Design and Construction of A LiBr-water Absorption Machine PDF

Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 2483–2508
www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman
Design and construction of a LiBr–water absorption machine

G.A. Florides a, S.A. Kalogirou a,*
, S.A. Tassou b, L.C. Wrobel b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Higher Technical Institute, P.O. Box 20423, Nicosia 2152, Cyprus
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK
Received 22 July 2002; accepted 11 December 2002
Abstract
The objective of this paper is to present a method to evaluate the characteristics and performance of a
single stage lithium bromide (LiBr)–water absorption machine. The necessary heat and mass transfer
equations and appropriate equations describing the properties of the working fluids are specified. These
equations are employed in a computer program, and a sensitivity analysis is performed. The difference
between the absorber LiBr inlet and outlet percentage ratio, the coefficient of performance of the unit in
relation to the generator temperature, the efficiency of the unit in relation to the solution heat exchanger
area and the solution strength effectiveness in relation to the absorber solution outlet temperature are
examined. Information on designing the heat exchangers of the LiBr–water absorption unit are also pre-
sented. Single pass, vertical tube heat exchangers have been used for the absorber and for the evaporator.
The solution heat exchanger was designed as a single pass annular heat exchanger. The condenser and the
generator were designed using horizontal tube heat exchangers. The calculated theoretical values are
compared to experimental results derived for a small unit with a nominal capacity of 1 kW. Finally, a cost
analysis for a domestic size absorber cooler is presented.
Ó 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Absorption cooling; Lithium bromide; Sensitivity analysis; Heat exchangers
1. Introduction
In hot climates, the heating and cooling demand of domestic dwellings can be reduced sub-
stantially with various measures such as good insulation, double glazing, use of thermal mass and
ventilation. However, due to the high summer temperatures, the cooling demand cannot be re-
duced to the level of thermal comfort with passive and low energy cooling techniques, and
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +357-22-406466; fax: +357-22-494953.
E-mail address: skalogir@spidernet.com.cy (S.A. Kalogirou).
0196-8904/03/$ - see front matter Ó 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0196-8904(03)00006-2
2484 G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 2483–2508
Nomenclature
A total heat transfer area (m2 )

CIN solution inlet concentration (mass fraction)
COUT solution outlet concentration (mass fraction)
CEQ solution equilibrium concentration (mass fraction) ¼ XEQ =100
Di , Do inside and outside diameters of tube, respectively (m)
f factor equal to: ð1:82 log10 ReD 1:64Þ2
F correction factor depending on type of the heat exchanger
Fi , Fo fouling factors at inside and outside surfaces of tube (m2 K/W)
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2 )
hi , ho heat transfer coefficients for inside and outside flow, respectively (W/m2 K)
hfg latent heat of condensation (kJ/kg)
hm average heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
hs solution convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
k thermal conductivity of tube material, solution thermal conductivity (W/m K)
K1 factor equal to: 1 þ 3:4f
K2 factor equal to: 11:7 þ 1:8=Pr1=3
kl thermal conductivity of liquid (W/m K)
M mass flow rate (kg/s)
NuD Nusselt number ¼ hi Di =K
P pressure (Pa)
Pr Prandtl number
Prs solution Prandtl number
Re solution Reynolds number for vertical tube
ReD Reynolds number ¼ Vm Di =m ¼ 4m=pDi l
U average overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
Vm mean velocity (m/s)
Tv vapour saturation temperature (°C)
Tw wall surface temperature (°C)
X concentration of LiBr in solution (%)
Greek symbols
C mass flow rate per wetted perimeter (kg/m s)
d film thickness (m)
DTln logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) (K)
DT0 temperature difference between hot and cold fluid at inlet (K)
DTL temperature difference between hot and cold fluid at outlet (K)
q density (kg/m3 )
ql liquid density (kg/m3 )
qv vapour density (kg/m3 )
l dynamic viscosity (N s/m2 ) ¼ mq
G.A. Florides et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 2483–2508 2485
ll absolute viscosity of liquid (N s/m2 )

m kinematic viscosity (m2 /s)
therefore, an active cooling system is required. It is preferable that such a system is not powered
by electricity, the production of which depends entirely on fuel.
Solar energy, which is available in such climates, could be used to power an active cooling
system based on the absorption cycle. Lithium bromide (LiBr)–water absorption units are the
most suitable for solar applications, since low cost solar collectors may be used to power the
generator of the machine. Such absorption units though, are not yet readily available in small
residential sizes. After a search in the world market, only one manufacturer was found com-
mercially producing LiBr–water absorption refrigerators (Yazaki of Japan). Therefore, the pos-
sibility of producing absorption air conditioning systems in small sizes for residential buildings
and the economics of using such a refrigerator, assisted by solar energy, needs to be investigated.
The objective of this paper is to present a method to evaluate the characteristics and perfor-
mance of a single stage LiBr–water absorption machine. The necessary heat and mass transfer
equations and appropriate equations describing the properties of the working fluids are specified.
These equations are employed in a computer program, and a sensitivity analysis is performed.
Information on designing the heat exchangers of the LiBr–water absorption unit is also presented.
Single pass, vertical tube heat exchangers have been used for the absorber and for the evaporator.
The solution heat exchanger was designed as a single pass annular heat exchanger. The condenser
and the generator were designed using horizontal tube heat exchangers. The calculated theoretical
values are compared to experimental results derived for a small unit with a nominal capacity of
1 kW. Finally, a cost analysis for a domestic size absorber cooler is presented.
2. Absorption cooling
Absorption machines are thermally activated, and for this reason, high input (shaft) power is
not required. In this way, where power is expensive or unavailable, or where there is waste, gas,
geothermal or solar heat available, absorption machines provide reliable and quiet cooling [1]. A
number of refrigerant–absorbent pairs are used, for which the most common ones are LiBr–water
and ammonia–water. These two pairs offer good thermodynamic performance, and they are en-
vironmentally benign.
Absorption refrigeration system fluid pairs should meet a number of important requirements,
which are [1]:
1. Absence of solid phase––The refrigerant–absorbent pair should not form a solid phase over the
range of composition and temperature to which it will be subjected. The formation of solids
may stop the flow and cause problems to the equipment.
2. Volatility ratio––The refrigerant should be more volatile than the absorbent so that it can be
separated easily by heating.
3. Affinity––The absorbent should have a strong affinity with the refrigerant under the conditions
in which absorption takes place. This affinity allows less absorbent to be circulated for the same
refrigerating effect, and therefore, sensible heat losses are less. Also, a smaller liquid heat ex-
changer is required to transfer heat from the absorbent to the pressurised refrigerant–absorbent
solution. A disadvantage is that extra heat is required in the generator to separate the refrige-
rant from the absorbent.
4. Pressure––Moderate operating pressures should be used in order to avoid the use of heavy-
walled equipment and reduce the electrical power required to pump the fluids from the low
pressure side to the high pressure side. Also, very low pressure (vacuum) will require the use
of large volume equipment and special means of reducing pressure drop in the refrigerant va-
pour flow.
5. Stability––High chemical stability is required to avoid the undesirable formation of gases, solids
or corrosive substances.
6. Corrosion––The fluids should be non-corrosive. If the fluids are corrosive, corrosion inhibitors
should be used, which may influence the thermodynamic performance of the equipment.
7. Safety––Ideally, the fluids must be non-toxic and non-inflammable.
8. Latent heat––To keep the circulation rate of the refrigerant and absorbent at a minimum, the
latent heat of the refrigerant should be as high as possible.
The ammonia–water pair is not suitable for use with solar collectors because of the high
temperature needed in the generator (125–170 °C). This temperature can only be obtained with
medium concentration ratio parabolic collectors, which have increased maintenance requirements
due to the need for tracking the sun.
The generator temperatures needed for the LiBr–water pair are lower (75–120 °C). These
temperatures can be achieved with high performance flat plate collectors, compound parabolic
collectors and evacuated tube collectors that are of lower cost and easier to install and operate
than medium concentration ratio parabolic collectors.
3. Lithium bromide–water cooling
This type of equipment is classified by the method of heat input to the primary generator (firing
method) and whether the absorption cycle is single or multiple effect. The single effect absorption
technology provides a peak cooling coefficient of performance (COP) of approximately 0.7 and
operates with heat input temperatures in the range of 75–120 °C. The multiple effect technology
gives higher COPs but can only be utilised when higher temperature heat sources are available.
Double effect systems can be achieved by adding an extra stage as a topping cycle on the single
effect cycle. In this way, the heat rejection from the high temperature stage is used to power the
lower temperature stage. It should be noted that the refrigerant in the LiBr–water system is water
and the LiBr acts as the absorbent, which absorbs the water vapour, thus making pumping from
the absorber to the generator easier and economic. A single effect LiBr–water chiller is illus-
trated in Fig. 1, and its schematic presentation on a pressure–temperature diagram is illustrated in
Fig. 2.
CONDENSER
7
3
4 GENERATOR
SOLUTION
HEAT EXPANSION
8
EXCHANGER VALVE
5 10,11
6
9
ABSORBER
EVAPORATOR
1
2
PUMP
Fig. 1. Single effect, LiBr–water absorption cycle.
Qc Qg
CONDENSER GENERATOR
7 3 4
8 SOLUTION HEAT
P
R REFRIGERANT EXCHANGER
E FLOW
S RESTRICTOR
S 2
5
U
R 9 PUMP
SOLUTION
E FLOW
1 6 RESTRICTOR
10
EVAPORATOR ABSORBER
11
Qe Qa
TEMPERATURE
Fig. 2. Two shell, LiBr–water cycle cooling system [1].
With reference to the numbering system shown in Fig. 1, at point (1), the solution is rich in
refrigerant and a pump (2) forces the liquid through a heat exchanger to the generator (3). The
temperature of the solution in the heat exchanger is increased.
WEAK
PURE WATER ABSORBENT
LINE LINE
STRONG ABSORBENT
LINE
P 7
R 4
8
E 3
S
S 5
U 9,10 1,2 6
R
E CRYSTALLIS-
ATION LINE
TEMPERATURE
Fig. 3. Duhring chart of the LiBr–water absorption cycle [1].
In the generator, thermal energy is added and the refrigerant boils off the solution. The re-
frigerant vapour (7) flows to the condenser, where heat is rejected as the refrigerant condenses.
The condensed liquid (8) flows through a flow restrictor to the evaporator (9). In the evaporator,
the heat from the load evaporates the refrigerant, which flows back to the absorber (10). A small
portion of the refrigerant leaves the evaporator as liquid spillover (11). At the generator exit (4),
the fluid consists of the absorbent–refrigerant solution, which is cooled in the heat exchanger.
From points (6)–(1), the solution absorbs refrigerant vapour from the evaporator and rejects heat
through a heat exchanger.
The above procedure can also be presented in a Duhring chart (Fig. 3). This chart is a pressure–
temperature graph where the diagonal lines represent constant LiBr mass fraction, with the pure
water line at the left and crystallisation line at the right.
4. Design of a single effect lithium bromide–water absorption cycle system
To perform estimations of equipment sizing and performance evaluation of a single-effect LiBr–

water absorption cooler, basic assumptions and input values must be considered. With reference
to Figs. 1–3, the basic assumptions are:
1. The steady state refrigerant is pure water.

2. There are no pressure changes except through the flow restrictors and the pump.
3. At points 1, 4, 8 and 11, there is only saturated liquid.
4. At point 10, there is only saturated vapour.
5. Flow restrictors are adiabatic.
6. The pump is isentropic.
7. There are no jacket heat losses.
The method of design is demonstrated below. The design parameters considered are listed in
Table 1.
Table 1
Design parameters for the single effect LiBr–water absorption cooler
Parameter Symbol Example-value
Capacity Q_ e 10 kW
Evaporator temperature T10 6 °C
Generator solution exit temperature T4 90 °C
Weak solution mass fraction X1 55% LiBr
Strong solution mass fraction X4 60% LiBr
Solution heat exchanger exit temperature T3 65 °C
Generator (desorber) vapour exit temperature T7 85 °C
Liquid carryover from evaporator m_ 11 0:025m_ 10
4.1. Evaporator analysis
Since, in the evaporator, the refrigerant is saturated water vapour and the temperature ðT10 Þ is
assumed to be 6 °C, the saturation pressure at point 10, as calculated from curve fits [2] presented
in Appendix A, is 0.934 kPa, and the enthalpy is 2511.8 kJ/kg. Since, at point 11, the refrigerant is
saturated liquid, its enthalpy is 23.5 kJ/kg. The enthalpy at point 9 is determined from the
throttling process applied to the refrigerant flow restrictor, which yields that h9 ¼ h8 : To deter-
mine h8 , the pressure at this point must be determined. Since, at point 4, the solution mass fraction
is 60% LiBr and the temperature at the saturated state was assumed to be 90 °C, the LiBr gives a
saturation pressure of 9.66 kPa and h4 ¼ 212:2 kJ/kg. Considering that the pressure at point 4 is
the same as in point 8, then h8 ¼ h9 ¼ 185:3 kJ/kg.
Once the enthalpy values at all ports connected to the evaporator are known, mass and energy
balances can be applied to give the mass flow of the refrigerant and the evaporator heat transfer
rate.
The mass balance on the evaporator is:
m_ 9 ¼ m_ 10 þ m_ 11 ð1Þ
The energy balance on the evaporator is:
Q_ e ¼ m_ 10 h10 þ m_ 11 h11 m_ 9 h9 ð2Þ

Since the evaporator output power Q_ e is 10.0 kW and m_ 11 ¼ 2:5%m_ 10 the mass flow rates can be
calculated. The results are shown in Table 2.
4.2. Absorber analysis
Since the values of m_ 10 and m_ 11 are known, mass balances around the absorber give:
m_ 1 ¼ m_ 10 þ m_ 11 þ m_ 6 ð3Þ
and
x1 m_ 1 ¼ x6 m_ 6 ð4Þ
Table 2
Data for single effect LiBr–water cooling system
Point # h (kJ/kg) m_ (kg/s) p (kPa) T (°C) X (%LiBr) Remarks
1 83 0.053 0.934 34.9 55
2 83 0.053 9.66 34.9 55
3 145.4 0.053 9.66 65 55 Sub-cooled liquid
4 212.2 0.0486 9.66 90 60
5 144.2 0.0486 9.66 54.8 60
6 144.2 0.0486 0.934 44.5 60
7 2628 0.0044 9.66 85 0 Superheated steam
8 185.3 0.0044 9.66 44.3 0 Saturated liquid water
9 185.3 0.0044 0.934 6 0
10 2511.8 0.0043 0.934 6 0 Saturated vapour
11 23.5 0.00011 0.934 6 0 Saturated liquid water
The mass fractions x1 and x6 in Eq. (4) are inputs, and therefore, m_ 1 and m_ 6 can be calculated. The
results are shown in Table 2.
The heat transfer rate in the absorber can be determined from the enthalpy values at each of the
connected state points. At point (1), the enthalpy is determined from the input mass fraction
(55%) and the assumption that the state is saturated liquid at the same pressure as the evaporator
(0.934 kPa). This value is h1 ¼ 83 kJ/kg. The enthalpy value at point 6 is determined from the
throttling model, which gives h6 ¼ h5 .
The enthalpy at point 5 is not known but can be determined from the energy balance on the
solution heat exchanger, assuming an adiabatic shell as follows:
m_ 2 h2 þ m_ 4 h4 ¼ m_ 3 h3 þ m_ 5 h5 ð5Þ
The temperature at point 3 is an input value (65 °C), and since the mass fraction for points 1 to 3
is the same, the enthalpy at this point is determined as 145.4 kJ/kg. Actually, the state at point 3
may be subcooled liquid. However, at the conditions of interest, the pressure has an insignificant
effect on the enthalpy of the subcooled liquid, and the saturated value at the same temperature
and mass fraction can be an adequate approximation. The enthalpy at point 2 is determined from
an isentropic pump model. The minimum work input ðwÞ can, therefore, be obtained from:
w ¼ m_ 1 v1 ðp2 p1 Þ ð6Þ
In Eq. (6), it is assumed that the specific volume (v, m3 /kg) of the liquid solution does not change
appreciably from point (1)–(2). The specific volume of the liquid solution can be obtained from a
curve fit [3] (see Appendix A).
For the present study, since all variables are known (Table 2), the pump power can be calcu-
lated as:
w ¼ 0:29 W
Eq. (5) can now be solved for the unknown enthalpy value at point 5, giving h5 ¼ 144:2 kJ/kg. The
temperature at point 5 can also be determined from the enthalpy value and is 54.8 °C.
Finally, the energy balance on the absorber is:

Q_ a ¼ m_ 10 h10 þ m_ 11 h11 þ m_ 6 h6 m_ 1 h1 ð7Þ
which gives Q_ a ¼ 13:42 kW.
4.3. Generator (desorber) analysis
The heat input to the generator is determined from the energy balance, which is:
Q_ g ¼ m_ 4 h4 þ m_ 7 h7 m_ 3 h3 ð8Þ
and results in: Q_ g ¼ 14:2 kW.
The enthalpy at point 7 can be determined, since the temperature at this point is an input value.
In general, the state at point 7 will be superheated water vapour, and the enthalpy can be de-
termined once the pressure and temperature are known.
4.4. Condenser analysis
The condenser heat can be determined from an energy balance, which gives:
Q_ c ¼ m_ 7 ðh7 h8 Þ ð9Þ
and therefore, Q_ c ¼ 10:78 kW.
4.5. Coefficient of performance
The COP is defined as:

Q_ e
COP ¼ ð10Þ
Q_ g
which gives a value of 0.704.
A summary of the energy flows at the various components of the system is given in Table 3.
To find suitable conditions for specific applications, a sensitivity analysis can be performed
utilising a computer program, which follows the sequence described above and the mathematical
Table 3
Energy flows at the various components of the system
Description Symbol kW
Capacity (evaporator output power) Q_ e 10.0
Pump minimum work input w 0.29
Absorber heat, rejected to the environment Q_ a 13.42
Heat input to the generator Q_ g 14.2
Condenser heat, rejected to the environment Q_ c 10.78
Coefficient of performance COP 0.704
45 1
0.9
Absorber exit temperature (˚C)
Pump mass flow (kg/s) and COP

40
35 0.8
0.7
30
0.6
25
0.5
20
Absorper exit temp 0.4
15 Pump mass flow
COP 0.3
10 0.2
5 0.1
0 0
45 47.5 50 52.5 55 57.5
Absorber inlet LiBr percentage
Fig. 4. Effect of absorber inlet LiBr percentage ratio.
correlations for the fluid properties shown in Appendix A. Such a sensitivity analysis is presented
below.
4.6. Sensitivity analysis
4.6.1. Effect of absorber inlet LiBr percentage ratio

To check this effect, the following conditions were assumed:
1. Solution heat exchanger exit temperature, T 3 ¼ 55 °C.

2. Generator solution exit temperature, T 4 ¼ 75 °C.
3. Condenser temperature, T 7 ¼ 70 °C.
4. Evaporator capacity 10 kW.
5. Evaporator temperature 6 °C.
6. Absorber exit LiBr percentage ratio ¼ 60%.
7. Pressure in generator and condenser ¼ 4.82 kPa.
8. Pressure in absorber and evaporator ¼ 0.934 kPa.
Since the absorber exit LiBr percentage ratio is kept constant at 60%, the greater the difference
between the absorber LiBr inlet and outlet percentage ratios is, the smaller will be the mass cir-
culating in the absorber. Additionally, as seen in Fig. 4, the COP increases with decreasing pump
mass flow. On the other hand, to keep the cycle running at the specified stage, the temperature at
the exit of the absorber has to be maintained at a lower level. However, this presents difficulties
with the cooling water temperature of the absorber heat exchanger. Normally, this temperature
may be between 20 and 25 °C, which means that the lowest temperature at the exit of the absorber
would be around 30 °C.
0.9
Pump mass flow (kg/s) and COP

28
0.8
Generator pressure (kPa)

24 0.7
Generator pressure
20 0.6
16 Pump mass flow 0.5
0.4
12 COP
0.3
8
0.2
4 0.1
0 0
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115
Generator exit temperature, T4 (˚C)
Fig. 5. Effect of generator temperature.
4.6.2. Effect of generator temperature


4. Absorber inlet LiBr percentage ratio ¼ 52.5%.
6. Absorber exit temperature, T 1 ¼ 30:4 °C.
As seen in Fig. 5, when the generator temperature is increased, the generator pressure is
also increased, and this has the effect of lowering the COP of the unit, considering that the pressures
and temperatures at other points of the unit are kept constant. The pump mass flow changes
slightly from 0.04 kg/s at a generator exit temperature of 65 °C to 0.037 kg/s at 115 °C.
4.6.3. Effect of heat exchanger temperatures


3. Pressure in generator and condenser ¼ 4.82 kPa.
4. Absorber inlet LiBr percentage ratio ¼ 52.5%.
6. Absorber exit temperature, T 1 ¼ 30:4 °C.
The solution heat exchanger increases the efficiency of the unit. The greater the heat exchanger
area is, the greater its effect will be, since useful energy can be extracted from the generator so-
lution fed to the absorber and be transferred to the solution returning to the generator, where it
80
70
60
Te mperat ure ˚C 50
40
30
20 Generator exit solution temp
Absorber inlet solution temp
10 Absorber oulet solution temp
Generator inlet solution temp
0
0.7 2 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.8 0.82 0.84
COP
Fig. 6. Effect of heat exchanger temperatures.
will be heated to the evaporating point. As is observed in Fig. 6, the COP of the unit under the
specified conditions is increased from 0.72 to a maximum of 0.84.
4.6.4. Effect of solution strength

To check the solution strength effectiveness, a constant difference of 6% between the absorber
inlet LiBr percentage ratio and absorber outlet ratio was considered. Also, the following condi-
tions were assumed:

3. Generator solution exit temperature, T 4 ¼ 75 °C.
70 0.9
0.8
Temperature (˚C) - Pressure kPa
60
Pump mass flow (kg/s) - COP
0.7
50
0.6
40 0.5
30 0.4
absorber inlet LiBr%
Generator pressure 0.3
20 Absorber exit temp
COP 0.2
10 Pump mass flow
0.1
0 0
52 54 56 58 60 62 64
Absorber exit LiBr percentage ratio
Fig. 7. Effect of solution strength.


The results shown in Fig. 7 indicate that a smaller percentage ratio in LiBr solutions will have
slightly better results, since the solution will absorb the extra water vapour more readily. The COP
for the selected conditions will vary from 0.79 to 0.75. The pump mass flow will be smaller for
smaller percentage ratios in LiBr solutions and will vary from 0.038 kg/s to about 0.045 kg/s. The
main draw back is the absorber solution outlet temperature (T 1), which will have to be kept at a
low temperature for the smaller percentage ratios in LiBr solutions. As mentioned before, a
reasonable temperature at the exit of the absorber would be around 30 °C, which would result in
an absorber outlet LiBr percentage of above 58%.
5. Crystallization
LiBr is a salt, and in its solid state, it has a crystalline structure. When LiBr is dissolved in
water, there is a specific minimum solution temperature for any given salt concentration. The salt
begins to leave the solution and crystallize below this minimum temperature.
In an absorption machine, if the solution concentration is too high or the solution temperature
is reduced too low, crystallization may occur. This is most likely to occur in the solution heat
exchanger, interrupting the machine operation. 1 In such a case, the concentrated solution tem-
perature needs to be raised above its saturation point so that the salt crystals will return to the
solution, freeing the machine.
The most frequent cause of crystallization is air leakage into the machine, which results in
increased pressure in the evaporator. This, in turn, results in higher evaporator temperatures and,
consequently, lower capacities. At high load conditions, the control system increases the heat
input to the generator, resulting in increased solution concentrations to the point where crys-
tallization may occur. Non-absorbable gases, like hydrogen, produced during corrosion, can also
be present, which reduce the performance of both the condenser and the absorber [4]. A direct
method for keeping the required pressure is to evacuate the vapour space periodically with a
vacuum pump.
Excessively cold condenser water, coupled with a high load condition, is another cause for
crystallization. In modern designs, the cooling tower water temperature is allowed to float with
variations of load and outdoor air temperature. In this way, by using cooling water temperatures
that are below design, the unit performance is improved. However, in the solution heat exchanger
under high load conditions, the entering temperature of the dilute solution may be low enough to
reduce the temperature of the highly concentrated solution returning from the generator to the
crystallization point.
A third reason is electric power failure. During normal shutdown, the machine undergoes a
dilution cycle, which lowers the concentration of the solution throughout the machine. In such a
case, the machine may cool to ambient temperature without crystallization occurring in the
1
Absorption Refrigeration. Trane Air Conditioning Clinic. The Trane Company, La Crosse, Wisconsin 54601.
solutions. Crystallization is most likely to occur when the machine is stopped while operating at
full load, when highly concentrated solutions are present in the solution heat exchanger.
6. Heat exchangers sizing
In single pass heat exchangers, the temperature difference DT between the hot and the cold
fluids is not constant but varies with distance along the heat exchanger. In the heat transfer
analysis, it is convenient to establish a mean temperature difference (DTm ) between the hot and
cold fluids such that the total heat transfer rate Q_ between the fluids can be determined from the
following simple expression:
Q_ ¼ AU DTm ð11Þ
For Eq. (11),

DT0 DTL
DTm ¼ F DTln ¼ F ð12Þ
ln ðDT0 =DTL Þ
Also, for Eq. (11), the overall heat transfer coefficient ðU Þ based on the outside surface of the tube
is defined as [5]:
1
U¼ ð13Þ
ðDo =Di Þð1=hi Þ þ ðDo =Di ÞFi þ ½1=ð2kÞDo lnðDo =Di Þ þ Fo þ 1=ho
The above equations can be used in a computer program for designing the unit heat exchangers.
For the design of the heat exchangers, the cooling water inlet and outlet temperatures must be
assumed. The cooling water inlet temperature depends exclusively on the available source of
water, which may be a cooling tower or a well.
6.1. Condenser heat exchanger design
The overall heat transfer coefficient is given by Eq. (13). For this equation, the value of the
fouling factors (Fi ; Fo ) at the inside and outside surfaces of the tube can be taken as 0.09 m2 K/kW
[6]. For a copper heat exchanger, k can be calculated from curve fitting [5] (Appendix A). The heat
transfer coefficients, hi , ho , for the inside and outside flow need to be calculated.
The Petukhov–Popov equation in Ref. [7] for turbulent flow inside a smooth tube gives:
ðf =8ÞReD Pr
NuD ¼ ð14Þ
K1 þ K2 ðf =8Þ1=2 ðPr2=3 1Þ
where f ¼ ð1:82 log10 ReD 1:64Þ2 , K1 ¼ 1 þ 3:4f , K2 ¼ 11:7 þ ð1:8=Pr1=3 Þ.
Eq. (14) applies for Reynolds numbers 104 < ReD < 5 106 and Prandtl numbers, 0:5 < Pr <
2000. The Petukhov–Popov equation agrees with experimental results for the specified range
within 5%. The water properties are evaluated at a mean temperature.
The Nu number can be equated to hi Di =K, and therefore, hi can be evaluated.
NusseltÕs analysis of heat transfer for condensation on the outside surface of a horizontal tube
gives the average heat transfer coefficient as [8]:
0:25
gql ðql qv Þhfg kl3
hm ¼ 0:725 ð15Þ
ll ðTv Tw ÞDo
The physical properties in Eq. (15) should be evaluated at the mean wall surface and vapour
saturation temperatures.
The above equation is recommended in the case of condensation on a single horizontal tube,
although a comparison of the average heat transfer coefficient for vertical surfaces with that found
by experiments has shown that the measured heat transfer coefficient is about 20% higher than the
values suggested by theory [5].
By substituting the above values in Eq. (13), a resulting overall heat transfer coefficient (U ) may
be determined.
The logarithmic mean temperature difference may be evaluated from Eq. (12), and Eq. (11) is
used to evaluate the necessary heat transfer area of the pipe.
6.2. Generator heat exchanger design
The generator provides sensible heat and the latent heat of vaporisation. The sensible heat
raises the inlet stream temperature to the saturation temperature. This amount of heat is normally
about 13% of the total heat required [4]. The heat of vaporisation consists of the heat of va-
porisation of pure water and the latent heat of mixing of the liquid solution. Typically, the heat of
mixing is about 11% of the heat of vaporisation for water/LiBr.
The above analysis indicates that the heat to be provided by the generator can be based on the
heat of vaporisation of pure water, increased by about 23% in a typical design.
Although considerable research work has been done in the past on pool boiling of liquids, data
on water/LiBr solutions are not extensive [9]. Experimental results indicate that boiling is not
significantly affected by the tube diameter but is affected significantly by the solution concen-
tration. As the solution concentration increases, the heat transfer coefficient decreases. Also, the
heat transfer coefficient increases as the heat flux increases. Average heat transfer coefficients were
found to vary between 1600 and 7500 W/m2 K [9]. For the above work, stainless steel tubes were
used. The tube material also affects the heat transfer coefficient as shown by an empirical relation
developed by Rohsenow in Ref. [7] for nucleate boiling. Since no formula is available for cal-
culating the exact heat transfer coefficient of the generator heat exchanger, the exact heat transfer
coefficient needs to be determined experimentally.
6.3. Solution heat exchanger design
For the solution heat exchanger design, Eq. (13) is used to calculate the overall heat transfer
coefficient. As before, the value of the fouling factors (FI ; Fo ) at the inside and outside surfaces of
the tube are taken as 0.09 m2 K/kW [6] and k for copper at a mean temperature may be evaluated.
The heat transfer coefficients, hi , ho , for the inside and outside flow are determined as detailed
below.
The LiBr solution properties at a mean temperature are calculated (Appendix A) and Re is
determined from
Re ¼ 4m_ =pDl
For laminar flow, the Nusselt number (Nu) is [6]:
Nu ¼ hi Di =K ¼ 3:66 ð16Þ
Therefore, hi may be evaluated.
The hydraulic diameter DH for the annulus is the difference between the inside diameter of the
external tube ðD2 Þ and the outside diameter of the internal tube ðD1 Þ [7].
The Reynolds number based on the hydraulic diameter and the bulk temperature properties is:
qUDH mD_ H
ReDH ¼ ¼
l Al
For laminar flow, as before Nu ¼ ho D=K ¼ 3:66, and therefore, ho may be evaluated.
By substituting the above values in Eq. (13), the resulting overall heat transfer coefficient ðU Þ
based on the outside surface of the tube is subsequently evaluated.
The logarithmic mean temperature is then calculated, and finally, from Eq. (11), the needed
area of the heat exchanger is determined.
6.4. Tube absorber
For this design, the solution film can flow downward either on horizontal or on vertical tubes.
The construction of the horizontal tube absorber may be more costly because of the large
length of welds, which may present problems with maintaining a vacuum. For this reason, an
alternative design with vertical tubes, housed in a cylindrical shell, may be employed, as shown in
Fig. 8. The theoretical analysis of the vertical tube absorber is presented below.
6.5. Absorber heat exchanger design
In the case of this study, the water vapour produced in the evaporator (Fig. 6) is absorbed in
the flow of the LiBr–water solution and is not condensing directly on the heat exchanger tubes.
The design of the heat exchanger, therefore, requires values for the heat and mass transfer co-
efficients.
A number of researchers have studied the absorption of water vapour in falling films of LiBr–
water solutions. Morioka et al. [10] conducted experiments on steam absorption for films flowing
down a vertical pipe. They obtained experimental results, which show that for film Reynolds
numbers in the range of 40–400, the heat transfer coefficients of the film are between 1500 and
3000 W/m2 K. The average absorption of mass flux (kg/m2 s) is compared with the numerical
results derived from a laminar flow theoretical model proposed by the authors. The agreement of
the results is good for film Reynolds numbers up to 100, but the experimental values are far higher
above film Reynolds numbers of 200.
Grossman [11] described a theoretical analysis of the combined heat and mass transfer process
in the absorption of gas or vapour into a laminar liquid film. Simultaneous equations are de-
scribed that give the temperature and concentration variations at the liquid–gas interface and at
the wall. A constant temperature and an adiabatic wall case were considered. The Nusselt and
Cooling water outlet
Concentrated
LiBr-water
solution
Water vapour
produced in the
evaporator
Falling film
Solution outlet
Cooling water inlet
Fig. 8. Schematic representation of the vertical tube absorber.
Sherwood numbers were found to depend on the Peclet and Lewis numbers as well as on the
equilibrium characteristics of the working fluids.
Conlisk [12] developed a design procedure for predicting the absorption capacity of a given
tube based on the governing geometrical and physical parameters. The theoretical approach
developed can predict the amount of mass absorbed in a given length of tube.
Patnaik et al. [13] presented a model based on the solution of differential equations to calculate
the axial solution concentration and temperature distributions along a vertical tube absorber. The
absorption of water vapour into the falling film of the solution of LiBr was modelled, employing
equations extracted from the literature, incorporating information on wavy-laminar flows. The
usefulness of the model was demonstrated by generating absorber performance charts.
A practical model for absorption of vapours into a laminar film of water and LiBr falling along
a constant temperature vertical plate was described in Andberg and Vliet [14]. The model de-
veloped considers non-isothermal absorption, and the equations showed good agreement with
experimental results. The objective of the study was to develop an effective model of the ab-
sorption process in order to facilitate the study of absorber design from a theoretical viewpoint.
For this reason, some simplifications were made, like assuming that the bank of tubes of an actual
absorption unit are replaced with a constant temperature vertical flat plate. Also, because of the
complexity of the problem involving the solution of momentum, energy and diffusion equations
with their boundary conditions, a simplified method was developed for determining the various
quantities involved. Because of the simplicity and the good agreement with experimental results,
this method was chosen for determining the number of absorber tubes required.
The independent variables, which affect the absorption of vapours, are solution mass flow rate,
solution inlet concentration, absorber pressure and wall temperature.
The length of plate (L) is correlated to the solution mass flow rate by the expression:

L ¼ amb ð17Þ

where a ¼ 132ðlnð100 AP Þ=86:0Þ, b ¼ 1:33, m ¼ mass flow rate per unit width of plate (kg/m s)
and Ap ¼ ‘‘absorption percentage’’.
The ‘‘absorption percentage’’ (Ap ), is defined as:
CIN COUT
Ap ¼ 100 ð18Þ
CIN CEQ
Determination of the equilibrium concentration, CEQ , requires the solution of the following set of
expressions:
A ¼ 2:00755 þ 0:16976X 3:133362 0:001X 2 þ 1:97668 0:00001X 3

B ¼ 321:128 19:322X þ 0:374382X 2 2:0637 0:001X 3
C ¼ 6:21147
D ¼ 2886:373
E ¼ 337269:46
T 0 ¼ ð2E=½D þ ðD2 4EðC LOGðP =6894:8ÞÞÞ0:5 Þ 459:72
TW ¼ ð5=9ÞðAT 0 þ B 32Þ
The above set of expressions requires an iterative type of solution to find CEQ , given TW and P .
In the case of this study, TW and P are known, and therefore, CEQ may be evaluated. Eq. (18) may
then be solved to calculate AP .

Assuming a certain length for every tube of the absorber, Eq. (17) gives the mass flow m, and
since the tube external area per meter length is known, the required number of tubes can be
calculated.
The next step is to check the area of tubes needed to cool the solution to the required level.
Patnaik et al. [13] suggest that WilkeÕs correlation, valid for a constant heat flux wall with pro-
gressively decreasing difference from isothermal wall outside the entrance region, can be used for
the falling film. It is assumed that the flow is fully developed in a wavy, laminar regime and that
the bulk solution temperature profile is linear with respect to the transverse coordinate. WilkeÕs
correlation is:
ks
hs ¼ 0:029ðRes Þ0:53 Prs0:344 ð19Þ
d
The film thickness d (m) is given by:
1=3
3lC
d¼ ð20Þ
q2 g
and the solution Reynolds number (Res ) for the vertical tube is:
Res ¼ 4C=l ð21Þ
Water outlet
Entering Entering
water water
Vapour
outlet
Falling film
Water inlet
Fig. 9. Schematic representation of the vertical tube evaporator.
In the case of this study, the mean properties of the solution are evaluated. Assuming the number
of pipes to be used and substituting the above values into Eqs. (19)–(21), a solution convective
heat transfer coefficient hs results.
Subsequently, the cooling water properties at the mean temperature are evaluated and sub-
stituted into Eq. (14). By replacing Nu ¼ hi Di =K, hs is determined. By substituting the above
values into Eq. (13), the resulting overall heat transfer coefficient (U ) based on the outside surface
of the tube is also determined. DTln also needs to be evaluated, and from Eq. (11), the resulting
length of each pipe is determined. This length needs to be equal to the initial length assumed. The
above procedure may be repeated until the pipe length matches.
6.6. Evaporator heat exchanger design
To facilitate construction, the evaporator heat exchanger may be constructed in a similar way
to the absorber heat exchanger. Fig. 9 shows a schematic representation of the vertical tube
evaporator. Water passing through the evaporator tubes supplies the required heat to vaporise the
falling film of water around every tube.
A search of the literature has shown that the preferred construction method is to allow the liquid
to enter inside a tube. The fluid inside the tube is heated by the run of fluid at the outer surface of the
tube, so that progressive vaporisation occurs. The heat transfer coefficient increases with distance
from the entrance, since heat is added continuously to the fluid. It is also not yet possible to predict
all of the characteristics of this process quantitatively because of the great number of variables upon
which the process depends and the complexity of the various two phase flow patterns that occur as
the quality of the vapour–liquid mixture increases during vaporisation [7]. Therefore, in the case of
this study, the mean heat transfer coefficient needs to be determined experimentally.
Table 4
LiBr–water absorption refrigeration system calculations based on a generator temperature of 75° C and a solution heat
exchanger exit temperature of 55 °C.
Point H (kJ/kg) m_ (kg/s) P (kPa) T (°C) %LiBr (X) Remarks
1 83 0.00517 0.93 34.9 55
2 83 0.00517 4.82 34.9 55
3 124.7 0.00517 4.82 55 55 Subcooled liquid
4 183.2 0.00474 4.82 75 60
5 137.8 0.00474 4.82 51.5 60
6 137.8 0.00474 0.93 44.5 60
7 2612.2 0.000431 4.82 70 0 Superheated steam
8 131.0 0.000431 4.82 31.5 0 Saturated liquid
9 131.0 0.000431 0.93 6 0
10 2511.8 0.000421 0.93 6 0 Saturated vapour
11 23.45 0.000011 0.93 6 0 Saturated liquid
Description Symbol kW
Capacity (evaporator output power) Q_ e 1.0
Absorber heat, rejected to the environment Q_ a 1.28
Heat input to the generator Q_ g 1.35
Condenser heat, rejected to the environment Q_ c 1.07
Coefficient of performance COP 0.74
Table 5
Overall heat transfer coefficients of the various heat exchangers of the 1 kW unit
Heat exchanger Cooling/heating water Overall heat transfer coefficient,
temperature (°C) U (W/m2 K)
Entering Leaving Theoretically estimated Actual value
Generator 92 88 1600–7500 2300
Condenser 27 28.5 2980 3265
Evaporator 13 11 – 195
Absorber 30 31 625 400
Solution heat exchanger – – 130 130
7. Experimental results
To investigate the accuracy of the theoretical procedure described above for the design of the
various heat exchangers, a 1 kW model was designed and constructed [15]. The designed condi-
tions chosen are indicated in Table 4.
A summary of the experimental results is presented in Table 5.
8. General observations
Because of corrosion problems, the life expectancy of LiBr absorption machines is approximately
20 years. The presence of oxygen can greatly accelerate the degradation, and thus, leaks must be
avoided. If the vacuum must be broken for any reason, it is important to fill the vapour space with
nitrogen or other inert gas to a pressure above atmospheric to avoid introduction of oxygen. Metals
Table 6
Comparative cost of a 1 kW and a 10 kW LiBr–water absorption unit
Item Cost of the 1 kW unit (C£) Cost of the 10 kW unit (C£)
Generator and condenser unit 50 400
Evaporator 150 1000
Absorber 150 1000
Piping 30 100
Pumps 370 500
Automatic controls, sensors and valves 600 700
LiBr salt 200 600
Total cost 1550 4300
like copper and iron in the presence of aqueous LiBr, which is an electrolyte, produce ions that leave
the solid surface and combine with oxygen at a distance from the surface. This leaves the solid
surface of the base metal available for more attack. By controlling the solution pH level to be
slightly basic instead of acidic, oxides are formed directly on the solid surface, forming a relatively
stable oxide coating (passivation), protecting the surface. The pH level can be controlled by adding
small amounts of hydrobromic acid (HBr). Since both elements constituting HBr are already
present within the solution, the solution properties are not significantly altered. Corrosion inhibi-
tors can also reduce corrosion rates. Such inhibitors are lithium chromate (Li2 CrO4 ) lithium mo-
lybdate (Li2 MoO4 ) or lithium nitrate (LiNO3 ) in amounts on the order of 1% by solution weight [4].
9. Cost analysis
The unit manufactured for this project is a prototype unit, and the total cost of its construction
is about C£ 3000. 2 A large part of this amount was spent for purchasing flow meters (C£ 500),
auxiliary equipment like vacuum pumps, glass tubes etc. (C£ 500) and experimentation with
different types of valves and materials.
The actual cost of a working unit of 1 kW capacity can be as low as C£ 1550. A breakdown of
this cost is shown in Table 6. Based on the 1 kW unit, the cost of a 10 kW unit, which can cover
the needs of a typical insulated house, can be estimated as C£ 4300 (Table 6).
It must also be stated that the above unit cannot be produced in a basic workshop. Automatic
or semi-automatic welding machines and personnel specialised on welding components for va-
cuum are necessary. Also special equipment for weld testing and soundness is necessary. The cost
of such infrastructure is not included in the unit costing. On the other hand, the produced unit is
only a prototype, and a lot of research can be done in order to improve the efficiency of the heat
exchangers by using a surfactant additive, called octyl alcohol. Such an additive can increase the
heat transfer performance in the absorber. Also, other types of heat exchanging surfaces, like
rough or finned surfaces may increase the efficiency and reduce the size of the unit.
It must also be noted that in order to complete the requirements of a 10 kW unit, a cooling
tower or water from a well is necessary to provide adequate cooling water for the condenser and
2
Exchange rates: 1C£ ¼ 1:6 US$ (July 2002).
absorber heat exchangers. The cost of such a tower is about C£ 400. Also the installation of the
absorption unit and cooling tower will demand about C£ 100 extra cost for pumps and piping,
compared to the installation cost of a conventional 10 kW electric chiller.
10. Conclusions
A method to evaluate the characteristics and performance of a single stage LiBr–water ab-
sorption machine was presented, and the necessary heat and mass transfer equations and ap-
propriate equations describing the properties of the working fluids were specified. These equations
were used in a computer program, and a sensitivity analysis was performed. This analysis shows
that the greater the difference between the absorber LiBr inlet and outlet percentage ratios is, the
smaller will be the mass circulating in the absorber. On the other hand, to keep the cycle running
at a specified stage, the temperature at the exit of the absorber has to be maintained at a lower
level when the absorber exit LiBr percentage ratio is lower.
Considering that the pressures and temperatures at other points of the unit are kept constant,
the COP of the unit is lowered when the generator temperature is increased, leading to an increase
of the generator pressure.
The solution heat exchanger increases the efficiency of the unit. The greater the heat exchanger
area, the greater its effect is.
Finally, when checking the solution strength effectiveness for a constant difference of 6% be-
tween the absorber inlet LiBr percentage ratio and absorber outlet ratio, it was found that a smaller
percentage ratio in LiBr solutions would have slightly better results. The main draw back is the
absorber solution outlet temperature (T 1), which will have to be kept at a low temperature for
smaller percentage ratios in LiBr solutions. A reasonable temperature at the exit of the absorber
would be around 30 °C, which would result in an absorber outlet LiBr percentage above 58%.
Information on designing the heat exchangers of the LiBr–water absorption unit are also
presented. The calculated theoretical values are compared to experimental results derived for a
small unit with a nominal capacity of 1 kW.
The cost for a nominal 10 kW unit that can cover the needs of a typical insulated house was
estimated to be C£ 4300. The total cost of an absorption unit together with all necessary sec-
ondary devices and installation cost is estimated as C£ 4800. The price, therefore, of a LiBr–water
absorption refrigeration unit is high compared to a similar capacity electric chiller that is only C£
1500. It should be noted, however, that the absorption units offer possibilities of use of renewable
energy sources and waste heat, whereas the electric chiller uses electricity that is produced from
fossil fuels and have harmful effects on the environment.
Appendix A. Material properties
A.1. LiBr solution enthalpy [4]
Range 0% < X < 40% LiBr

CT ¼ temperature (°C)
h ¼ enthalpy (kJ/kg)
X ¼ %LiBr
T ¼ ðCT 9=5Þ þ 32
CA0 ¼ 33:1054264, CA1 ¼ 0:13000636, CA2 ¼ 0:00097096, CB0 ¼ 1:0090734,
CB1 ¼ 0:01377507, CB2 ¼ 0:000085131
h ¼ ½CA0 þ CA1 X þ CA2 X 2 þ T ðCB0 þ CB1 X þ CB2 X 2 Þ2:326
A.2. LiBr solution and refrigerant pressure and temperatures [1]

Tsol ¼ solution temperature (°C), range 5 < Tsol < 175 °C
Tref ¼ refrigerant saturated temperature (°C), range 15 < Tref < 110 °C
P ¼ saturation pressure (kPa)
A0 ¼ 2:00755, A1 ¼ 0:16976, A2 ¼ 0:003133362, A3 ¼ 0:0000197668
B0 ¼ 124:937, B1 ¼ 7:71649, B2 ¼ 0:152286, B3 ¼ 0:0007959
RA ¼ A0 X 0 þ A1 X 1 þ A2 X 2 þ A3 X 3
RB ¼ B0 X 0 þ B1 X 1 þ B2 X 2 þ B3 X 3
C ¼ 7:05, D ¼ 1596:49, E ¼ 104095:5
Log P ¼ C þ D=ðTref þ 273Þ þ E=ðTref þ 273Þ2
Tref ¼ ð2E=ðD þ ½D2 4EðC log P Þ0:5 ÞÞ 273
Tsol ¼ RB þ Tref RA
A.3. Enthalpy of LiBr solution [1]

T ¼ solution temperature (°C)
h ¼ enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Solution temperature range 15 °C < T < 165 °C
A0 ¼ 2024:33, A1 ¼ 163:309, A2 ¼ 4:88161, A3 ¼ 0:06302948, A4 ¼ 0:0002913704
B0 ¼ 18:2829, B1 ¼ 1:1691757, B2 ¼ 0:03248041, B3 ¼ 0:0004034184, B4 ¼ 0:0000018520569
C0 ¼ 0:037008214, C1 ¼ 0:0028877666, C2 ¼ 0:000081313015
C3 ¼ 0:00000099116628, C4 ¼ 0:0000000044441207
RA ¼ A0 X 0 þ A1 X 1 þ A2 X 2 þ A3 X 3 þ A4 X 4
RB ¼ B0 X 0 þ B1 X 1 þ B2 X 2 þ B3 X 3 þ B4 X 4
RC ¼ C0 X 0 þ C1 X 1 þ C2 X 2 þ C3 X 3 þ C4 X 4
h ¼ RA þ T RB þ RC T 2
A.4. Density of LiBr solution [3]
Range 20% < X < 60%

T ¼ solution temperature (°C), 0 < T < 200 °C,
qx ¼ LiBr solution density (kg/m3 )
X0 ¼ X =100
qx ¼ 1145:36 þ 470:84X0 þ 1374:79X02 ð0:333393 þ 0:571749X0 Þð273 þ T Þ
A.5. Absolute viscosity of LiBr solution [3]
Range 45% < X < 65%

TK ¼ solution temperature (K)
l ¼ absolute viscosity (kg/m s)
A1 ¼ 494:122 þ 16:3967X 0:14511X 2
A2 ¼ 28606:4 934:568X þ 8:52755X 2
A3 ¼ 70:3848 2:35014X þ 0:0207809X 2
B ¼ A1 þ ðA2 =TKÞ þ A3 lnðTKÞ
l ¼ EXPðBÞ=1000
A.6. Specific heat of LiBr solution (curve fit from Ref. [1]––R2 ¼ 0:9997)
X ¼ %LiBr
CP ¼ specific heat of LiBr solution (J/kg K)
CP ¼ 0:0976X 2 37:512X þ 3825:4
A.7. Thermal conductivity of LiBr solution (Data extrapolated from Ref. [16])
T ¼ temperature of solution (K)

X ¼ %LiBr
K ¼ thermal conductivity of LiBr solution (W/m K)
For T P 313
K1 ¼ 0:3081ðX =100Þ þ 0:62979
K2 ¼ 0:3191795ðX =100Þ þ 0:65388
D12 ¼ ððK2 K1 Þ=20ÞðT 313Þ
K ¼ K1 þ D12
For T < 313
K1 ¼ 0:3081ðX =100Þ þ 0:62979
K3 ¼ 0:291897ðX =100Þ þ 0:59821
D13 ¼ ððK3 K1 Þ=20Þð313 T Þ
K ¼ K1 þ D13
A.8. Saturation pressure of water vapour (curve fits from data presented in Ref. [2]––R2 ¼ 0:9999)
P ¼ saturation pressure (kPa)

T ¼ temperature (°C)
P ¼ 0:000000000002T 6 0:000000003T 5 þ 0:0000002T 4 þ 0:00003T 3 þ 0:0014T 2 þ 0:0444T
þ 0:6108
A.9. Saturated water–vapour enthalpy (curve fits from data presented in Ref. [2]––R2 ¼ 0:9999)
hg ¼ vapour enthalpy (kJ/kg)

hg ¼ 0:00125397T 2 þ 1:88060937T þ 2500:559
A.10. Latent heat of condensation of water vapour (curve fit Ref. [1]––R2 ¼ 0:9999Þ
hfg ¼ latent heat of condensation (kJ/kg)

T ¼ saturation temperature (°C)
hfg ¼ 0:00132635T 2 2:29983657T þ 2500:43063
A.11. Density of saturated water (curve fit Ref. [1]––R2 ¼ 0:9986)
qg ¼ density of saturated water (kg/m3 )

T ¼ saturation temperature (°C)
qg ¼ 1=ð0:00001147965T 4 0:00297197798T 3 þ 0:28077931731T 2 11:83083758T
þ 202:9035477661Þ
A.12. Enthalpy of superheated steam (curve fits from data presented in Ref. [2]––R2 ¼ 0:992)
Hsh ¼ enthalpy of superheated steam (kJ/kg),

Tref ¼ refrigerant (water) saturated temperature [see Section 2] (°C)
Tactual ¼ temperature of vapour (°C)
P ¼ pressure of vapour (kPa)
T ¼ degrees of superheat (°C)
T ¼ Tactual Tref
HSH1 ¼ 32:508 lnðP Þ þ 2513:2
HSH2 ¼ 0:00001P 2 0:1193P þ 2689
Hsh ¼ ððHSH2 HSH1 Þ=100ÞT þ HSH1
A.13. Water properties (curve fits from data presented in Ref. [2])
T ¼ temperature of water (°C)

K ¼ thermal conductivity (W/m K) [R2 ¼ 0:9999]
l ¼ absolute viscosity (N s/m2 ) (kg/m s) [R2 ¼ 0:9999]
m ¼ kinematic viscosity (m2 /s) [R2 ¼ 0:9999]
q ¼ density (kg/m3 ) [R2 ¼ 0:9999]
cp ¼ specific heat (J/kg K) [R2 ¼ 0:9994]
K ¼ 6:5104167D)10T 4 þ 0:00000018923611T 3 2:671875E)05T 2
þ 0:0027103175T þ 0:5520119
l ¼ 0:000001ð0:000031538716146T 4 8:913055428199999D)03T 3
þ 0:9795876934T 2 55:4567974T þ 1791:74424Þ
m ¼ 0:0001ð3:1770833333ð1008 ÞT 4 0:0000089652777778T 3 þ 0:00098270833333T 2
0:055322222222T þ 1:7876666667Þ
q ¼ 0:000015451T 3 0:0059003T 2 0:019075T þ 1002:3052
cp ¼ 0:000003216145833T 4 0:000798668982T 3 þ 0:0780295139T 2 3:0481614T
þ 4217:7377
A.14. Thermal conductivity of copper (curve fit Ref. [5]––R2 =1)
Kcopper ¼ thermal conductivity of copper (W/m K)

Kcopper ¼ 4:583333E)09T 4 2:916667E)06T 3 þ 6:541667E)04T 2 0:1108333T þ 386
References
[1] ASHRAE, Handbook of Fundamentals. Atlanta, 1997.

[2] Rogers GFC, Mayhew YR. Thermodynamic and transport properties of fluids: SI units. 4th ed. UK: Blackwell
Publishers; 1992.
[3] Lee RJ, DiGuilio RM, Jeter SM, Teja AS. Properties of lithium bromide–water solutions at high temperatures and
concentration. II. Density and viscocity. ASHRAE Trans 1990;96(Pt. 1):709–28.
[4] Herold EK, Radermacher R, Klein SA. Absorption chillers and heat pumps. CRS Press; 1996.
[5] Ozisik M. Heat transfer––a basic approach. McGraw-Hill Book Company; 1985.
[6] Howell RH, Sauer JH, Coad JW. Principles of HVAC. ASHRAE, Refrigeration Equipment, Section 18.21, 1998.
[7] Kreith F, Bohn MS. Principles of heat transfer. 5th ed. PWS Publishing Company; 1997.
[8] Nusselt in Ozisik M. Heat transfer––a basic approach. McGraw-Hill Book Company; 1985.
[9] Varma HK, Mehrotra RK, Agrawal KN. Heat transfer during pool boiling of LiBr–water solutions at
subatmospheric pressures. Int Commun Heat Mass Transf 1994;21(4):539–48.
[10] Morioka I, Kiyota M, Nakao R. Absorption of water vapor into a film of aqueous solution of LiBr falling along
a vertical pipe. JSME Int J, Ser B 1993;36(2):351–6.
[11] Grossman G. Simultaneous heat and mass transfer in film absorption under laminar flow. Int J Heat Mass Transf
1983;26(3):357–71.
[12] Conlisk AT. Falling film absorption on a cylindrical tube. AICHE J 1992;38(11):1716–28.
[13] Patnaik V, Perez-Blanco H, Ryan WA. A simple analytical model for the design of vertical tube absorbers.
ASHRAE Trans: Res 1993:69–80.
[14] Andberg JW, Vliet GC. Design guidelines for water–lithium bromide absorbers. ASHRAE Trans 1983;89(Part
1B):220–32.
[15] Kalogirou S, Florides G, Tassou S. Design and construction of a lithium bromide water absorption refrigerator.
In: Proceedings of CLIMA 2000 International Conference on CD-ROM, Naples, 2001.
[16] Abdullagatov IM, Magomedov UB. Measurements of thermal conductivity of aqueous LiCl and LiBr solutions.
Phys Chem 1997;101(4):708–11.

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Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003) 2483–2508

Design and construction of a LiBr–water absorption machine

Keywords: Absorption cooling; Lithium bromide; Sensitivity analysis; Heat exchangers

A total heat transfer area (m2 )

ll absolute viscosity of liquid (N s/m2 )

3. Lithium bromide–water cooling

Fig. 1. Single eﬀect, LiBr–water absorption cycle.

Fig. 2. Two shell, LiBr–water cycle cooling system [1].

Fig. 3. Duhring chart of the LiBr–water absorption cycle [1].

4. Design of a single eﬀect lithium bromide–water absorption cycle system

To perform estimations of equipment sizing and performance evaluation of a single-eﬀect LiBr–

1. The steady state refrigerant is pure water.

4.1. Evaporator analysis

Q_ e ¼ m_ 10 h10 þ m_ 11 h11 m_ 9 h9 ð2Þ

4.2. Absorber analysis

Finally, the energy balance on the absorber is:

4.3. Generator (desorber) analysis

4.4. Condenser analysis

4.5. Coeﬃcient of performance

The COP is deﬁned as:

Absorber exit temperature (˚C)

Pump mass flow (kg/s) and COP

4.6. Sensitivity analysis

4.6.1. Eﬀect of absorber inlet LiBr percentage ratio

1. Solution heat exchanger exit temperature, T 3 ¼ 55 °C.

Pump mass flow (kg/s) and COP

Generator pressure (kPa)

Fig. 5. Eﬀect of generator temperature.

4.6.2. Eﬀect of generator temperature

1. Solution heat exchanger exit temperature, T 3 ¼ 55 °C.

4.6.3. Eﬀect of heat exchanger temperatures

1. Evaporator capacity 10 kW.

Fig. 6. Eﬀect of heat exchanger temperatures.

4.6.4. Eﬀect of solution strength

1. Evaporator capacity 10 kW.

Fig. 7. Eﬀect of solution strength.

4. Solution heat exchanger exit temperature, T 3 ¼ 55 °C.

6. Heat exchangers sizing

6.1. Condenser heat exchanger design

6.2. Generator heat exchanger design

6.3. Solution heat exchanger design

6.4. Tube absorber

6.5. Absorber heat exchanger design

Cooling water outlet

Cooling water inlet

Fig. 8. Schematic representation of the vertical tube absorber.

A ¼ 2:00755 þ 0:16976X 3:133362  0:001X 2 þ 1:97668  0:00001X 3

Fig. 9. Schematic representation of the vertical tube evaporator.

6.6. Evaporator heat exchanger design

Appendix A. Material properties

A.1. LiBr solution enthalpy [4]

Range 0% < X < 40% LiBr

A.2. LiBr solution and refrigerant pressure and temperatures [1]

Range 45% < X < 70% LiBr

A.3. Enthalpy of LiBr solution [1]

Range 40% < X < 70% LiBr

A.4. Density of LiBr solution [3]

Range 20% < X < 60%

A ¼ 2:00755 þ 0:16976X 3:133362 0:001X 2 þ 1:97668 0:00001X 3