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15 - Solutions of Algebric and Transcendental Equations
15 - Solutions of Algebric and Transcendental Equations
15.1 INTRODUCTION
The equations of the form f(x) = 0 where f(x) is purely a polynomial in x. e.g. x6 – x4 – x3 – 1 = 0
is called an algebraic equation. But, if f (x) involves trigonometrical, arithmetic or exponential
terms in it, then it is called transcendental equation.
E.g. xex – 2 = 0 and x log10x – 1.2 = 0.
(i) The number of positive roots of an algebraic equation f (x) = 0 with real coefficients
can never exceed the number of changes in sign from positive to negative and negative
to positive.
E.g. Take x5 – 3x2 + 4x – 6 = 0
Here the coefficients are with sign + – + – i.e. they change from positive to negative,
negative to positive, positive to negative and, hence the equation contains three positive
roots.
962
Solutions of Algebraic and Transcedental Equations 963
(ii) The number of negative roots can not exceed the number of changes of sign in f (–x).
E.g. f (–x) = –x5 – 3x2 – 4x – 6 = 0;
Here all the coefficients are negative and so there is no change in signs, meaning
there by that the given equation does not contain any negative root.
(Note: observations (i) & (ii) are more commonly known as Descrate’s sign rule.)
(iii) Every equation of an odd degree has at least one real root, whereas every equation of
an even degree with last term in it if negative, has at least two real roots, one positive
and the other negative.
Significance: Apart from providing rough estimates of the roots, graphical interpretations
are important tools for understanding the properties of the functions and anticipating the
pitfalls of the numerical methods.
x2
Example 1: Solve Graphically sin x = for a non-zero root.
4
x2
Solution: Let y1 = sinx; y2 =
4
TABLE 3.1: VALUE OF y1 AND y2 FOR STARTING VALUES OF X
x(radian) y1 y2 f (x) = y1 – y2
0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000
1.0 0.8414 0.250 0.591 > 0
2.0 0.9090 1.000 –0.091 < 0
x2
x(radian) y1 = sin x y2 = f (x) = y1 – y2
4
0.0 0.000 0.0 0.0
0.5 0.4793 0.0625 0.4168 > 0
1.0 0.8414 0.25 0.5914 > 0
1.1 0.8910 0.3025 0.5885 > 0
1.2 0.9391 0.36 0.5719 > 0
1.3 0.96346 0.4225 0.54096 > 0
1.4 0.9854 0.490 0.4954 > 0
1.5 0.9974 0.5625 0.4349 > 0
1.6 0.9996 0.640 0.3596 > 0
1.7 0.99169 0.7225 0.26919 > 0
1.8 0.97390 0.810 0.1639 > 0
1.9 0.94638 0.9025 0.0440 > 0
2.0 0.9090 1.00 –0.0010 < 0
Table 3.2 indicates the trend as there is a change in sign in values of y for x = 1.90 and 2.00.
TABLE 3.3:
x2
x(radian) y1 = sin x y2 = f (x) = y1 – y2
4
1.91 0.94638 0.9025 0.044 > 0
1.92 0.939734 0.9216 0.018 > 0
1.93 0.936229 0.931225 0.005044 > 0
Table 3.3 shows that x = 1.93 is better approximation.
x2
∴ The real root of the equation sin x = is 1.93.
4
Solutions of Algebraic and Transcedental Equations 965
Root → x = 1.93
1.2
y2
y2 1.0 4 P(1.93, 0.94)
0.8 3 d .5
0.6
2
0.4 d y1 = sinx
1 c
0.2
b
2.8 2.6 2.4 2.21.0 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 .9 .8 .6 .4 0.2
a 0.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
y1
0.8
1.0
1.2
Fig. 15.1
Geometrical Significance: Draw the graph of y1 = x and y2 = φ (x) as shown below in the
figure 3.2. Since |φ'(x)| < 1 for convergence, the initial approximation of the curve y2 = φ (x)
must be less then 45° in the neighbourhood of x0. This fact has been observed in constructing
the graph.
y P2 P3
Q3(x3, φ(x2))
P1
Q2(x2, φ(x1))
P0
Q1(x1, φ(x0))
y2 = φ(x)
O x
A0 A1 A2 A3
x0
x1
x2
x3
Fig. 15.2
For tracing the convergence of the iteration process, draw the ordinates φ(x0). Then from
point p0, draw a line parallel to OX until it intersects the line y1 = x at the point Q1(x1, φ (x0)).
This point Q1 is the geometric representation of the first iteration x1 = φ (x0).
Then draw Q1P1, P1Q2, Q2P2, P2Q3 etc. as indicated by the arrows in geometry. The
points Q1, Q2, Q3,………, thus approaches to the point of intersection of the curves y1 = x and
y2 = φ (x) as iteration proceeds and converges to the desired root.
Observations:
1. As there could be several ways of rewriting the given equation f(x) = 0 as x = φ(x), hence care should be taken so
that the condition. |φ´(x)| < 1 for convergence is satisfied. Further, if |φ´(x)| < 1 the root converges but oscillates
about the exact value. e.g. 1 illustrating the above fact:
e.g. 1. The equations x3 – 2 = 0 …(1)
can be rewritten either x = x3 + x – 2 …(2)
1
x= (2 + 5x − x3) …(3)
5
x2 − 3
Case 3: Further f (x) = x2 – 2x – 3 = 0 can be rewritten x = …(6)
2
Starting with x0 = 4.0, we get x1 = 6.5, x2 = 19.635, x3 = 191.0
Which clearly goes on diverging, resulting in astray instead of the desired result.
Hence, a care should be taken while rewriting f(x) = 0 as x = g(x).
968 Engineering Mathematics through Applications
Aitkens ∆2 Method:
Let xn – 1, xn, xn + 1 be the three successive approximation to the root α of the equation
x = φ (x). Then we know that
(α – xn) = k(α – xn – 1) and (α – xn + 1) = k(α – xn) …(7)
(α − xn ) (α − xn +1 )
On dividing the two, =
(α − xn −1 ) (α − xn )
(xn+1 − xn )2
Implying α − xn+1 =
xn +1 − 2xn + xn −1
But in the sequence of approximations,
∆xn = xn + 1 – xn
Solutions of Algebraic and Transcedental Equations 969
(∆ xn )2
Hence (7) can be written as α = xn +1 + …(8)
∆2 xn −1
This yields successive approximations to the root α and explains the term ∆2 process.
In numerical application of the problem, the values of the following quantities must be
obtained.
xn – 1
→ ∆xn – 1
xn → ∆ 2 xn – 1
→ ∆xn
xn + 1
Example 2: Find the root of the equation 2x = cos x + 3 correct to three decimal of places.
Further, test its acceleration of convergence: Aitken’s ∆2 process.
1
Solution: Re-write the equation in the form x = (cos x + 3) …(1)
2
1 sin x
So that φ(x) = (cos x + 3) and φ´(x) < <1 …(2)
2 2
π
Hence, the iteration method can be applied to equation (1) and we start with x0 = . The
2
successive iterations are
x1 = 1.500, x4 = 1.526, x7 = 1.523,
x2 = 1.535, x5 = 1.522, x8 = 1.524;
x3 = 1.518; x6 = 1.524;
Clearly, 1.524 can be considered as the solution correct to three decimal places.
Now, from the table of differences, using first three numbers of iterated values, fourth
value is achieved.
x1 = 1.500
→ ∆x1 = 0.035
x2 = 1.535 → ∆2x1 = –0.052
→ ∆x2 = –0.017
x3 = 1.518
(∆ x1 )2 (− 0.017)2
And x4 = x3 − = 1.518 − = 1.524
∆2 x2 − 0.052
Example 3: Use method of iteration to find a root of the equation xex = 1 lying between 0
and 1 correct to three decimal of places.
Here |φ´(x)| = for x < 1, hence this method ensures the condition of convergence.
Define xn + 1 = φ(xn) and take x0 = 1, we find the successive iterations are given by
1 1
x1 = x0
= = 0.3678794, x7 = 0.5601154, x13 = 0.5665566
e e
1
x2 = = 0.6062435, x8 = 0.5711431, x14 = 0.5672762
ex1
x3 = 0.5004735, x9 = 0.5648793, x16 = 0.567157
x4 = 0.6062435, x10 = 0.5684287, x17 = 0.567119
x5 = 0.5453957, x11 = 0.5664147, x18 = 0.567157
x6 = 0.5796123, x12 = 0.5675566,
So x = 0.567 in the desired root correct to three decimal of places.
(b − a)
new interval containing the root be of length . Say after n iterations, the latest interval is as small
2n
as given ∈, then
(b − a) (b − a) log(b − a) − log(∈)
≤∈ or ≤ 2n or ≤n
2n ∈ log 2
which give the number of iterations required to achieve the desired accuracy, ∈.
For example, in particular the minimum number of iterations needed for achieving a root in the
interval (0, 1) for given error, ∈ are as follows:
∈: 10–2 10–3 10–4
n: 7 10 14
If (b-a) = 1, and ∈ = 0.001, then it can be seen that n ≥ 10.
(iii) As by each iteration the interval is reduced by a factor of half meaning thereby that error is reduced by
a factor of half. Or in other words, the errors in (n + 1)th and nth iterations are in the ratio of half i.e.
εn+ 1 1
= . Meaning there by, the convergence of this method is linear i.e. 1.
εn 2
Working Rule:
Step 1, Practically, choose the lower end as x0(x = a) and upper end as xn(x = b) to guess for
the root so that the function changes sign over the interval. This can be checked by ensuring
that f (x0) f (xn) < 0
x0 + xn
Step 2: Make the following root xr is determined by xr =
2
Step 3: Make the following evaluations to determine in which subinterval the root lies.
(a) If f (x0) f (xn) < 0 root lies in the lower subinterval and repeat.
(b) If f (x0) f (xn) > 0 the root lies in upper subinterval and repeat the process.
(c) If f (x0) f (xn) = 0, the root equals x; terminate the computation.
f (2) = −9
Further, f (4) = 29 and f (2) · f (4) < 0 so that a root lies between x = 2 and x = 4.
a+b 2+4
Now x1 = = = 3 and f(3) = 1 so that f(2) · f (3) < 0.
2 2
2+3
Hence, x2 = = 2.5 and f(2.5) = –5.87
2
For next iteration, we see that f (3) f (2.5) < 0 and the root lies between 2.5 and 3.
2.5 + 3
∴ x3 = = 2.75
2
972 Engineering Mathematics through Applications
Similarly, x4 = 2.875 and x5 = 2.9375 and the process is continued for better accuracy.
Solution: For given f (x) = x3 – 2x2 – 4, we find two numbers a = 2 and b = 3 such that
f (a) = f (2) = –4 and f (b) = f (3) = 5 are of opposite sign
Hence the root lies between a = 2 and b = 3. Then for iteration purpose, we follows as:
An alternate way of expressing the problem in tabular form:
(a + b)
Iteration No. a b x= f(a) f(b) f(x)
2
1. 2 3 2.50000 –ve +ve –ve (1.8750)
2. 2.50000 3.00000 2.75000 –ve +ve +ve (1.6719)
3. 2.50000 2.75000 2.62500 –ve +ve +ve (0.3066)
4. 2.50000 2.62500 2.56250 –ve +ve –ve (0.3.640)
5. 2.56250 2.62500 2.59375 –ve +ve –ve (0.0055)
6. 2.59375 2.62500 2.60938 –ve +ve +ve (0.1488)
7. 2.59375 2.60938 2.60157 –ve +ve +ve (0.0719)
8. 2.59375 2.60157 2.59765 –ve +ve +ve (0.0329)
9. 2.59375 2.59760 2.59570 –ve +ve +ve (0.0136)
10. 2.59375 2.59570 2.59470 –ve +ve –ve (0.0040)
Hence, the root correct to three decimal places is x = 2.5947.
method of false position and its rate if conversance equals 1.618, which is faster than that of
Bisection Method. Some times this method is also known as Method of Variable Secant.
General expression representing (n + 1)th iterated value xn + 1 is as follows:
(xn − xn −1)
xn+ 1 = xn − f (xn ) …(2)
f (xn ) − f (xn −1 )
provide that at each step, f (xn) – f (xn – 1) < 0.
Observations:
The method of false position is based on the principle that any portion of a smooth curve is practically straight
for a short distance and therefore, it is legitimate to assume that the change in f(x) is proportional to the change
in x over a short interval as in the case of linear interpolation from logrithmic and trigonometric tables. For it,
assume that the graph of the curve y = f (x) is straight line between the pts. (a, f(a)) and (b, f (b)), these pts being
on the opposite sides of the x-axis.
Pit Falls of the False-Position Method: Although false position method is preferable among
all the bracketing methods, but there are certain functions on which it performs poor and
bisection yields superior results, e.g. Take f (x) = x10 – 1.
In this problem, after 5 iteration, true error is reduced less than 2% in bisection method
whereas in case of false position after 5 iterations results has been reduced about 59% leaving
very high error.
Order of Convergence
Let εn be the error in the nth iterated value xn, so that
xn = α + εn, xn + 1 = α + εn + 1,
(xn − xn −1 )
On putting these values in expression xn+ 1 = xn − f (xn ), we get
f (xn ) − f (xn −1 )
εn −1 f (α + εn ) − εn f (α + εn −1)
εn +1 =
f (α + εn ) − f (α + εn −1)
ε2 ε2
εn −1 f (α) + εn f ´(α) + n f ”(α) + … − εn f (α) + εn −1 f ´(α) + n −1 f ”(α) + …
= 2! 2!
εn2 εn2 −1
f (α) + εn f ´(α) + 2! f ”(α) + … − f (α) + εn−1 f ´(α) + 2! f ”(α) + …
f ”(α)
+ O ( εn2 ) , usin g f (α) = 0
1
εn +1 = εn −1εn ⋅ …(3)
2 f ´(α)
1 1 −1 1
And therefore εn = c εkn − 1 or (εn )k = c k εn − 1 or εn −1 = c k εnk …(5)
k = 1+
1 1± 5
or k2 – k – 1 = 0 or k= .
k 2
1+ 5
The positive value of k is = 1.618.
2
Hence, εn +1 = c ε1.618
n
Example 6. Use Regula-Falsi Method to find a real root of the equation x log10x – 1.2 = 0
correct to five places of decimal.
[Bhopal, 2002; Madras, 2003; VTU, 2004; Kottayam, 2005; NIT Kurukshetra, 2008]
(3 − 2)
=2− × (−0.59794)
0.23136 − (−0.59794)
0.59794
=2+ = 2 + 0.721 = 2.721
0.82930
f (x1) = f (2.721) = 2.721 log102.721 – 1.2 = 2.721 × 0.43472 – 1.2 = 0.0171
Now, f (x1) is –ve and f (b) is +ve, so the root lies in between 2.721 and 3.
Here for the next iteration, a = 2.721 and b = 3.
(b − a)
∴ x2 = a − f (a)
f (b) − f (a)
(3 − 2.721)
= 2.721 − × (− 0.0172) = 2.721 + 0.019201 = 2.740201
0.23136 − (− 0.0172)
Now f (x2) = f (2.740201 = – 0.0004
Solutions of Algebraic and Transcedental Equations 975
(3 − 2.740201)
∴ x3 = 2.740201 − f (2.740201)
f (3) − f (2.740201)
Example 7: Using Regula Falsi Method, compute the real root of the equation xex – 2 = 0
correct up to three decimals places. [SVTU, 2007; NIT Kurukshetra, 2004, 2007]
(x1 − x0 )
x2 = x0 − f (x0 )
f (x1) − (x0 )
1 − 0.5
= 0.5 − × (−1.17)
0.718 − (− 1.17)
0.5
= 0.5 + 1.17 = 0.5 + 0.3098 = 0.8098
.718 + 1.17
f (x2) = f (0.8098) = 0.8098 e0.8098 – 2 = –0.18 = 0.8098
2nd Step: Root lies between x1 = 1 and x2 = 0.8098
x1 − x2
∴ x3 = x2 − f (x2 )
f (x1) − f (x2 )
1 − 0.8098 0.1902
= 0.8098 − (−0.18) = 0.8098 + = 0.8479
0.718 + 0.18 0.898
f (x2) = f (0.8479) = 0.8479 – e0.8479 – 2 = –0.02(–ve)
3rd Step: Next root lies between x3 = 0.847 and x1 = 1
(x1 − x3 )
∴ x4 = x3 − f (x3 )
f (x1) − f (x3 )
1 − 0.8479 0.0032
= 0.8479 − (−0.02) = 0.8479 + = 0.8519
0.718 − (−0.02) 0.738
f (x4) = 0.8519 e0.8519 – 2 = –0.0031
976 Engineering Mathematics through Applications
x1 − x4
∴ x5 = x4 − f (x4 )
f (x1) − f (x4 )
1 − 0.8519 0.00046
= 0.8519 − × 0.0031 = 0.8519 + = 0.8525
0.718 + 0.0031 0.7211
Approximate root is correct to 4 decimal of place, 0.8525
Example 8: Find the equation x3 – 5x –7 = 0 which lies between 2 and 3 by the method of
false position.
x1 − x0 3−2
∴ x2 = x0 − × f (x0 ) = 2 − (−9)
f (x1) − f (x0 ) 5 − (− 9)
3 − 2.64286
x3 = 2.46286 − × −(1.7547)
5 − (1.7547)
3 − 2.7472
∴ x6 = 2.7472 − × (−0.00258) = 2.7472 − (0.00013) = 2.7473. …(8)
5 − (− 0.00258)
Again putting x = 2.7473 in equation (1), we get
f (2.7473) = (2.7473)3 – 5(2.7473) – 7 = – 0.00082
Hence, the required root up to 4 decimal places is = 2.7473.
Example 9: Obtain the root of the equation xx = 100 correct to three decimal places, using
iteration method. Given the root lies between 3 and 4.
1 0.5687
= −3 − × − 0.5687 = 3 + = 3.50 …(3)
0.4084 − ( −0.5687) 0.9771
Here f (3.58) = –0.0717(–ve) and f(4) = 0.4084 (+ve) …(4)
Clearly the root lies in between 3.58 and 4.
For 2nd approximation
(b − a)
x2 = a − f (a), where a = 3.58 and b = 4.00
f (b) − f (a)
Example 10: Find the root of the equation tan x + tanh x = 0 correct to three significant
figures, using an iterative formula. Given that the root lies between 2 and 3.
1 0.5687
= −3 − × −0.5687 = 3 + = 3.58 …(3)
0.4084 − (−5687) 0.9771
Here f (3.58) = –0.0717(–ve) and f(4) = 0.4084 (+ve) …(4)
Clearly the root lies in between 3.58 and 4.
For second approximation,
(b − a)
x2 = a − f (a), where a = 3.58 and b = 4.00
f (b) − f (a)
0.42 × 0.00171 0.0072
= 3.58 + = 3.58 + = 3.5969
0.4255 0..4255
∴ Root of f (x) = 3.597
Example 10: Find the root of the equation tanx + tanh x = 0 correct to three significance
figures, using an iterative formula. Given that the root lies between 2 and 3.
1 1.2210
=2− (−1.2210) = 2 + = 2.95 …(3)
0.8525 − ( −1.2210) 2.0735
and f (2.59) = – 0.6153 + 0.9888 = +0.3765, f(2) = –1.2210 …(4)
Therefore, the root lies in between 2 and 2.59.
For next iteration, a = 2, b = 2.59
0.59
∴ x2 = 2 + (1.2210) = 2.45 …(5)
1.5945
and f (x2) = f (2.45) = tan 2.45 + tanh 2.45 = –0.8280 + 0.9852 = 0.1572; …(6)
For next iteration, a = 2 and b = 2.45
Example 11: Find the root of the equation xex = cosx using the Secant method correct to
four decimal places.
Solution: Here xex = cosx for initial approximations a = 0, b = 1 gives,
f (0) = 1, f(1) = cos1 – e = –2.17798
(b − a) 1
Then x1 = b − f (b) = 1 − (− 2.17798) = 0.31467
f (b) − f (a) − 3.17798
and f (x1) = 0.51987
For next iteration consider b and x1 (being the recent most iterated values), so that
(b − x1) (1 − 0.31467)
x2 = x1 − f (x1 ) = 0.31467 − (0.51987) = 0.44673
f (b) − f (x1) − 2.17798 − 0.51987
980 Engineering Mathematics through Applications
f (xn )
And so on, xn +1 = xn − …(5)
f ´(xn )
Observations:
(i) This method is generally used to improve the results obtained by other methods. It is applicable to
solutions of both algebraic and transcendental having real as well for complex roots.
Solutions of Algebraic and Transcedental Equations 981
(ii) Newton formula converges provided the initial approximation x0 is chosen of sufficiently close to the
root, otherwise, it may lead to an astray. Thus, a proper choice of initial guess is very important for
convergence of this method. For h to be small, f´(x) has to be large. Because, when f´(x) is large, then the
graph of f(x) while crossing the x-axis will be nearly vertical and the value is found rapidly. In other
cases, when f´(x) is small, the correction may take more number of iterations or even the method may
fail leading to an endless cycle.
(iii) If the equation has a pair of double roots in the neighbourhood of xn, the Newton Raphson method is
f (xn)
modified as xn +1 = xn − 2
f ´(x )
which also shows its quadratic convergence.
n
(vi) Division by zero may occurs if f´(x) is zero.
(v) In Newton-Raphson method, f´(xn) has to be evaluated at each iteration step, instead if we use f´(0) at
f (xn)
each iteration step, then xn +1 = xn − is called Von Mises’ Method.
f ´(0)
Geometrical Significance: Let x0 be a point near the exact α of the equation, f (x) = 0. See the
figure 15.6. then tangent at A0(x0, f (x0) is
y – f (x0) = f´(x0)(x – x0)
y
f (x0 )
It cuts the x-axis at x1 = x0 − , (since at x = x1, y1 = 0) A0(x0 f(x0))
f ´(x0 )
which is the first approximation of the root α. If A1 is the
point corresponding to x1 on the curve, on continuing, the
tangent at A1 will cut the x-axis at x2 which is nearer to the A1
root α, a second approximation to the root. This way, by
A2
repeating, we approaches the root quite rapidly. Clearly,
x=α
here we replace the part of the curve between the point A0 0 x2 x1 x0 x
and the x-axis by means of the tangent at A0. y = f(x)
Fig. 15.6
Condition for Convergence:
f (xn )
From the formula, xn+ 1 = xn − it is evident that xn + 1 is a function of xn [KUK, 2007]
f ´(xn )
f (xn )
i.e. xn +1 = φ(xn ) = xn −
f ´(xn )
Order of Convergence: Let α be the exact root of the equation f(x) = 0 and let xn and xn + 1 be
the nth and (n + 1)th approximations of the root with εn and εn + 1 as the corresponding errors
in them, so that [KUK, 2007, 08, 09]
982 Engineering Mathematics through Applications
xn = α + εn and xn + 1 = α + εn + 1
f (xn )
Now by formula, xn +1 = xn −
f ´(xn )
f (α + εn )
i.e. α + εn +1 = α + εn −
f ´(α + εn )
εn2
f (α) + εn f ´(α) +f ”(α) + ……
εn +1 = εn − 2! , Taylor's expansion
εn2
f ´(α) + εn f ”(α) + f ´´´(α) + ……
2!
εn2
εn f ´(α) + f ”(α) + …
= εn − 2! , (Q f (α) = 0)
ε2
f ´(α) + εn f ”(α) + n f ´´´(α) + ……
2!
ε2n f ”(α)
= , on neglecting 3rd and higher power of εn
2 f ´(α) + εn f ”(α)
εn2 f ”(α)
= ,
2 f ”(α)
f ´(α) 1 + εn
f ´(α)
−1
ε2 f ”(α) f ′′(α) εn2 f ”(α ) f ”(α)
= n 1 + εn = 1 − εn
2 f ´(α) f ´(α) 2 f ´(α) f ´(α)
1 f ”(α)
This is a quadratic convergence, if < 1.
2 f ´(α)
Here it is cleat that error at each subsequent step is proportional to the square of the error
in the previous step. Or in other words, error is corrected to double decimal places at every
1 f ”(α)
iteration at least if the factor 2 f ´(α) is not too large. e.g. if error is of order 0.01 after 1st
iteration, means it will reduce to 0.0001 after 2nd iteration and hence as such the convergence
is quadratic.
1 N
(i) xn +1 = xn + to compute the square root of N i.e. 2
N
2 xn
Solutions of Algebraic and Transcedental Equations 983
1 N
(ii) xn+ 1 = 2xn + 2 to compute the cube root of N i.e. 3
N
3 xn
1 N
(iii) xn +1 = (k − 1)xn + k −1 to compute the kth root of N i.e. k
N
k xn
1
(iv) xn+1 = xn [ 2 − Nxn ] to compute the root of reciprocal of N i.e.
N
1 1 1
(v) xn+1 = xn + to compute reciprocal of square root of N i.e.
2 Nxn N
Proofs:
(i) Let x N or x2 = N so that
f (x) = x2 – N and f´(x) = 2x
f (xn ) x2 − N 1 N
Then, xn+ 1 = xn − = xn − n = xn + , N = 0, 1, 3,…
f ´(xn ) 2xn 2 xn
1
(ii) Let x = ( N )3 or x3 = N ⇒ x3 − N = 0 so that
f (x) = x3 – N and f´(x) = 3x2
f (xn ) x3 − N 3 x3 − xn3 + N 1 N
Then, xn+ 1 = xn − = xn − n 2 = n = 2xn + 2 , N = 0,1, 2,…
f ´(xn ) 3xn 3xn2
3 xn
(iii) x = k N or xk = N ⇒ xk − N = 0 so that
f (x) = xk – N and f´(x) = k xk – 1
f (xn ) xk − N k xk − xk + N 1 N
Then, xn+ 1 = xn − = xn − n k −1 = n k n−1 = (k − 1)xnk + k −1
f ´(xn ) k xn k xn k xn
1 1
(iv) Let x = or − N = 0 so that
N x
1
f (x) = − N and f(x) = –x–2, then by Newton's Formula
x
1
f (xn ) x − N 1
xn +1 = xn − = xn − n
= xn + − N xn2
f ´(xn ) −xn−2 xn
= xn + [1 – N xn]xn = [2 – Nxn]
1 1
(v) Let x = or x2 − = 0 so that
N N
984 Engineering Mathematics through Applications
1
f (x) = x2 − and then by Newton's formula
N
1
xn2 −
f (xn ) N 1 1
xn+ 1 = xn − = xn − = xn +
f ´(xn ) 2xn 2 Nxn
f (xn )
If a root α of the equation f (x) = 0 is repeated m times, then xn+ 1 = xn − m which is
f ´(xn )
called a general Newton's formula and is reduces to Newton-Raphson formula, when m = 1.
Observations:
1. If α is one of the root of the equation f(x) = 0 with m times repetition, then α will be (m – 1) times repeated
root of the equation f´(x) = 0, (m – 2) times repeated root of the equation f”(x) = 0 and so on. Further, if
the initial approximation x0 is sufficiently close to the root, then the expressions,
f (x0) f (x0 ) f (x0)
x0 − m , x0 − (m − 1) , x0 − (m − 2) ,……will have the same value.
f ´(x0 ) f ´(x0 ) f ´(x0 )
2. Generalized Newton formula has a second order convergence for multiple roots also.
f (xn )
Example 12: Show that the generalized Newton formula xn + 1 = xn − 2 , gives a
f ´(xn )
quadratic convergence when f (x) = 0 has a pair of double roots in the neighborhood of x = xn.
ε2 ε3
2 n f ”(α) + n f ´´´ (α) + …
= εn −
2! 3!
ε2n
εn f ”(α) + 2! f ´´´ (α) + …
εn f (α) + εn f ´´´(α)
1
= εn − 3! ,
Neglecting terms with high powers of εn
εn
f ”( α) + f ´´´(α)
2
εn2 f ´´´ (α) 1 f ´´´(α) 2
= ≅ εn
6 ”( ) εn ´´´( ) 6 f ”(α)
f α + f α
2
Solutions of Algebraic and Transcedental Equations 985
Which clearly shows that εn +1 ∝ εn2 and hence a second order convergence.
2
f (x0 ) 1 f (x0 ) f ”(x0 )
x1 = x0 − −
f ´(x0 ) 2 f ´(x0 ) f ´(x0 )
or …(4)
Example 12: Compute the real root of xlog10x – 1.2 = 0 upto four decimal places.
[Burdwan, 2003]
1
And f ´(x0 ) = 1 ⋅ log10 x + x log10 e = log10 3 + log10 e = 0.4771 + 0.4342 = 0.9113
x
(Using, logax = logae · logex)
986 Engineering Mathematics through Applications
Example 14: Using Newton-Raphson Method, compute the real root of the following
equation correct to four decimal places, x = 28 .
3rd Approximation:
For x2 = 5.0915, f(x2) = (5.2915)2 – 28 = – 0.000027, f´(x2) = 2 × 5.2915 = 10.583
f (x2 ) 0.000027
∴ x3 = x2 − = 5.2915 − = 5.291502
f ´(x2 ) 10.583
Which is correct upto 4 decimals.
Alternatively using the special form for finding the value of the square root of number n,
xi2 − n 1 n
xi +1 = xi − = xi + , i = 0,1, 2.
2xi 2 xi
5 + 6 11
Now to start with x0 = = = 5.5
2 2
Solutions of Algebraic and Transcedental Equations 987
1 28 1
x0 + = 5.5 +
28 1
x1 = = (5.5 + 5.091) = 5.2955
2 x0 2 5.5 2
1 28 1
x1 + = 5.2955 +
28 1
x2 = = (5.2955 + 5.2875) = 5.2915
2 x1 2 5.2955 2
and f (x) = f (5.2915) = x2 – 28 = (5.2915)2 – 28 = 27.9999 – 28 À 0 at x = x2
Hence, 5.2915 is the correct value upto 4 decimal of places.
ASSIGNMENT 1
1
1. Using the iteration method, find the root of the equation x = + sin x correct to four
2
decimal places. [MDU, 2002]
2. Find the real root of 2x – log10x = 7 correct to four decimal places using iteration method.
[MDU, 2002]
3. Using the method of iteration, find the real root of the equation cosx = 3x – 1 correct to
three decimal of places. Verify the result so achieved by Aitkin's ∆2 Method.
x3 x5 x7 x9 x11
4. Find the real root of the equation x − + − + − + … = 0.463
3 5 42 216 1320
[MDU, 2007]
1
5. Using Bisection method, find the approximate root of the equation sin x = , that lies
x
between x = 1 and x = 1.5, correct to the third decimal place. [VTU, 2003]
6. Using Bisection method find the root of the equation,
(i) x – cosx = 0 [Madras, 2003] (ii) x + log10x = 3.375
7. Using the Regula-Falsi method, solve correct to four decimal places
(i) x – log10x = 3.375 [MDU,2003] (ii) 10x + x – 4 = 0
8. Find the root of the equation xex = cosx, using the Regula-Falsi method correct to four
decimal places. [Hint: f (0) = –2.17798] [KUK, 2008; NIT Kurukshetra, 2008]
9. Use the method of False Position, to find the fourth root of 32 correct to three decimal
places. [Hint: Take x4 – 32 = 0]
10. Use Regula Falsi method to compute real root of the equation x3 – 9x + 1 = 0 if the root
lies between 2 and 3. [NIT Jalandhar, 2006; 2007]
1 N
11. Find the cube of 41, using Newton-Raphson method, Hint : xn+ 1 = 2xn + 2
3 xn
[Madras, 2006; NIT Kurukshetra, 2003]
12. Use Newton's method to find the smallest root of the equation exsinx = 1 to four places
of decimal. [MDU Rohtak, 2007]
988 Engineering Mathematics through Applications
13. The bacteria concentration in reservoirs as C = 4e–2t + e–0.1t , using Newton Raphson
method, calculate the time required for the bacteria concentration to be 0.5.
[MDU, 2007]
[Hint: As here f(6) = 0.048836212, f(7) = –0.0034117, C = 0.5, take x0 = 6.80]
14. Find by Newton's method, the root of the equation cos x = xex. [Madras 2003; VTU, 2003]
15. Find the square root of 20 correct to three decimal of places by using recurrence formula
1 20
xn+ 1 = xn + .
xn
[NIT Allahabad, 2006]
2
Example 15: Find by Horner's Method the root of the equation x3 + 24x – 50 = 0 that lies
between 1 and 2 to three decimal places.
Solution: Let the root of equation f(x) = x3 + 24x – 50 = 0 be 1. d1 d2 d3 d4…
Diminish the root of the above equation by 1, so that the root of the transformed equation is
0.d1 d2 d3 d4…
1 1 0 24 –50
– 1 1 25
1 1 1 25 –25
– 1 2
1 1 2 27
– 1
1 1 3
Solutions of Algebraic and Transcedental Equations 989
Thus, the transformed equation f1(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 27x – 25 has a root 0. d1 d2 d3 d4… lying
between 0 and 1. Now, multiply the root of f1(x) = 0 by 10 so that the changed equation
g(x) = x3 + 30x2 + 2700x – 25000 = 0 has one of its roots as d1 . d2 d3 d4… Find g(8) < 0 and
g(9) > 0 so that d1 = 8.
Now diminish the root of the above equation by 8.
8 1 30 2700 –25000
– 8 304 24032
8 1 38 3004 –968
– 8 368
8 1 46 3372
– 8
1 54
Thus the transformed equation g1(x) = x3 + 30x2 + 2700x – 25000 = 0 has a root 0. d2 d3 d4…
lying between 0 and 1. Multiply the root of g1(x) = 0 by 10.
The new equation h(x) = x3 + 540x2 + 337200x – 968000 = 0 has its root as d2 . d3 d4… lying
between 1 and 10. Find p(8) < 0 and p(9) > 0 so that this root is 8. d4 …
Now diminish the root of the equation h(x) = 0 by 2.
2 1 540 337200 –968000
– 2 1084 675668
2 1 542 338284 –291432
– 2 1088
2 1 544 339372
– 2
1 546
The transformed equation h1(x) = x3 + 546x2 + 33972x – 291432 = 0 has its root 0. d3d4…between
0 and 1. Multiply the root of this equation by 10.
The new equation, p(x) = x3 + 5460x2 + 33937200x – 291432000 = 0 has one of the root as d3
. d4… lying between 0 and 10. Find p(9) < 0 and p(9) > 0 so that this root is 8 . d4…
Now diminish the root of the above equation by 8.
8 1 5460 33937200 –291432000
– 8 43744 27184552
8 1 5468 3380944 –19584448
– 8 43808
8 1 5476 34024752
– 8
1 5484
Hence, the root of the equation f(x) = x3 + 24x – 50 = 0 correct to 4 decimal of place is 1.8285.
−B ± B2 − 4 Ayn
(xn+ 1 − xn ) =
2A
−B ± B2 − 4Ayn B ± B2 − 4Ayn −2yn
= × = …(8)
2A B ± B − 4Ayn B ± B2 − 4Ayn
2
In (8), the sign in the denominator is so chosen that it is largest in magnitude meaning
there by that the difference between xn + 1 and xn is very small. See the subsequent example
as an illustration of the method.
Observations: This method of iteration converges quadratically almost for all initial approximations. In case,
if no better approximations are known, we can take xn – 2 = –1, xn – 1 = 0 and xn = 1. It can also be used for finding
complex roots.
Example 16: Find the root of the equation x3 – 2x – 5 = 0 which lies between 2 and 3 by
Muller's method.
h2 d1 − h1d2 h2 d − h22 d1
So that A= = 6, B = 1 2 = 23
h1h2 (h1 − h2 ) h1h2 (h1 − h2 )
Solutions of Algebraic and Transcedental Equations 991
And the quadratic becomes 6(xn + 1 – 3)2 + 23(xn + 1 – 3) + 16 = 0 (From (1), Multer‘s Method)
∴ The next approximation of the root xn + 1 to the desired root is
32
(xn + 1 − 3) = , Since B is positive or xn + 1 = 2.0868
23 + 45
This process can now be repeated with three approximations 1, 2, 2.0868 respectively for
still better value.
∂ bα
Differentiating (9) partially w.r.t. p and denoting by –cα – 1, we get
∂p
–cα – 1 = –(–pcα – 2 + bα – 1) – q(–cα – 3) i.e. cα – 1 = bα – 1 – pcα – 2 – qcα – 3 …(10)
∂ bα
Differentiating (9) partially w.r to q and denoting ∂ q by –cα – 2, we get
∂b3 ∂bα ∂ b4 ∂ b3
Now Rp =
∂p
= −c2 Q ∂p = −cα−1 , Sp = ∂ p + p ∂ p + b3 = −c3 − pc2 + b3 ;
∂ b3 ∂b ∂b ∂b
Rq = = −c1 Q k = −cα− 2 , Sq = 4 + p 3 = −c2 − pc1
∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q
On using the values of R, S, Rp, Rq, Sp, Sq in (6), we get
−c1(b4 + pb3 ) + b3(c2 + pc1 ) b c − b4 c1
∆ p0 = = 2 32
c2 (c2 + pc1) − c1(c3 + pc2 − b3 ) c2 − c1(c3 − b3 )
Example 17: Extract the quadratic factor of the form x2 + px + q from the polynomial
x4 – 3x3 – 4x2 – 2x + 8 using Bairstow method and assuming that p0 = 1.5 and q0 = 1.5.
1 –3 –4 –2 8
–p0 = –1.5 –1.5 6.75 –1.875 –4.3125
–q0 = –1.5 –1.5 6.75 –1.875
Solutions of Algebraic and Transcedental Equations 993
1 –3 –4 –2 8
–p1 = 2.1954 –2.1954 11.4060 –11.7915 7.0668
–q1 = –2.0350 –2.0350 10.5726 –10.9300
1 –5.1954 5.3710 –3.2189(b3) 4.1368(b4)
–p1 = –2.1954 –2.1954 16.2258 –42.9460
–q1 = –2.0350 –2.0350 15.0402
1 –7.3908 (c1) 19.5618(c2) –31.1247(c3)
1 –3 –4 –2 8
–p2 = –2.118 –2.0118 10.0827 –8.2448 0.6013
–q2 = –1.9845 –1.9845 9.9459 –8.1329
–5.0118 4.0982 –0.2989(b3) 0.4684(b4)
–p2 = –20118 1 –2.0118 14.1301 –32.6793
–q2 = –1.9845 –1.9845 13.9383
1 –7.0236(c1) 16.2438(c2) –19.03999(c3)
Assignment 2
1. Apply Muller's method to obtain the root of the equation x – xex = 0, which lies between
0 and 1. [Hint: x0 = –1, x1 = 0, x2 =
1]
2. Solve the equation x3 + 2x2 + 10x – 20 = 0 by the Muller's method.
[Hint: x0 = 0, x1 = 1, x2 = 2; h = – 0.645934]
3. Using Muller's method, find the root of the equation x3 – 2x – 5 = 0, which lies between
1 and 2. [NIT Allahabad 2007]
4. Apply Muller's method to obtain the real root of the equation x – x2 – x – 1 = 0, which
3
lies between 1 and 2. [MDU, 2006]
3 2
5. Find by Horner's method, the positive root of x + x + x – 100 = 0 correct to three
decimal place.
6. Using Horner's method, find the root of the equation x3 – 3x2 + 2.5 = 0, which lies
between 1 and 2 correct to three decimal place.
7. Find the cube root of 30 correct to 3 decimal place, using Horner's method.
8. Using Barstow's method, obtain the quadratic factors of the equation x4 – x3 + 6x2 + 5x
+ 10 = 0 with p, q = 1.14, 1.42 (perform two iterations). [NIT Jalandhar, 2007]
ANSWERS
Assignment 1
1. x1 = 1.5, x2 = 1.49749, x3 = 1.49731, x4 = 1.49730
2. 3.78927
3. x4 = 0.6067, x5 = 0.6072, x6 = 0.6071
4. x1 = 0.4703, x2 = 0.4754, x3 = 0.4765, x4 = 0.4774, x5 = 0.4778
5. 1.11328 6. (i) 0.937 (ii) 2.9
7. (i) 2.91 (ii) 0.695 8. 0.5177
9. 2.378 10. 2.9428
11. 3.44855 12. 0.58853
13. 6.888 14. 0.5177
Assignment 2
1. x3 = 0.5124; x4 = 0.5177; x5 = 0.5177
2. x3 = 1.3540659; x4 = 1.3686472; x5 = 1.366808107
3. 2.0945 4. 1.839
5. 4.264 6. 1.168
7. 3.107 8. x2 + 1.1446x + 1.4219