on wires has rectification properties that ceases when
the wires are cleaned. William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day observed the photovoltaic effect in selenium in
1876.[17]
A unified explanation of these phenomena required a theory of solid-state physics which developed greatly in the first
half of the 20th Century. In 1878 Edwin Herbert Halldemonstrated the deflection of flowing charge carriers by an
applied magnetic field, the Hall effect. The discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson in 1897 prompted theories of
electron-based conduction in solids. Karl Baedeker, by observing a Hall effect with the reverse sign to that in metals,
theorized that copper iodide had positive charge carriers. Johan Koenigsberger classified solid materials as metals,
insulators and "variable conductors" in 1914 although his student Josef Weiss already introduced the
term Halbleiter(semiconductor in modern meaning) in PhD thesis in 1910.[18][19] Felix Bloch published a theory of the
movement of electrons through atomic lattices in 1928. In 1930, B. Gudden stated that conductivity in
semiconductors was due to minor concentrations of impurities. By 1931, the band theory of conduction had been
established by Alan Herries Wilson and the concept of band gaps had been developed. Walter H. Schottky and Nevill
Francis Mott developed models of the potential barrier and of the characteristics of a metal–semiconductor junction.
By 1938, Boris Davydov had developed a theory of the copper-oxide rectifier, identifying the effect of the p–n
junction and the importance of minority carriers and surface states.[20]
Agreement between theoretical predictions (based on developing quantum mechanics) and experimental results was
sometimes poor. This was later explained by John Bardeen as due to the extreme "structure sensitive" behavior of
semiconductors, whose properties change dramatically based on tiny amounts of impurities.[20] Commercially pure
materials of the 1920s containing varying proportions of trace contaminants produced differing experimental results.
This spurred the development of improved material refining techniques, culminating in modern semiconductor
refineries producing materials with parts-per-trillion purity.
Devices using semiconductors were at first constructed based on empirical knowledge, before semiconductor theory
provided a guide to construction of more capable and reliable devices.
Alexander Graham Bell used the light-sensitive property of selenium to transmit sound over a beam of light in 1880.
A working solar cell, of low efficiency, was constructed by Charles Fritts in 1883 using a metal plate coated with
selenium and a thin layer of gold; the device became commercially useful in photographic light meters in the
1930s.[20] Point-contact microwave detector rectifiers made of lead sulfide were used by Jagadish Chandra Bose in
1904; the cat's-whisker detector using natural galena or other materials became a common device in
the development of radio. However, it was somewhat unpredictable in operation and required manual adjustment for
best performance. In 1906 H.J. Roundobserved light emission when electric current passed through silicon carbide
crystals, the principle behind the light-emitting diode. Oleg Losev observed similar light emission in 1922 but at the
time the effect had no practical use. Power rectifiers, using copper oxide and selenium, were developed in the 1920s
and became commercially important as an alternative to vacuum tube rectifiers.[17][20]
In the years preceding World War II, infrared detection and communications devices prompted research into lead-
sulfide and lead-selenide materials. These devices were used for detecting ships and aircraft, for infrared
rangefinders, and for voice communication systems. The point-contact crystal detector became vital for microwave
radio systems, since available vacuum tube devices could not serve as detectors above about 4000 MHz; advanced
radar systems relied on the fast response of crystal detectors. Considerable research and development of silicon
materials occurred during the war to develop detectors of consistent quality.[20]
Detector and power rectifiers could not amplify a signal. Many efforts were made to develop a solid-state amplifier
and were successful in developing a device called the point contact transistor which could amplify 20db or more.[20] In
1922 Oleg Losev developed two-terminal, negative resistance amplifiers for radio, and he perished in the Siege of
Leningrad after successful completion. In 1926 Julius Edgar Lilienfeld patented a device resembling a modern field-
effect transistor, but it was not practical. R. Hilsch and R. W. Pohl in 1938 demonstrated a solid-state amplifier using
a structure resembling the control grid of a vacuum tube; although the device displayed power gain, it had a cut-off
frequency of one cycle per second, too low for any practical applications, but an effective application of the available
theory.[20] At Bell Labs, William Shockley and A. Holden started investigating solid-state amplifiers in 1938. The first
p–n junction in silicon was observed by Russell Ohl about 1941, when a specimen was found to be light-sensitive,
with a sharp boundary between p-type impurity at one end and n-type at the other. A slice cut from the specimen at
the p–n boundary developed a voltage when exposed to light.
In France, during the war, Herbert Mataré had observed amplification between adjacent point contacts on a
germanium base. After the war, Mataré's group announced their "Transistron" amplifier only shortly after Bell Labs
announced the "transistor".

Semiconductor Devices and Circuits, Applications

The Semiconductor device is made up of a material that is neither a good conductor nor a good
insulator, it is called a semiconductor. Such devices have established wide applications because of
their reliability, compactness, and low cost. These are discrete components which are used in power
devices, compactness optical sensors, and light emitters, including solid-state lasers. They have a
wide range of current and voltage handling capabilities, with current ratings more than 5,000 amperes
and voltage ratings more than 100,000 volts. More importantly, semiconductor devices lend themselves
to integration into complex but readily build-up microelectronic circuits. They are having probable
future, the key elements of the majority of electronic systems including communications with data-
processing, consumer, and industrial-control equipment.
What are Semiconductor Devices?
Semiconductor devices are nothing but electronic components that exploit the electronic properties of
semiconductor materials, like as silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide, as well as organic
semiconductors. Semiconductor devices have replaced vacuum tubes in many applications. They use
electronic conduction in the solid state as opposed to the thermionic emission in a high
vacuum. Semiconductor devices are manufactured for both discrete devices and integrated circuits,
which consist of from a few to billions of devices manufactured and interconnected on a single
semiconductor substrate or wafer.

Semiconductor Devices
Semiconductor materials are useful by their behavior which can be easily manipulated by the addition
of impurities is known as doping. Semiconductor conductivity can be controlled by the electric or
magnetic field, by exposure to light or heat, or by the mechanical deformation of a doped mono
crystalline grid; thus, semiconductors can make excellent sensors. Current conduction in a
semiconductor occurs free of electrons and holes, collectively known as charge carriers. Doping of
silicon is done by adding a small amount of impurity atoms and also for phosphorus or boron,
significantly increases the number of electrons or holes within the semiconductor.

When a doped semiconductor contains excess holes it is called “p-type”(positive for

holes)semiconductor, and when it contains some excess of free electrons, it is known as “n-
type”(negative for electrons) semiconductor, is the sign of charge of the majority mobile charge
carriers. The junctions which formed where n-type and p-type semiconductors are joined together is
called p–n junction.

Diode
A semiconductor diode is a device typically made up of a single p-n junction. The junction of a p-type
and n-type semiconductor forms a depletion region where current conduction is reserved by the lack of
mobile charge carriers. When the device is forward biased, this depletion region is reduced, allowing
for significant conduction, when the diode is reverse biased, the only less current can be achieved and
the depletion region can be extended. Exposing a semiconductor to light can produce electron hole
pairs, which increases the number of free carriers and thereby the conductivity. Diodes optimized to
take advantage of this phenomenon is known as photodiodes. Compound semiconductor diodes are
also being used to generate light, light-emitting diodes and laser diodes.
 Diode
Transistor
Bipolar junction transistors are formed by two p-n junctions, in either p-n-p or n-p-n configuration. The
middle or base, the region between the junctions is typically very narrow. The other regions, and their
related terminals, are known as the emitter and collector. A small current injected through the junction
between the base and emitter change the properties of the base collector junction so it can be conduct
current even though it is reverse biased. This creates a larger current between the collector and
emitter, and controlled by the base-emitter current.

Transistor
Another type of transistor named as field-effect transistor, it operates on the principle that
semiconductor conductivity can increased or decreased by the presence of an electric field. An electric
field can increase the number of electrons and holes in a semiconductor, thus changing its
conductivity. The electric field may be applied by a reverse-biased p-n junction, and it’s forms a
junction field-effect transistor (JFET) or by an electrode insulated from the bulk material by an oxide
layer, and it forms a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET).
Now a day’s most used in the MOSFET, a solid-state device, and semiconductor devices. The gate
electrode is charged to produce an electric field that can control the conductivity of a “channel”
between two terminals, is called the source and drain. Depending upon the type of carrier in the
channel, the device may be n-channel (for electrons) or p-channel (for holes) MOSFET.
Semiconductor Device Materials
The silicon (Si) is most widely used material in semiconductor devices. It’s having lower raw material
cost and relatively simple process. Its useful temperature range makes it currently the best
compromise among the various competing materials. Silicon used in semiconductor device
manufacturing is presently fabricated into bowls that are large enough in diameter to allow the
manufacture of 300 mm (12 in.) wafers.

Germanium (Ge) was a widely used in early semiconductor material, but its thermal sensitivity makes
less useful than silicon. Nowadays, germanium is often alloyed with (Si) silicon for use in very-high-
speed SiGe devices; IBM is a main producer of such devices.

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is also widely used with high-speed devices, but so far, it has been difficult to
form large-diameter bowls of this material, limiting the wafer diameter sizes significantly smaller than
silicon wafers thus making mass production of Gallium arsenide (GaAs) devices significantly more
expensive than silicon.

List of Common Semiconductor Devices

The list of common semiconductor devices mainly includes two terminals, three terminals and four
terminal devices.

Common Semiconductor Devices

The two-terminal devices are

 Diode (rectifier diode)

 Gunn diode
 IMPATT diode
 Laser diode
 Zener diode
 Schottky diode
 PIN diode
 Tunnel diode
 Light-emitting diode (LED)
 Photo transistor
 Photocell
 Solar cell
 Transient-voltage-suppression diode
 VCSEL
Three-terminal devices are

 Bipolar transistor
 Field-effect transistor
 Darlington transistor
 Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
 Unijunction transistor
 Silicon-controlled rectifier
 Thyristor
 TRIAC
Four-terminal devices are

 Photo coupler (Optocoupler)

 Hall effect sensor (magnetic field sensor)
Semiconductor Device Applications
All types of transistor can be used as the building blocks of logic gates, which is useful to design of
digital circuits. In digital circuits like as microprocessors, transistors so which is acting as a switch (on-
off); in the MOSFET, for example, the voltage applied to the gate determines whether the switch is on
or off.
The transistors are used for analog circuits do not act as switches (on-off); relatively, they respond to a
continuous range of input with a continuous range of output. Common analog circuits include
oscillators and amplifiers. The circuits that interface or translate between analog circuits and digital
circuits are known as the mixed-signal circuits.

Advantages of Semiconductor Devices

 As semiconductor devices have no filaments, hence no power is needed to heat them to cause the emission of
electrons.
 Since no heating is required, semiconductor devices are set into operation as soon as the circuit is switched
on.
 During operation, semiconductor devices do not produce any humming noise.
 Semiconductor devices require low voltage operation as compared to vacuum tubes.
 Owing to their small sizes, the circuits involving semiconductor devices are very compact.
 Semiconductor devices are shock proof.
 Semiconductor devices are cheaper as compared to vacuum tubes.
 Semiconductor devices have an almost unlimited life.
 As no vacuum has to be created in semiconductor devices, they have no vacuum deterioration trouble.
Disadvantages of Semiconductor Devices
 The noise level is higher in semiconductor devices as compared to that in the vacuum tubes.
 Ordinary semiconductor devices cannot handle as more power as ordinary vacuum tubes can do.
 In high frequency range, they have poor responder.
Thus, this is all about different types of semiconductor devices include two terminals, three terminals
and four terminal devices. We hope that you have got a better understanding of this concept.
Furthermore, any doubts regarding this concept or electrical and electronic projects, please give your
feedback by commenting in the comment section below. Here is a question for you, what are the
applications of semiconductor devices?

P-N JUNCTION DIODE

The effect described in the previous tutorial is achieved without any external voltage being
applied to the actual PN junction resulting in the junction being in a state of equilibrium.
However, if we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both the N-type and the
P-type materials and then connect them to a battery source, an additional energy source
now exists to overcome the potential barrier.
The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being able to
cross the depletion region from one side to the other. The behaviour of the PN junction with
regards to the potential barrier’s width produces an asymmetrical conducting two terminal
device, better known as the PN Junction Diode.
A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has
the characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a
diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an
exponential current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we can not described its
operation by simply using an equation such as Ohm’s law.
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN
junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross
the junction as the width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.
By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away
from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect
of increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or
blocking current flow through the diode.
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage
and narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the
differences in the electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in
physical changes taking place. One of the results produces rectification as seen in the PN
junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage) characteristics. Rectification is shown by an
asymmetrical current flow when the polarity of bias voltage is altered as shown below.

Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics

But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device we
need to firstly bias the junction, ie connect a voltage potential across it. On the voltage axis
above, “Reverse Bias” refers to an external voltage potential which increases the potential
barrier. An external voltage which decreases the potential barrier is said to act in the
“Forward Bias” direction.
There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the
standard Junction Diode and these are:
 1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.
 2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type
material and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Increasing the PN junction diode’s width.
 3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type
material and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.

Zero Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is
applied to the PN junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few
holes (majority carriers) in the P-type material with enough energy to overcome the
potential barrier will move across the junction against this barrier potential. This is known
as the “Forward Current” and is referenced as IF
Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation
favourable and move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the
“Reverse Current” and is referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and
forth across the PN junction is known as diffusion, as shown below.

Zero Biased PN Junction Diode

The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority carriers
across the junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free
electrons in the P-region and few holes in the N-region) to drift across the junction.
Then an “Equilibrium” or balance will be established when the majority carriers are equal
and both moving in opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current flowing in the
circuit. When this occurs the junction is said to be in a state of “Dynamic Equilibrium“.
The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so this state of
equilibrium can be broken by raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an
increase in the generation of minority carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in leakage
current but an electric current cannot flow since no circuit has been connected to the PN
junction.

Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to
the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.
The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive
electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted
away from the junction towards the negative electrode.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes
and presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential
barrier is created thus preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.

Increase in the Depletion Layer due to Reverse Bias

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero
current flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very
small leakage current does flow through the junction which can be measured in micro-
amperes, ( μA ).
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a
sufficiently high enough value, it will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and fail due
to the avalanche effect around the junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted
and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step downward
slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilising circuits
where a series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown
current to a preset maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the
diode. These types of diodes are commonly known as Zener Diodes and are discussed in
a later tutorial.

Forward Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to
the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external
voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon
and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current
will start to flow.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving
them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite
direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve
of zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the “knee” on the static curves and
then a high current flow through the diode with little increase in the external voltage as
shown below.

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion
layer becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the
junction thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in
current takes place is represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the
“knee” point.

Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very
large currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The
actual potential difference across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the
depletion layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon
junction diodes.
Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it effectively
becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its
current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current specification causes the device to
dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for resulting in a very quick
failure of the device.
Junction Diode Summary
The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important characteristics:
 Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, “Holes” and “Electrons”.
 The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.
 A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-type doping),
so that it contains mobile charges which are primarily electrons.
 A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type doping),
so that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.
 The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion region.
 The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied
voltage.
 When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a
natural Potential Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is approximately
0.5 to 0.7v for silicon diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for germanium diodes.
 When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region reduces
and the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full current to flow.
 When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region increases
and the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current flow, (only a very small
leakage current).
We have also seen above that the diode is two terminal non-linear device whose I-V
characteristic are polarity dependent as depending upon the polarity of the applied
voltage, VD the diode is either Forward Biased, VD > 0 or Reverse Biased, VD < 0. Either
way we can model these current-voltage characteristics for both an ideal diode and for a
real silicon diode as shown:

Junction Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics

In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at the small signal diode sometimes called a
switching diode which is used in general electronic circuits. As its name implies, the signal
diode is designed for low-voltage or high frequency signal applications such as in radio or
digital switching circuits.
Signal diodes, such as the 1N4148 only pass very small electrical currents as opposed to
the high-current mains rectification diodes in which silicon diodes are usually used. Also in
the next tutorial we will examine the Signal Diode static current-voltage characteristics
curve and parameters.
[From Wikipedia.]
A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor materials, p-type and n-type, inside a
single crystal of semiconductor. The "p" (positive) side contains an excess of holes, while the "n" (negative) side
contains an excess of electrons in the outer shells of the electrically neutral atoms there. This allows electrical current
to pass through the junction only in one direction. The p-n junction is created by doping, for example by ion
implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy(growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a
layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant). If two separate pieces of material were used, this would introduce
a grain boundary between the semiconductors that would severely inhibit its utility by scattering the electrons
and holes.[citation needed]
p–n junctions are elementary "building blocks" of semiconductor electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, solar
cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are the active sites where the electronic action of the device takes place.
For example, a common type of transistor, the bipolar junction transistor, consists of two p–n junctions in series, in
the form n–p–n or p–n–p; while a diode can be made from a single p-n junction. A Schottky junction is a special case
of a p–n junction, where metal serves the role of the p-type semiconductor.

Properties[edit]

Image siliconatoms (Si) enlarged about 45,000,000x.

The p–n junction possesses essential properties for modern electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is
relatively conductive. The same is true of an n-doped semiconductor, but the junction between them can
become depleted of charge carriers, and hence non-conductive, depending on the relative voltages of the two
semiconductor regions. By manipulating this non-conductive layer, p–n junctions are commonly used as diodes:
circuit elements that allow a flow of electricity in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction. Bias is the
application of a voltage across a p–n junction; forward bias is in the direction of easy current flow, and reverse bias is
in the direction of little or no current flow.
The forward-bias and the reverse-bias properties of the p–n junction imply that it can be used as a diode. A p–n
junction diode allows electric charges to flow in one direction, but not in the opposite direction; negative charges
(electrons) can easily flow through the junction from n to p but not from p to n, and the reverse is true for holes. When
the p–n junction is forward-biased, electric charge flows freely due to reduced resistance of the p–n junction. When
the p–n junction is reverse-biased, however, the junction barrier (and therefore resistance) becomes greater and
charge flow is minimal.

Equilibrium (zero bias)[edit]

In a p–n junction, without an external applied voltage, an equilibrium condition is reached in which a potential

difference forms across the junction. This potential difference is called built-in potential .

At the junction, the free electrons in the n-type are attracted to the positive holes in the p-type. They diffuse into the
p-type, combine with the holes, and cancel each other out, leaving an uncharged, electrically neutral atom. In a
similar way the positive holes in the p-type are attracted to the free electrons in the n-type. The holes diffuse into the
n-type, combine with the free electrons, and cancel each other out, leaving an uncharged, electrically neutral atom.
The positively charged, donor, dopant atoms in the n-type are part of the crystal, and cannot move. Thus, in the n-
type, a region near the junction becomes positively charged. The negatively charged, acceptor, dopant atoms in the
p-type are part of the crystal, and cannot move. Thus, in the p-type, a region near the junction becomes negatively
charged. The result is a region near the junction that acts to repel the mobile charges away from the junction through
the electric field that these charged regions create. The regions near the p–n interface lose their neutrality and most
of their mobile carriers, forming the space charge region or depletion layer (see figure A).

Figure A. A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Electron and hole concentration are reported with
blue and red lines, respectively. Gray regions are charge-neutral. Light-red zone is positively charged. Light-blue zone is
negatively charged. The electric field is shown on the bottom, the electrostatic force on electrons and holes and the direction in
which the diffusion tends to move electrons and holes. (The log concentration curves should actually be smoother with slope
varying with field strength.)

The electric field created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for both electrons and holes.
There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion process that tends to generate more space charge, and the
electric field generated by the space charge that tends to counteract the diffusion. The carrier concentration profile at
equilibrium is shown in figure A with blue and red lines. Also shown are the two counterbalancing phenomena that
establish equilibrium.
Figure B. A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Under the junction, plots for the charge density,
the electric field, and the voltage are reported. (The log concentration curves should actually be smoother, like the voltage.)

The space charge region is a zone with a net charge provided by the fixed ions (donors or acceptors) that have been
left uncovered by majority carrier diffusion. When equilibrium is reached, the charge density is approximated by the
displayed step function. In fact, since the y-axis of figure A is log-scale, the region is almost completely depleted of
majority carriers (leaving a charge density equal to the net doping level), and the edge between the space charge
region and the neutral region is quite sharp (see figure B, Q(x) graph). The space charge region has the same
magnitude of charge on both sides of the p–n interfaces, thus it extends farther on the less doped side in this
example (the n side in figures A and B).

Forward bias[edit]
In forward bias, the p-type is connected with the positive terminal and the n-type is connected with the negative
terminal.

PN junction operation in forward-bias mode, showing reducing depletion width. The panels show energy band diagram, electric
field, and net charge density. Both p and n junctions are doped at a 1e15/cm3 (0.00016C/cm3) doping level, leading to built-in
potential of ~0.59 V. Reducing depletion width can be inferred from the shrinking charge profile, as fewer dopants are exposed
with increasing forward bias. Observe the different quasi-fermi levels for conduction band and valence band in n and p regions
(red curves)

With a battery connected this way, the holes in the p-type region and the electrons in the n-type region are pushed
toward the junction and start to neutralize the depletion zone, reducing its width. The positive potential applied to the
p-type material repels the holes, while the negative potential applied to the n-type material repels the electrons. The
change in potential between the p side and the n side decreases or switches sign. With increasing forward-bias
voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field cannot counteract charge
carrier motion across the p–n junction, which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance. Electrons that cross
the p–n junction into the p-type material (or holes that cross into the n-type material) diffuse into the nearby neutral
region. The amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that can flow
through the diode.
Only majority carriers (electrons in n-type material or holes in p-type) can flow through a semiconductor for a
macroscopic length. With this in mind, consider the flow of electrons across the junction. The forward bias causes a
force on the electrons pushing them from the N side toward the P side. With forward bias, the depletion region is
narrow enough that electrons can cross the junction and inject into the p-type material. However, they do not
continue to flow through the p-type material indefinitely, because it is energetically favorable for them to recombine
with holes. The average length an electron travels through the p-type material before recombining is called
the diffusion length, and it is typically on the order of micrometers.[1]
Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance into the p-type material, the electric current continues
uninterrupted, because holes (the majority carriers) begin to flow in the opposite direction. The total current (the sum
of the electron and hole currents) is constant in space, because any variation would cause charge buildup over time
(this is Kirchhoff's current law). The flow of holes from the p-type region into the n-type region is exactly analogous to
the flow of electrons from N to P (electrons and holes swap roles and the signs of all currents and voltages are
reversed).
Therefore, the macroscopic picture of the current flow through the diode involves electrons flowing through the n-type
region toward the junction, holes flowing through the p-type region in the opposite direction toward the junction, and
the two species of carriers constantly recombining in the vicinity of the junction. The electrons and holes travel in
opposite directions, but they also have opposite charges, so the overall current is in the same direction on both sides
of the diode, as required.
The Shockley diode equation models the forward-bias operational characteristics of a p–n junction outside the
avalanche (reverse-biased conducting) region.

Reverse bias[edit]

A silicon p–n junction in reverse bias.

Connecting the p-type region to the negative terminal of the battery and the n-type region to the positive terminal
corresponds to reverse bias. If a diode is reverse-biased, the voltage at the cathode is comparatively higher than at
the anode. Therefore, very little current flows until the diode breaks down. The connections are illustrated in the
adjacent diagram.
Because the p-type material is now connected to the negative terminal of the power supply, the 'holes' in the p-type
material are pulled away from the junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion
region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons are pulled
away from the junction, with similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of
charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n
junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator.
The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric
field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to
flow, usually by either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are
non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the
semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage.
This effect is used to advantage in Zener diode regulator circuits. Zener diodes have a low breakdown voltage. A
standard value for breakdown voltage is for instance 5.6 V. This means that the voltage at the cathode cannot be
more than about 5.6 V higher than the voltage at the anode (though there is a slight rise with current), because the
diode breaks down, and therefore conduct, if the voltage gets any higher. This, in effect, limits the voltage over the
diode.
Another application of reverse biasing is Varicap diodes, where the width of the depletion zone (controlled with the
reverse bias voltage) changes the capacitance of the diode.

Governing equations[edit]
Size of depletion region[edit]
See also: Band bending

For a p–n junction, letting and be the concentrations of acceptor and donor atoms respectively, and

letting and be the equilibrium concentrations of electrons and holes respectively, yields, by Poisson's
equation:

where is the electric potential, is the charge density, is permittivity and is the magnitude of the

electron charge. Letting be the width of the depletion region within the p-side, and letting be the width of
the depletion region within the n-side, it must be that
because the total charge on either side of the depletion region must cancel out. Therefore, letting and
represent the entire depletion region and the potential difference across it,

where , because we are in the depletion region. And thus, letting be the total width of the depletion region,
we get

can be written as , where we have broken up the voltage difference into the equilibrium plus external

components. The equilibrium potential results from diffusion forces, and thus we can calculate by implementing

the Einstein relation and assuming the semiconductor is nondegenerate (i.e. the product is independent of
the Fermi energy):

where T is the temperature of the semiconductor and k is Boltzmann constant.[2]

Current across depletion region[edit]

The Shockley ideal diode equation characterizes the current across a p–n junction as a function of external voltage
and ambient conditions (temperature, choice of semiconductor, etc.). To see how it can be derived, we must examine
the various reasons for current. The convention is that the forward (+) direction be pointed against the diode's built-in
potential gradient at equilibrium.

 Forward Current ( )

o Diffusion Current: current due to local imbalances in carrier concentration , via the equation

 Reverse Current ( )
o Field Current
o Generation Current

Non-rectifying junctions[edit]
In the above diagrams, contact between the metal wires and the semiconductor material also creates metal–
semiconductor junctions called Schottky diodes. In a simplified ideal situation a semiconductor diode would never
function, since it would be composed of several diodes connected back-to-front in series. But, in practice, surface
impurities within the part of the semiconductor that touches the metal terminals greatly reduces the width of those
depletion layers, to such an extent that the metal-semiconductor junctions do not act as diodes. These non-rectifying
junctions behave as ohmic contacts regardless of applied voltage polarity.

Manufacture[edit]
The p-n junction is created by doping, for example by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a
layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant). If two
 separate pieces of material were used, this would introduce a grain boundary between the semiconductors that
would severely inhibit its utility by scattering the electrons and holes.[citation needed]

History[edit]
The invention of the p–n junction is usually attributed to American physicist Russell Ohl of Bell Laboratories in
1939.[3] Two years later (1941), Vadim Lashkaryov reported discovery of p–n junctions in Cu2O and silver
sulphide photocells and selenium rectifiers.[4]

PN Junction Diode Construction Working And Uses

Electrical Engineering

PN Junction Diode Construction Working And

Uses
Admin 1 Year Ago No Comments

 FACEBOOK






PREV ARTICLE NEXT ARTICLE

Construction-
On a wafer of n-type silicon(usually silicon + phosphorus), an aluminium film is placed and then they are heated
at a high temperature. This results in the diffusion of aluminium into silicon and thus our PN junction diode is
ready to be used in various semiconductor devices. It can also be prepared by diffusing phosphorus into a p-type
semiconductor.

Working of PN junction diode-

Let’s consider an unbiased diode(diode not connected to any voltage source).
On seeing the diagram, we observe that the holes are the majority carriers on the left side(p-type) whereas
electrons are the majority carriers on the right side(n-type).

Thus, to distribute the concentration over the diode, holes start diffusing towards the right whereas electrons
diffuse towards the left. This generates a current flowing from left to right[p-type to n-type] (as direction of
current is always OPPOSITE to the direction of flow of electrons and same as the direction of movement of
holes). This current is known as DIFFUSION CURRENT.

Also Read: Zener Diode, Its Working, Zener Breakdown And Its Applications
Therefore,

Idf=Ie+IhIdf=Ie+Ih
i.e. Diffusion current = current due to flow of electrons + current due to movement of holes.

We know that both p-type and n-type semiconductors are neutral initially. Thus, the diffusion of holes and
electrons causes an excess positive charge in the n-region and an excess negative charge in the p-region. Thus
the system becomes UNSTABLE.

This double layer of charge creates an electric field(direction– n-type to p-type[right to left])[because the
direction of field is always away from positive charges(right) and towards negative charges(left)]. This field
exerts a force on the electrons and holes, against their diffusion.

Thus, a potential difference is created in the junction diode with n-region at a higher potential than the p-region.
This potential is known as barrier potential. The junction region is now almost void of charge carriers and thus it
is known as depletion layer.

Also Read: Zener Diode, Its Working, Zener Breakdown And Its Applications
When an electron-hole pair is created in the depletion region, the electron is pushed by the barrier electric field
towards the n-side and the hole is pushed towards the p-side and this gives rise to a current from n-side to p-
side(right to left). This current is known as DRIFT CURRENT and its direction is opposite to that of diffusion
current.
Thus for an unbiased diode,

Idf=IdrIdf=Idr, i.e. Inet=0Inet=0

Thus, no current flows through an unbiased diode.

Now let’s discuss the working when the diode is FORWARD BIASED.
The diode is in forward bias mode when the positive and negative terminals of a DC voltage source is connected
to p-side and n-side of the diode respectively.

Also Read: Zener Diode, Its Working, Zener Breakdown And Its Applications
This increases the potential at the p-side and decreases the potential at the n-side of the diode. This potential
balances the barrier potential which is generated internally in the diode. Thus, the diffusion of electrons and
holes is thereby increased and current flows through the semiconductor.
As the barrier potential decreases due to the external potential, the depletion layer also becomes smaller.

Therefore when the diode is forward biased,we can conclude that,

Idf>IdrIdf>Idr
and also that the net current flows from p-side to n-side.
The working of REVERSE BIASED junction diode is exactly opposite of that of forward biased.
The diode is in reverse bias mode when the positive and negative terminals of a DC voltage source is connected
to n-side and p-side of the diode respectively.

This increases the potential at the n-side and decreases the potential at the p-side of the diode. This potential drop
is in the same direction as that of barrier potential drop. Therefore, the diffusion of electrons and holes is almost
stopped and thus no current flows through the semiconductor.
Also Read: Zener Diode, Its Working, Zener Breakdown And Its Applications
As the barrier potential increases due to the external potential, the depletion layer also becomes wider.

Therefore when the diode is reverse biased,we can conclude that the net current flows from n-side to p-side as

Idr>IdfIdr>Idf
 Transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is
composed of semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals controls the current through another pair of
terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can
amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded
in integrated circuits.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic
systems. Julius Edgar Lilienfeld patented a field-effect transistor in 1926[1] but it was not possible to actually construct
a working device at that time. The first practically implemented device was a point-contact transistor invented in 1947
by American physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley. The transistor revolutionized the field
of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things.
The transistor is on the list of IEEE milestones in electronics,[2] and Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley shared the
1956 Nobel Prize in Physicsfor their achievement.[3]
Most transistors are made from very pure silicon or germanium, but certain other semiconductor materials can also
be used. A transistor may have only one kind of charge carrier, in a field effect transistor, or may have two kinds of
charge carriers in bipolar junction transistor devices. Compared with the vacuum tube, transistors are generally
smaller, and require less power to operate. Certain vacuum tubes have advantages over transistors at very high
operating frequencies or high operating voltages. Many types of transistors are made to standardized specifications
by multiple manufacturers.

History[edit]
Main article: History of the transistor

A replica of the first working transistor

The thermionic triode, a vacuum tube invented in 1907, enabled amplified radio technology and long-
distance telephony. The triode, however, was a fragile device that consumed a substantial amount of power. In 1909
physicist William Ecclesdiscovered the crystal diode oscillator.[4] Physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed a patent for
a field-effect transistor (FET) in Canada in 1925[5] , which was intended to be a solid-state replacement for the
triode.[6][7] Lilienfeld also filed identical patents in the United States in 1926[8] and 1928.[9][10] However, Lilienfeld did not
publish any research articles about his devices nor did his patents cite any specific examples of a working prototype.
Because the production of high-quality semiconductor materials was still decades away, Lilienfeld's solid-state
amplifier ideas would not have found practical use in the 1920s and 1930s, even if such a device had been built.[11] In
1934, German inventor Oskar Heil patented a similar device in Europe.[12]
John Bardeen, William Shockleyand Walter Brattain at Bell Labs, 1948

From November 17, 1947, to December 23, 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattainat AT&T's Bell Labs in Murray
Hill, New Jersey, performed experiments and observed that when two gold point contacts were applied to a crystal
of germanium, a signal was produced with the output power greater than the input.[13] Solid State Physics Group
leader William Shockley saw the potential in this, and over the next few months worked to greatly expand the
knowledge of semiconductors. The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a contraction of the
term transresistance.[14][15][16] According to Lillian Hoddeson and Vicki Daitch, authors of a biography of John Bardeen,
Shockley had proposed that Bell Labs' first patent for a transistor should be based on the field-effect and that he be
named as the inventor. Having unearthed Lilienfeld’s patents that went into obscurity years earlier, lawyers at Bell
Labs advised against Shockley's proposal because the idea of a field-effect transistor that used an electric field as a
"grid" was not new. Instead, what Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947 was the first point-contact
transistor.[11] In acknowledgement of this accomplishment, Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain were jointly awarded the
1956 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect".[17][18]

Herbert F. Mataré (1950)

In 1948, the point-contact transistor was independently invented by German physicists Herbert Mataré and Heinrich
Welker while working at the Compagnie des Freins et Signaux, a Westinghouse subsidiary located in Paris. Mataré
had previous experience in developing crystal rectifiers from silicon and germanium in the German radar effort
during World War II. Using this knowledge, he began researching the phenomenon of "interference" in 1947. By June
1948, witnessing currents flowing through point-contacts, Mataré produced consistent results using samples of
germanium produced by Welker, similar to what Bardeen and Brattain had accomplished earlier in December 1947.
Realizing that Bell Labs' scientists had already invented the transistor before them, the company rushed to get its
"transistron" into production for amplified use in France's telephone network.[19]
The first bipolar junction transistors were invented by Bell Labs' William Shockley, which applied for patent
(2,569,347) on June 26, 1948. On April 12, 1950, Bell Labs chemists Gordon Teal and Morgan Sparks had
successfully produced a working bipolar NPN junction amplifying germanium transistor. Bell Labs had announced the
discovery of this new "sandwich" transistor in a press release on July 4, 1951.[20][21]
Philco surface-barrier transistor developed and produced in 1953

The first high-frequency transistor was the surface-barrier germanium transistor developed by Philco in 1953,
capable of operating up to 60 MHz.[22] These were made by etching depressions into an N-type germanium base from
both sides with jets of Indium(III) sulfate until it was a few ten-thousandths of an inch thick. Indium electroplated into
the depressions formed the collector and emitter.[23][24]
The first "prototype" pocket transistor radio was shown by INTERMETALL (a company founded by Herbert Mataré in
1952) at the Internationale Funkausstellung Düsseldorf between August 29, 1953 and September 9, 1953.[25]
The first "production" pocket transistor radio was the Regency TR-1, released in October 1954.[18] Produced as a joint
venture between the Regency Division of Industrial Development Engineering Associates, I.D.E.A. and Texas
Instruments of Dallas Texas, the TR-1 was manufactured in Indianapolis, Indiana. It was a near pocket-sized radio
featuring 4 transistors and one germanium diode. The industrial design was outsourced to the Chicago firm of
Painter, Teague and Petertil. It was initially released in one of four different colours: black, bone white, red, and gray.
Other colours were to shortly follow.[26][27][28]
The first "production" all-transistor car radio was developed by Chrysler and Philco corporations and it was
announced in the April 28th 1955 edition of the Wall Street Journal. Chrysler had made the all-transistor car radio,
Mopar model 914HR, available as an option starting in fall 1955 for its new line of 1956 Chrysler and Imperial cars
which first hit the dealership showroom floors on October 21, 1955.[29][30][31]
The first working silicon transistor was developed at Bell Labs on January 26, 1954 by Morris Tanenbaum. The first
commercial silicon transistor was produced by Texas Instruments in 1954. This was the work of Gordon Teal, an
expert in growing crystals of high purity, who had previously worked at Bell Labs.[32][33][34] The first MOSFET actually
built was by Kahng and Atalla at Bell Labs in 1960.[35]

Importance[edit]
A Darlington transistor opened up so the actual transistor chip (the small square) can be seen inside. A Darlington transistor is
effectively two transistors on the same chip. One transistor is much larger than the other, but both are large in comparison to
transistors in large-scale integration because this particular example is intended for power applications.

The transistor is the key active component in practically all modern electronics. Many consider it to be one of the
greatest inventions of the 20th century.[36] Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be mass-
produced using a highly automated process (semiconductor device fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-
transistor costs. The invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009.[37]
Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known as discrete) transistors every
year,[38] the vast majority of transistors are now produced in integrated circuits (often shortened to IC, microchips or
simply chips), along with diodes, resistors, capacitors and other electronic components, to produce complete
electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up to about twenty transistors whereas an advanced microprocessor, as of
2009, can use as many as 3 billion transistors (MOSFETs).[39] "About 60 million transistors were built in 2002… for
[each] man, woman, and child on Earth."[40]
The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device.
Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and
machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontrollerand write a computer program to carry out
a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical system to control that same function.

Simplified operation[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding
citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (November 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

A simple circuit diagram to show the labels of a n–p–n bipolar transistor.

The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied between one pair of its
terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. It can produce a
stronger output signal, a voltage or current, which is proportional to a weaker input signal; that is, it can act as
an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically
controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements.
There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar
transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing
between the base and the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter
terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate
can control a current between source and drain.
The image represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals
depending on the current in the base. Because internally the base and emitter connections behave like a
semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The amount
of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.

Transistor as a switch[edit]

BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration.

Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as electronic switches which can be either in an "on" or "off" state,
both for high-power applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic
gates. Important parameters for this application include the current switched, the voltage handled, and the switching
speed, characterised by the rise and fall times.
In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises, the emitter
and collector currents rise exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of reduced resistance from collector to
emitter. If the voltage difference between the collector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current
would be limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage. This is called saturation because
current is flowing from collector to emitter freely. When saturated, the switch is said to be on.[41]
Providing sufficient base drive current is a key problem in the use of bipolar transistors as switches. The transistor
provides current gain, allowing a relatively large current in the collector to be switched by a much smaller current into
the base terminal. The ratio of these currents varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for a particular
type, varies depending on the collector current. In the example light-switch circuit shown, the resistor is chosen to
provide enough base current to ensure the transistor will be saturated.
In a switching circuit, the idea is to simulate, as near as possible, the ideal switch having the properties of open
circuit when off, short circuit when on, and an instantaneous transition between the two states. Parameters are
chosen such that the "off" output is limited to leakage currents too small to affect connected circuitry; the resistance
of the transistor in the "on" state is too small to affect circuitry; and the transition between the two states is fast
enough not to have a detrimental effect.

Transistor as an amplifier[edit]
Amplifier circuit, common-emitter configuration with a voltage-divider bias circuit.

The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage (Vin) changes the small current through
the base of the transistor; the transistor's current amplification combined with the properties of the circuit means that
small swings in Vinproduce large changes in Vout.
Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some providing current gain, some voltage
gain, and some both.
From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio
transmission, and signal processing. The first discrete-transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred
milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier
architecture evolved.
Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively inexpensive.

Comparison with vacuum tubes[edit]

Before transistors were developed, vacuum (electron) tubes (or in the UK "thermionic valves" or just "valves") were
the main active components in electronic equipment.

Advantages[edit]
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace vacuum tubes in most applications are

 no cathode heater (which produces the characteristic orange glow of tubes), reducing power consumption,
eliminating delay as tube heaters warm up, and immune from cathode poisoning and depletion;
 very small size and weight, reducing equipment size;
 large numbers of extremely small transistors can be manufactured as a single integrated circuit;
 low operating voltages compatible with batteries of only a few cells;
 circuits with greater energy efficiency are usually possible. For low-power applications (e.g., voltage
amplification) in particular, energy consumption can be very much less than for tubes;
 complementary devices available, providing design flexibility including complementary-symmetry circuits, not
possible with vacuum tubes;
 very low sensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, providing physical ruggedness and virtually eliminating
shock-induced spurious signals (e.g., microphonics in audio applications);
 not susceptible to breakage of a glass envelope, leakage, outgassing, and other physical damage.
Limitations[edit]
Transistors have the following limitations:

 they lack the higher electron mobility afforded by the vacuum of vacuum tubes, which is desirable for high-power,
high-frequency operation — such as that used in over-the-air television broadcasting
 transistors and other solid-state devices are susceptible to damage from very brief electrical and thermal events,
including electrostatic discharge in handling; vacuum tubes are electrically much more rugged;
 they are sensitive to radiation and cosmic rays (special radiation-hardened chips are used for spacecraft
devices);
 In audio applications, transistors lack the lower-harmonic distortion — the so-called tube sound — which is
characteristic of vacuum tubes, and is preferred by some.[42]

Types[edit]

PNP P-channel

NPN N-channel

BJT JFET

BJT and JFET symbols

P-channel

N-channel

JFET MOSFET enh MOSFET dep

JFET and MOSFET symbols

Transistors are categorized by

 semiconductor material: the metalloids germanium (first used in 1947) and silicon (first used in 1954)—
in amorphous, polycrystalline and monocrystalline form—, the compounds gallium arsenide (1966) and silicon
carbide (1997), the alloysilicon-germanium (1989), the allotrope of carbon graphene (research ongoing since
2004), etc. (see Semiconductor material);
 structure: BJT, JFET, IGFET (MOSFET), insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), "other types";
 electrical polarity (positive and negative): n–p–n, p–n–p (BJTs), n-channel, p-channel (FETs);
 maximum power rating: low, medium, high;
 maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, radio (RF), microwave frequency (the maximum effective
frequency of a transistor in a common-emitter or common-source circuit is denoted by the term fT, an
abbreviation for transition frequency—the frequency of transition is the frequency at which the transistor yields
unity voltage gain)
 application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair;
 physical packaging: through-hole metal, through-hole plastic, surface mount, ball grid array, power modules
(see Packaging);
 amplification factor hFE, βF (transistor beta)[43] or gm (transconductance).
Hence, a particular transistor may be described as silicon, surface-mount, BJT, n–p–n, low-power, high-frequency
switch.
A popular way to remember which symbol represents which type of transistor is to look at the arrow and how it is
arranged. Within an NPN transistor symbol, the arrow will Not Point iN. Conversely, within the PNP symbol you see
that the arrow Points iN Proudly.

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)[edit]

Main article: Bipolar junction transistor
Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers. The bipolar
junction transistor, the first type of transistor to be mass-produced, is a combination of two junction diodes, and is
formed of either a thin layer of p-type semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors (an n–p–n
transistor), or a thin layer of n-type semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors (a p–n–p
transistor). This construction produces two p–n junctions: a base–emitter junction and a base–collector junction,
separated by a thin region of semiconductor known as the base region (two junction diodes wired together without
sharing an intervening semiconducting region will not make a transistor).
BJTs have three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of semiconductor—an emitter, a base, and a collector.
They are useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector are controllable by a relatively small
base current.[44] In an n–p–n transistor operating in the active region, the emitter–base junction is forward biased
(electrons and holes recombine at the junction), and the base-collector junction is reverse biased (electrons and
holes are formed at, and move away from the junction), and electrons are injected into the base region. Because the
base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the reverse-biased base–collector junction and be swept into
the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism
in the base current. As well, as the base is lightly doped (in comparison to the emitter and collector regions),
recombination rates are low, permitting more carriers to diffuse across the base region. By controlling the number of
electrons that can leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be controlled.[44] Collector
current is approximately β (common-emitter current gain) times the base current. It is typically greater than 100 for
small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications.
Unlike the field-effect transistor (see below), the BJT is a low-input-impedance device. Also, as the base–emitter
voltage (VBE) is increased the base–emitter current and hence the collector–emitter current (ICE) increase
exponentially according to the Shockley diode model and the Ebers-Moll model. Because of this exponential
relationship, the BJT has a higher transconductance than the FET.
Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct by exposure to light, because absorption of photons in the base region
generates a photocurrent that acts as a base current; the collector current is approximately β times the photocurrent.
Devices designed for this purpose have a transparent window in the package and are called phototransistors.

Field-effect transistor (FET)[edit]

Main articles: Field-effect transistor, MOSFET, and JFET
Operation of a FET and its Id-Vg curve. At first, when no gate voltage is applied. There is no inversion electron in the channel, the
device is OFF. As gate voltage increase, inversion electron density in the channel increase, current increase, the device turns on.

The field-effect transistor, sometimes called a unipolar transistor, uses either electrons (in n-channel FET) or holes
(in p-channel FET) for conduction. The four terminals of the FET are named source, gate, drain,
and body (substrate). On most FETs, the body is connected to the source inside the package, and this will be
assumed for the following description.
In a FET, the drain-to-source current flows via a conducting channel that connects the source region to
the drain region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between
the gate and source terminals; hence the current flowing between the drain and source is controlled by the voltage
applied between the gate and source. As the gate–source voltage (VGS) is increased, the drain–source current (IDS)
increases exponentially for VGS below threshold, and then at a roughly quadratic rate (IDS ∝ (VGS− VT)2) (where VT is
the threshold voltage at which drain current begins)[45] in the "space-charge-limited" region above threshold. A
quadratic behavior is not observed in modern devices, for example, at the 65 nmtechnology node.[46]
For low noise at narrow bandwidth the higher input resistance of the FET is advantageous.
FETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more
commonly known as a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET (MOSFET), reflecting its original construction from layers of
metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a p–n diode with the
channel which lies between the source and drain. Functionally, this makes the n-channel JFET the solid-state
equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly, forms a diode between its gridand cathode. Also, both devices
operate in the depletion mode, they both have a high input impedance, and they both conduct current under the
control of an input voltage.
Metal–semiconductor FETs (MESFETs) are JFETs in which the reverse biased p–n junction is replaced by a metal–
semiconductor junction. These, and the HEMTs (high-electron-mobility transistors, or HFETs), in which a two-
dimensional electron gas with very high carrier mobility is used for charge transport, are especially suitable for use at
very high frequencies (microwave frequencies; several GHz).
FETs are further divided into depletion-mode and enhancement-mode types, depending on whether the channel is
turned on or off with zero gate-to-source voltage. For enhancement mode, the channel is off at zero bias, and a gate
potential can "enhance" the conduction. For the depletion mode, the channel is on at zero bias, and a gate potential
(of the opposite polarity) can "deplete" the channel, reducing conduction. For either mode, a more positive gate
voltage corresponds to a higher current for n-channel devices and a lower current for p-channel devices. Nearly all
JFETs are depletion-mode because the diode junctions would forward bias and conduct if they were enhancement-
mode devices; most IGFETs are enhancement-mode types.

Usage of bipolar and field-effect transistors[edit]

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the most commonly used transistor in the 1960s and 70s. Even after
MOSFETs became widely available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for many analog circuits such as
amplifiers because of their greater linearity and ease of manufacture. In integrated circuits, the desirable properties of
MOSFETs allowed them to capture nearly all market share for digital circuits. Discrete MOSFETs can be applied in
transistor applications, including analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters and motor drivers.

Other transistor types[edit]

Transistor symbol created on Portuguese pavement in the University of Aveiro.

For early bipolar transistors, see Bipolar junction transistor § Bipolar transistors.

 bipolar junction transistor (BJT):

o heterojunction bipolar transistor, up to several hundred GHz, common in modern ultrafast and RF circuits;
o Schottky transistor;
o avalanche transistor:
o Darlington transistors are two BJTs connected together to provide a high current gain equal to the product of
the current gains of the two transistors;
o insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) use a medium-power IGFET, similarly connected to a power BJT,
to give a high input impedance. Power diodes are often connected between certain terminals depending on
specific use. IGBTs are particularly suitable for heavy-duty industrial applications. The ASEA Brown
Boveri (ABB) 5SNA2400E170100 ,[47]intended for three-phase power supplies, houses three n–p–n IGBTs in
a case measuring 38 by 140 by 190 mm and weighing 1.5 kg. Each IGBT is rated at 1,700 volts and can
handle 2,400 amperes;
o phototransistor.
o emitter-switched bipolar transistor (ESBT) is a monolithic configuration of a high-voltage bipolar transistor
and a low-voltage power MOSFET in cascode topology. It was introduced by STMicroelectronics in the
2000s[48], and abandoned a few years later around 2012.[49]
o multiple-emitter transistor, used in transistor–transistor logic and integrated current mirrors;
o multiple-base transistor, used to amplify very-low-level signals in noisy environments such as the pickup of
a record player or radio front ends. Effectively, it is a very large number of transistors in parallel where, at the
output, the signal is added constructively, but random noise is added only stochastically.[50]
 field-effect transistor (FET):
o carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNFET), where the channel material is replaced by a carbon
nanotube;
o junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET), where the gate is insulated by a reverse-biased p–n junction;
o metal–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MESFET), similar to JFET with a Schottky junction instead of a
p–n junction;
 high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT);
o metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), where the gate is insulated by a shallow layer
of insulator;
o inverted-T field-effect transistor (ITFET);
o fin field-effect transistor (FinFET), source/drain region shapes fins on the silicon surface;
o fast-reverse epitaxial diode field-effect transistor (FREDFET);
o thin-film transistor, in LCDs;
o organic field-effect transistor (OFET), in which the semiconductor is an organic compound;
o ballistic transistor (disambiguation);
o floating-gate transistor, for non-volatile storage;
o FETs used to sense environment;
 ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (IFSET), to measure ion concentrations in solution,
 electrolyte–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (EOSFET), neurochip,
 deoxyribonucleic acid field-effect transistor (DNAFET).
 tunnel field-effect transistor, where it switches by modulating quantum tunnelling through a barrier.
 diffusion transistor, formed by diffusing dopants into semiconductor substrate; can be both BJT and FET.
 unijunction transistor, can be used as simple pulse generators. It comprise a main body of either P-type or N-type
semiconductor with ohmic contacts at each end (terminals Base1 and Base2). A junction with the opposite
semiconductor type is formed at a point along the length of the body for the third terminal (Emitter).
 single-electron transistors (SET), consist of a gate island between two tunneling junctions. The tunneling current
is controlled by a voltage applied to the gate through a capacitor.[51]
 nanofluidic transistor, controls the movement of ions through sub-microscopic, water-filled channels.[52]
 multigate devices:
o tetrode transistor;
o pentode transistor;
o trigate transistor (prototype by Intel);
o dual-gate field-effect transistors have a single channel with two gates in cascode; a configuration optimized
for high-frequency amplifiers, mixers, and oscillators.
 junctionless nanowire transistor (JNT), uses a simple nanowire of silicon surrounded by an electrically isolated
"wedding ring" that acts to gate the flow of electrons through the wire.
 vacuum-channel transistor, when in 2012, NASA and the National Nanofab Center in South Korea were reported
to have built a prototype vacuum-channel transistor in only 150 nanometers in size, can be manufactured
cheaply using standard silicon semiconductor processing, can operate at high speeds even in hostile
environments, and could consume just as much power as a standard transistor.[53]
 organic electrochemical transistor.
 solaristor (from solar cell transistor), a two-terminal gate-less self-powered phototransistor.

Part numbering standards/specifications[edit]

The types of some transistors can be parsed from the part number. There are three major semiconductor naming
standards; in each the alphanumeric prefix provides clues to type of the device.

Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS)[edit]

JIS transistor prefix table

Prefix Type of transistor

2SA high-frequency p–n–p BJT

2SB audio-frequency p–n–p BJT

2SC high-frequency n–p–n BJT

2SD audio-frequency n–p–n BJT

2SJ P-channel FET (both JFET and MOSFET)

2SK N-channel FET (both JFET and MOSFET)

The JIS-C-7012 specification for transistor part numbers starts with "2S",[54] e.g. 2SD965, but sometimes the "2S"
prefix is not marked on the package – a 2SD965 might only be marked "D965"; a 2SC1815 might be listed by a
supplier as simply "C1815". This series sometimes has suffixes (such as "R", "O", "BL", standing for "red", "orange",
"blue", etc.) to denote variants, such as tighter hFE (gain) groupings.

European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association (EECA)[edit]

The Pro Electron standard, the European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association part numbering scheme,
begins with two letters: the first gives the semiconductor type (A for germanium, B for silicon, and C for materials like
GaAs); the second letter denotes the intended use (A for diode, C for general-purpose transistor, etc.). A 3-digit
sequence number (or one letter then two digits, for industrial types) follows. With early devices this indicated the case
type. Suffixes may be used, with a letter (e.g. "C" often means high hFE, such as in: BC549C[55]) or other codes may
follow to show gain (e.g. BC327-25) or voltage rating (e.g. BUK854-800A[56])

Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC)[edit]

The JEDEC EIA370 transistor device numbers usually start with "2N", indicating a three-terminal device (dual-
gate field-effect transistors are four-terminal devices, so begin with 3N), then a 2, 3 or 4-digit sequential number with
no significance as to device properties (although early devices with low numbers tend to be germanium). For
example, 2N3055 is a silicon n–p–n power transistor, 2N1301 is a p–n–p germanium switching transistor. A letter
suffix (such as "A") is sometimes used to indicate a newer variant, but rarely gain groupings.

Proprietary[edit]
Manufacturers of devices may have their own proprietary numbering system, for example CK722. Since devices
are second-sourced, a manufacturer's prefix (like "MPF" in MPF102, which originally would denote a Motorola FET)
now is an unreliable indicator of who made the device. Some proprietary naming schemes adopt parts of other
naming schemes, for example a PN2222A is a (possibly Fairchild Semiconductor) 2N2222A in a plastic case (but a
PN108 is a plastic version of a BC108, not a 2N108, while the PN100 is unrelated to other xx100 devices).
Military part numbers sometimes are assigned their own codes, such as the British Military CV Naming System.
Manufacturers buying large numbers of similar parts may have them supplied with "house numbers", identifying a
particular purchasing specification and not necessarily a device with a standardized registered number. For example,
an HP part 1854,0053 is a (JEDEC) 2N2218 transistor[57][58] which is also assigned the CV number: CV7763[59]

Naming problems[edit]
With so many independent naming schemes, and the abbreviation of part numbers when printed on the devices,
ambiguity sometimes occurs. For example, two different devices may be marked "J176" (one the J176 low-
power JFET, the other the higher-powered MOSFET 2SJ176).
As older "through-hole" transistors are given surface-mount packaged counterparts, they tend to be assigned many
different part numbers because manufacturers have their own systems to cope with the variety
in pinout arrangements and options for dual or matched n–p–n + p–n–p devices in one pack. So even when the
original device (such as a 2N3904) may have been assigned by a standards authority, and well known by engineers
over the years, the new versions are far from standardized in their naming.

Construction[edit]
Semiconductor material[edit]
Semiconductor material characteristics

Junction forward Max.

Semiconductor Electron mobility Hole mobility
voltage junction temp.
material m2/(V·s) @ 25 °C m /(V·s) @ 25 °C
2
V @ 25 °C °C

Ge 0.27 0.39 0.19 70 to 100

Si 0.71 0.14 0.05 150 to 200

GaAs 1.03 0.85 0.05 150 to 200

Al-Si junction 0.3 — — 150 to 200

The first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge). Silicon (Si) types currently predominate but certain advanced
microwave and high-performance versions now employ the compound semiconductor material gallium
arsenide (GaAs) and the semiconductor alloy silicon germanium (SiGe). Single element semiconductor material (Ge
and Si) is described as elemental.
Rough parameters for the most common semiconductor materials used to make transistors are given in the adjacent
table; these parameters will vary with increase in temperature, electric field, impurity level, strain, and sundry other
factors.
The junction forward voltage is the voltage applied to the emitter–base junction of a BJT in order to make the base
conduct a specified current. The current increases exponentially as the junction forward voltage is increased. The
values given in the table are typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes). The
lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this means that less power is required to "drive" the transistor. The
junction forward voltage for a given current decreases with increase in temperature. For a typical silicon junction the
change is −2.1 mV/°C.[60] In some circuits special compensating elements (sensistors) must be used to compensate
for such changes.
The density of mobile carriers in the channel of a MOSFET is a function of the electric field forming the channel and
of various other phenomena such as the impurity level in the channel. Some impurities, called dopants, are
introduced deliberately in making a MOSFET, to control the MOSFET electrical behavior.
The electron mobility and hole mobility columns show the average speed that electrons and holes diffuse through the
semiconductor material with an electric field of 1 volt per meter applied across the material. In general, the higher the
electron mobility the faster the transistor can operate. The table indicates that Ge is a better material than Si in this
respect. However, Ge has four major shortcomings compared to silicon and gallium arsenide:

 Its maximum temperature is limited;

 it has relatively high leakage current;
 it cannot withstand high voltages;
 it is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits.
Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given bipolar n–p–n
transistor tends to be swifter than an equivalent p–n–p transistor. GaAs has the highest electron mobility of the three
semiconductors. It is for this reason that GaAs is used in high-frequency applications. A relatively recent[when?] FET
development, the high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT), has a heterostructure (junction between different
semiconductor materials) of aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has twice the
electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs are used in
satellite receivers working at frequencies around 12 GHz. HEMTs based on gallium nitride and aluminium gallium
nitride (AlGaN/GaN HEMTs) provide a still higher electron mobility and are being developed for various applications.
Max. junction temperature values represent a cross section taken from various manufacturers' data sheets. This
temperature should not be exceeded or the transistor may be damaged.
Al–Si junction refers to the high-speed (aluminum–silicon) metal–semiconductor barrier diode, commonly known as
a Schottky diode. This is included in the table because some silicon power IGFETs have a parasitic reverse Schottky
diode formed between the source and drain as part of the fabrication process. This diode can be a nuisance, but
sometimes it is used in the circuit.

Packaging[edit]
See also: Semiconductor package and Chip carrier

Assorted discrete transistors

Soviet KT315b transistors

Discrete transistors can be individually packaged transistors or unpackaged transistor chips (dice).
Transistors come in many different semiconductor packages (see image). The two main categories are through-
hole (or leaded), and surface-mount, also known as surface-mount device (SMD). The ball grid array (BGA) is the
latest surface-mount package (currently only for large integrated circuits). It has solder "balls" on the underside in
place of leads. Because they are smaller and have shorter interconnections, SMDs have better high-frequency
characteristics but lower power rating.
Transistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic, or plastic. The package often dictates the power rating and
frequency characteristics. Power transistors have larger packages that can be clamped to heat sinks for enhanced
cooling. Additionally, most power transistors have the collector or drain physically connected to the metal enclosure.
At the other extreme, some surface-mount microwavetransistors are as small as grains of sand.
Often a given transistor type is available in several packages. Transistor packages are mainly standardized, but the
assignment of a transistor's functions to the terminals is not: other transistor types can assign other functions to the
package's terminals. Even for the same transistor type the terminal assignment can vary (normally indicated by a
suffix letter to the part number, q.e. BC212L and BC212K).
Nowadays most transistors come in a wide range of SMT packages, in comparison the list of available through-hole
packages is relatively small, here is a short list of the most common through-hole transistors packages in
alphabetical order: ATV, E-line, MRT, HRT, SC-43, SC-72, TO-3, TO-18, TO-39, TO-92, TO-126, TO220, TO247,
TO251, TO262, ZTX851.
Unpackaged transistor chips (die) may be assembled into hybrid devices.[61] The IBM SLT module of the 1960s is one
example of such a hybrid circuit module using glass passivated transistor (and diode) die. Other packaging
techniques for discrete transistors as chips include Direct Chip Attach (DCA) and Chip On Board (COB).[61]
Flexible transistors[edit]
Researchers have made several kinds of flexible transistors, including organic field-effect transistors.[62][63][64] Flexible
transistors are useful in some kinds of flexible displays and other flexible electronics.

Different Types of Transistors and Their Functions

Transistor is an active component and that is establishing in all over electronic circuits. They are used
as amplifiers and switching apparatus. As the amplifiers, they are used in high and low level,
frequency stages, oscillators, modulators, detectors and in any circuit need to perform a function. In
digital circuits they are used as switches. There are a huge number of manufacturers approximately
the world who produces semiconductors (transistors are members of this family of apparatus), so
there are exactly thousands of different types. There are low, medium and high power transistors, for
functioning with high and low frequencies, for functioning with very high current and or high voltages.
This article gives an overview of what is a transistor, different types of transistors and its applications.
Different Types of Transistors
The transistor is an electronic equipment. It is made through p and n type semiconductor. When a
semiconductor is placed in center between same type semiconductors the arrangement is called
transistors. We can say that a transistor is the combination of two diodes it is a connected back to
back. A transistor is a device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a button or gate for
electronic signals. Transistors consist of three layers of a semiconductor device, each capable of moving
a current. A semiconductor is a material such like that germanium and silicon that conducts electricity
in a “semi-enthusiastic” way. It’s anywhere between a genuine conductor such as a copper and an
insulator (similar to the plastic wrapped roughly wires).
Transistor Symbol
A diagrammatic form of n-p-n and p-n-p transistor is exposed. In circuit is a connection drawn form is
used. The arrow symbol defined the emitter current. In the n-p-n connection we identify electrons flow
into the emitter. This means that conservative current flows out of the emitter as an indicated by the
outgoing arrow. Equally it can be seen that for p-n-p connection, the conservative current flows into
the emitter as exposed by the inward arrow in the figure.
 Transistor Symbols
There are so many types of transistors and they each vary in their characteristics and each has their
possess advantages and disadvantages. Some types of transistors are used mostly for switching
applications. Others can be used for both switching and amplification. Still other transistors are in a
specialty group all of their own, such as phototransistors, which react to the amount of light shining on it
to produce current flow through it. Below is a list of the different types of transistors; we will go over the
characteristics that create them each up
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Bipolar Junction Transistors are transistors which are built up of 3 regions, the base, the collector, and
the emitter. Bipolar Junction transistors, different FET transistors, are current-controlled devices. A
small current entering in the base region of the transistor causes a much larger current flow from the
emitter to the collector region. Bipolar junction transistors come in two major types, NPN and PNP. A
NPN transistor is one in which the majority current carrier are electrons. Electron flowing from the
emitter to the collector forms the base of the majority of current flow through the transistor. The further
types of charge, holes, are a minority. PNP transistors are the opposite. In PNP transistors, the
majority current carrier is holes.

Bipolar Junction Transistor pins

Field Effect Transistor
Field Effect Transistors are made up of 3 regions, a gate, a source, and a drain. Different bipolar
transistors, FETs are voltage-controlled devices. A voltage placed at the gate controls current flow
from the source to the drain of the transistor. Field Effect transistors have a very high input impedance,
from several mega ohms (MΩ) of resistance to much, much larger values. This high input impedance
causes them to have very little current run through them. (According to ohm’s law, current is inversely
affected by the value of the impedance of the circuit. If the impedance is high, the current is very low.)
So FETs both draw very little current from a circuit’s power source.

Field Effect Transistor

Thus, this is ideal because they don’t disturb the original circuit power elements to which they are
connected to. They won’t cause the power source to be loaded down. The drawback of FETs is that
they won’t provide the same amplification that could be gotten from bipolar transistors. Bipolar
transistors are superior in the fact that they provide greater amplification, even though FETs are better
in that they cause less loading, are cheaper, and easier to manufacture. Field Effect Transistors come
in 2 main types: JFETs and MOSFETs. JFETs and MOSFETs are very similar but MOSFETs have an
even higher input impedance values than JFETs. This causes even less loading in a circuit.

Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor (HBT)

AlgaAs/GaAs heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs) are used for digital and analog microwave
applications with frequencies as high as Ku band. HBTs can supply faster switching speeds than
silicon bipolar transistors mostly because of reduced base resistance and collector-to-substrate
capacitance. HBT processing requires less demanding lithography than GaAs FETs, therefore, HBTs
can priceless to fabricate and can provide better lithographic yield.

This technology can also provide higher breakdown voltages and easier broadband impedance
matching than GaAs FETs. In assessment with Si bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), HBTs show
better presentation in terms of emitter injection efficiency, base resistance, the base-emitter
capacitance, and cutoff frequency. They also present a good linearity, low phase noise and high
power-added efficiency. HBTs are used in both profitable and high-reliability applications, such as
power amplifiers in mobile telephones and laser drivers.

Darlington Transistor
A Darlington transistor sometimes called as a “Darlington pair” is a transistor circuit that is made from
two transistors. Sidney Darlington invented it. It is like a transistor, but it has much higher ability to gain
current. The circuit can be made from two discrete transistors or it can be inside an integrated circuit.
The hfe parameter with a Darlington transistor is every transistors hfe multiplied mutually. The circuit is
helpful in audio amplifiers or in a probe that measures very small current that goes through the water.
It is so sensitive that it can pick up the current in the skin. If you connect it to a piece of metal, you can
build a touch-sensitive button.

Darlington Transistor
Schottky Transistor
A Schottky transistor is a combination of a transistor and a Schottky diode that prevents the transistor
from saturating by diverting the extreme input current. It is also called a Schottky-clamped transistor.

Schottky Transistor
Multiple-Emitter Transistor
A multiple-emitter transistor is specialize bipolar transistor frequently used as the inputs of transistor
transistor logic (TTL) NAND logic gates. Input signals are applied to the emitters. Collector current stops
flowing simply, if all emitters are driven by the logical high voltage, thus performing a NAND logical
process using a single transistor. Multiple-emitter transistors replace diodes of DTL and agree to
reduction of switching time and power dissipation.
 Multi-Emmiter Transistor
Dual Gate MOSFET
One form of MOSFET that is a particularly popular in several RF applications is the dual gate
MOSFET. The dual gate MOSFET is used in many RF and other applications where two control gates
are required in series. The dual gate MOSFET is fundamentally a form of MOSFET where, two gates
are made-up along the length of the channel one after the other.

Dual Gate Mosfet

In this way, both gates influence the level of current flowing between the source and drain. In effect,
the dual gate MOSFET operation can be considered the same as two MOSFET devices in series.
Both gates affect the general MOSFET operation and therefore the output. The dual gate MOSFET
can be used in a lot of applications including RF mixers /multipliers, RF amplifiers, amplifiers with gain
control and the like.

Junction FET Transistor

The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JUGFET or JFET) has no PN-junctions but in its place has a narrow
part of high resistivity semiconductor material forming a “Channel” of either N-type or P-type silicon for
the majority carriers to flow through with two ohmic electrical connections at either end normally called
the Drain and the Source respectively. There are a two basic configurations of junction field effect
transistor, the N-channel JFET and the P-channel JFET. The N-channel JFET’s channel is doped with
donor impurities meaning that the flow of current through the channel is negative (hence the term N-
channel) in the form of electrons.
 Juntion FET Transistor
Avalanche Transistor
An avalanche transistor is a bipolar junction transistor designed for process in the region of its
collector-current/collector-to-emitter voltage characteristics beyond the collector-to-emitter breakdown
voltage, called avalanche breakdown region. This region is characterized by the avalanche
breakdown, an occurrence similar to Townsend discharge for gases, and negative differential
resistance. Operation in the avalanche breakdown region is called avalanche-mode operation: it gives
avalanche transistors the capability to switch very high currents with less than a nanosecond rise and
fall times (transition times).

Transistors not particularly designed for the purpose can have reasonably consistent avalanche
properties; for example 82% of samples of the 15V high-speed switch 2N2369, manufactured over a
12-year period, were capable of generating avalanche breakdown pulses with rise time of 350 ps or
less, using a 90V power supply as Jim Williams writes.

Diffusion Transistor
A diffusion transistor is a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) formed by diffusing dopants into a
semiconductor substrate. The diffusion process was implemented later than the alloy junction and
grown junction processes for making BJTs. Bell Labs developed the first prototype diffusion transistors
in 1954. The original diffusion transistors were diffused-base transistors. These transistors still had
alloy emitters and sometimes alloy collectors like the earlier alloy-junction transistors. Only the base
was diffused into the substrate. Sometimes the substrate produced the collector, but in transistors like
Philco’s micro alloy diffused transistors the substrate was the bulk of the base.

Transistor Applications
The appropriate application of power semiconductors requires an understanding of their maximum
ratings and electrical characteristics, information that is presented within the device data sheet. Good
design practice employs data sheet limits and not information obtained from small sample lots. A
rating is a maximum or minimum value that sets a limit on device’s ability. Act in excess of a rating can
result in irreversible degradation or device failure. Maximum ratings signify extreme capabilities of a
device. They are not to be used as design circumstances.

A characteristic is a measure of device performance under individual operating conditions expressed

by minimum, characteristic, and/or maximum values, or revealed graphically.

Thus, this is all about what is a transistor and different types of transistors and its applications. We
hope that you have got a better understanding of this concept or to implement electrical and electronics
projects, please give your valuable suggestions by commenting in the comment section below. Here is
a question for you, what is the main function of a transistor?