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Body image, eating disorders, and the media

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 Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546

Body Image, Eating Disorders, and the Media

Marjorie J. Hogan, MDa,b, Victor C. Strasburger, MD, FAAP*c
a
Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota School of Medicine, 420 Delaware Street SE,
Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
b
Department of Pediatrics, Hennepin County Medical Center, 701 Park Avenue, Minneapolis, MN
55415, USA
c
Departments of Pediatrics and Family and Community Medicine and Division of Adolescent
Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, MSC10 5590,
Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA

Adolescence is a time of tremendous change in physical appearance as both boys

and girls move through puberty and become accustomed (or not) to their new
body shape and size. Thus, body image is a major concern of teenagers. “Ado-
lescents’ development of their closely linked body image and self-concept can be
particularly challenging because of the diverse, rapid, and significant changes that are
heightened during this period.”1 Conventional wisdom maintains that dissatisfaction
with body image seems to increase among female adolescents and decrease among
males through the teen years,2 but recent community surveys suggested that almost
half (46%) of teen girls and even a startling 26% of boys are unhappy with their body
shape and size; only 12% and 17%, respectively, reported liking their appearance.3,4
Obviously, this is alarming, because “body dissatisfaction is associated with high
levels of subjective distress, unhealthy weight control behaviors and extreme meth-
ods of altering appearance, such as cosmetic surgery and steroid use.”5

WHAT IS BODY IMAGE, AND HOW IS IT CONSTRUCTED?

Body image is a merging of one’s outer appearance with perceptions derived from
personal and cultural factors1; body image is a “multidimensional construct that is
influenced by biological, psychologic, and social factors.”1 Thus, an adolescent
constructs her or his body image in many ways, incorporating input from family,
peers, and media.6 Pressure to emulate the Western body ideal, ultra thin for women
and muscular for men, comes from parents, friends, and the media (see Fig 1).

Family influences play a major role in adolescent weight concerns. A prospective

cohort study of 6770 girls and 5287 boys aged 9 to 14 years revealed that parents

*Corresponding author.
E-mail address: vstrasburger@salud.unm.edu (V. C. Strasburger).

Copyright © 2008 American Academy of Pediatrics. All rights reserved. ISSN 1934-4287
522 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546

Fig 1. A, Anna Kournikova ad for sports bras. A former tennis star, Anna Kournikova never won a
major tennis tournament in her career yet outearned the Williams sisters because of her status as a sex
symbol. B, “Are You Hot?” Men are frequently featured in the media for their muscular development.

influenced the development of concerns about weight and the initiation of weight-
control practices.6 An Internet-based eating disorder prevention program conducted
with 455 college women found that parental negative comments about weight or
shape was associated with lower self-esteem.7 Overweight teenagers are teased more
often and are at greater risk of dissatisfaction with their bodies.7–9 Whatever the
source of the comments, negative or teasing statements about weight “contribute to
the development of excessive weight and body shape concerns, which is a risk factor
for the development of eating disorders.”7 Teenagers believing that weight status is
important to their mothers were more likely to think frequently about being thinner
and about dieting in a large cross-sectional study of 11- to 18-year-old girls and
boys.10 Overt messages from parents encouraging their daughters to lose weight
predict an increased drive for thinness and higher likelihood of body dissatisfaction;
direct messages were more influential than parental modeling of dieting behaviors.11

In adolescence, the primacy of peers is notable as teenagers move from a more

family-centered sphere to one dominated by friends. Peers have shown influence
on body image in some studies,1,12,13 but in others have shown negligible
impact.6 In a large prospective study of almost 7000 girls aged 9 to 14 years,
Field et al14 found peers to be highly influential on a teenager’s desire to lose
weight; if a peer placed emphasis on thinness, purging or using laxatives to lose
weight was more likely. Another study concluded that peer practices were
predictive of an adolescent developing an eating disorder.15 For teenagers,
acceptance by the peer group is important, and one study found weight-control
practices to be related to those of peers, as well as being influenced by their
mothers’ dieting behaviors.16 Shroff and Thompson17 found peer and media
influences to exceed parental influence in terms of body image. One study
revealed that friends and family give messages to boys to increase musculature
and to girls to encourage weight loss. However, messages to boys decrease over
time, whereas those to girls increase.18
 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546 523

The media (discussed in more detail later) clearly exert influence on body image (see
Fig 2). Perhaps media, functioning as a “superpeer,”19 define the look and body shape to
attain via images available to all teenagers in many venues, whether magazines, television
programs, or film. “Hey, kids, this is the way we all should look!” Teenagers today
face a growing discrepancy between their bodies and mediated role models.

Obesity in all age groups is increasing at alarming rates; 17% of American

adolescents are now overweight or obese (see Fig 3).20 Models used to weigh 8%
less than the average woman; they now weigh 23% less.21

Borzekowski and Bayer introduced the concept of “goodness of fit’ between

self-evaluation of one’s body, one’s expectations for the physical self, and the

Fig 2. People magazine.

524 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546

Fig 3. The prevalence of obesity continues to increase in the United States. Among adults, more are
overweight or obese than normal weight.9

perceived evaluations of others.”1 Teen girls face a discrepancy between the

realities of their own bodies and those they see in the media or reflected in
the expectations of friends and family members. By the “tween” or early-adolescent
years, fully 20% to 50% of girls feel too fat and 40% consider themselves over-
weight, yet many of these girls are normal by medical standards.1,22,23

WHY IS BODY IMAGE IMPORTANT?

Adults, including parents, pediatricians, and other adults, want adolescents to

have a healthy body image. Eating disorders, including anorexia and bulimia, and
obesity seem to be associated with a disordered body image in adolescents. All
are on the rise.20,24 Less prevalent but also alarming is the increase of those
seeking cosmetic surgery to correct perceived flaws.5,25 A cross-sectional study
of ⬎6200 girls and ⬎4200 boys revealed use of potentially harmful supplements
and anabolic steroids as other dangerous complications of disordered body
image.26 In a study of 16 862 children and young teenagers, contemplation of
smoking initiation was positively related to concerns about weight: “Adolescents
are susceptible to society’s emphasis on slenderness and may initiate smoking as
a weight control measure.”27
 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546 525

Adolescents confront daunting tasks as they move through puberty toward adult-
hood. Establishing a healthy, positive view of one’s body is key to a successful
transition. Researchers have found a wide array of harmful emotional outcomes
associated with negative body image, including depression and poor self-esteem.28,29

HOW DO TEENAGERS USE MEDIA?

Today’s adolescents live in a world surrounded and defined by media.30 They are
heavy users of media (see Fig 4),31,32 many of which proffer unhealthy and unreal-
istic body images for adolescent viewers. Television, Internet, music videos, maga-
zines, and movies all feature unrealistic, unattainable icons of beauty and desirability.21

Traditional media, specifically television, occupies less time in teenagers’ lives

today, supplanted largely by video games and the computer. Interactive sites such
as Facebook and MySpace and the entertaining, often scintillating YouTube draw
teen eyes and compete for leisure hours. Interactive sites allow teenagers to
define themselves in a comfortable, positive fashion and communicate with friends.
Interestingly, by posting photographs of themselves, adolescents put their desired
look, face and body, on their Facebook page, so defining their chosen image.

Magazines aimed at female teenagers are extremely popular and have increased
in number and availability. An estimated 33 million adolescents spend more than
$175 million annually on these magazines; content heavily emphasizes clothing
and fashion, appearance, and dating.33 Teen-oriented magazines draw readers
into articles and photographs, and some believe that the ultra-thin, ideal images
in magazines are more accessible and believable to teenagers than those in other
media, including television (see Fig 5).30

DO THE MEDIA AFFECT BODY IMAGE?

The research says “yes.”34 Media images and messages offer powerful cues
about how we need to look, what we need to eat, and what we must buy. Whether
on the television, movie screen, or the front page of teen-focused magazines or
People, we see graphically which bodies are beautiful, which shapes are “hot,”
and who is successful or not (see Fig 6). We suffer through headlines about
which young star is admitted to an eating-disorders program and who looks best
in a bikini this season. For adolescents grappling with emerging pubertal
changes, comparing themselves to the stars of stage and screen is unavoidable.

One of the most important developments in communications research

over the past decade has been interest in examining the role that media play
in the health of women, specifically body image and eating disorders. The
British Medical Association issued a landmark report on this subject
(see Fig 7),35 and other experts have contributed to knowledge in this
area.6,26,34,36,37
526 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546

Fig 4. A, In a typical day, percentage of 8- to 18-year-olds who spend more than 1 hour watching
television, listening to music, etc. B, Which media young people use.

Almost 30 years ago, Kaufman38 examined eating behavior on prime-time

television. In a content analysis, she determined that television characters were
not happy in the presence of food. Food was rarely used to satisfy hunger but,
rather, to bribe others or facilitate social interactions. Her conclusion was that
television is obsessed with thinness: 88% of all television characters had a thin
or average body build; obesity was confined to middle or old age; and being
overweight routinely provided comic ammunition.38,39 More-recent researchers
have found that shows appealing to adolescents feature characters below average
in weight 94% of the time.40

Certainly, the combination of ubiquitous commercials for foods (mostly un-

healthy) and advertising and programming emphasis on female beauty and
thinness predictably lead to confusion and dissatisfaction for young viewers.34,41– 44
 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546 527

Fig 4 (continued). C, Differences in media use according to age. D, Relationship of bedroom media
to time spent using media: a snapshot of preteens’ and teens’ media use. Teenagers spend more time
with media than in any other leisure-time activity except for sleeping. (Copyright Kaiser Family
Foundation. Used with permission.)
528 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546

Fig 5. Cover of Seventeen magazine.

Others have suggested that situation comedies add to this dilemma, because thin
female characters receive significantly more positive verbal comments from male
characters than do heavier characters.45,46 A 1999 study reinforced the primacy
of the thin-ideal female in television programs that are popular with young
 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546 529

Fig 6. Four covers of mainstream magazines.

viewers. The thin females won positive comments from male characters; but the
more female characters were dieting, the more they made negative comments about
other women’s bodies and weight, consistent with low self-esteem.47

Historically, there has been an association between advertising and disordered

body image and disordered eating. Interestingly, as advertisements for diet-food
products increased on television between 1973 and 1991, a rise in eating disor-
ders occurred as well.48 Similarly, studies have revealed that the increase in thin
models and actresses from 1910 to 1930 and 1950 to 1980 was accompanied by
an increase in disordered eating.49 Kilbourne21 wrote that the American diet
industry tripled in the 1990s, from $10 to $36 billion per year. During the same
decade, women’s magazines featured a dramatic increase in articles about dieting
and exercise, far more than in men’s magazines.50,51 During this time, magazines
530 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546

Fig 7. Cover of a British Medical Association report.

 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546 531

Fig 8. Trend in BMI of Miss America Pageant winners, 1922–1999. The gray horizontal line
represents the World Health Organization’s BMI cutoff point for undernutrition (18.5). (Reproduced
with permission from Rubinstein S, Caballero B. JAMA. 2000;283:1569; copyright © American
Medical Association.)

aimed at adolescent girls more than tripled, and a majority of 15- to 18-year-old
girls reported reading these magazines daily.52 Studies have shown that girls
reading these fashion magazines compare themselves to models in the ads and
articles and have more negative feelings about their own appearances.26,53,54

“Whether this is cause and effect or simply correlational is arguable.”34 The

connection between the diet industry and the real world is complicated. Kil-
bourne illustrated this with the example of a WeightWatchers ad showing a piece
of pie with the caption: “Feel free to act on impulse.” Why would WeightWatch-
ers encourage indulgence in Boston cream pie? It is “[b]ecause it is in their best
business interest to fatten people up and then want them to diet or fail to lose
weight so that their revenues will continue to grow.”21 A quick perusal of popular
women’s magazines at the grocery store check-out counter gives testament to the
dilemma: a cover boasts a story about the latest fad diet in big letters, while just
beneath is a story about the 10 best, decadent chocolate desserts of the year,
followed by a sure-fire way to tighten your abs and glutes in preparation for the
summer season at the beach. The irony cannot be missed.

The ideal of female beauty in America continues to shrink steadily. Researchers

studied Playboy centerfolds and Miss America contestants over a 10-year period
532 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546

and found that the body weight of these women was 13% to 19% below
average.50,55 The BMI of aspiring Miss America contestants has declined from
22 in 1922 to ⬍18 in 1999, the latter BMI indicating undernutrition.56 Almost 20
years ago, adolescent girls described their “ideal girl” as an almost impossible 5 feet
7 inches tall, weighing 100 lb, and with long blond hair and blue eyes57 (see Fig 8).

“Evidence is increasing that there are tremendous pressures on today’s girls and
young women to try to attain body shapes that are unhealthy, unnatural, and
dictated by media norms.”35 Many scholars believe that this “internalization of
the thin-ideal body image” has resulted in females in America being increasingly
dissatisfied with their bodies, possibly leading to eating disorders.6,34,36,37,58 – 60

A 2004 study revealed that even movies aimed at a young audience, Cinderella
or The Little Mermaid, for example, contain body-image–related themes.61 A
disturbing study in Australia revealed that of 128 children aged 5 to 8 years,
many wanted to be thinner by 6 years of age.62 In 2007, Australian researchers
tested 265 primary school girls to determine if the importance of appearance
relates to body dissatisfaction. They found that exposure to media and peer
influence were negatively related to body esteem.63

Is There Solid Research That This Actually Occurs?

A growing body of literature indicates an association between media portrayals

of the ideal female body and disordered body image in viewers. As many as half
of normal-weight adolescent girls consider themselves overweight and have tried
to lose weight.64,65 All media subtypes (television, film, magazines, music videos)
portray female characters with impossibly thin bodies, which puts pressure on
adolescents to conform or be dissatisfied with their own looks6,26,37,44,54 (see Fig 2).

Popular television comedies, including Ally McBeal and Friends, soap operas
(popular with adolescent girls), music videos, and films aimed at teenagers may
expose viewers to potential role models who actually suffer from eating disorders
themselves.34,37 In a critical twist, overweight female characters tend to be
criticized by male characters, whereas overweight male characters may make fun
of themselves but do not engender negative comments from others.47 A study of
837 ninth-grade girls found that the number of hours watching music videos was
associated with their feelings about the importance of appearance and their
weight concerns.66 Similarly, girls watching a music video that emphasized
appearance had more body dissatisfaction than those watching a neutral video.67
Clay et al53 found that exposing young girls to thin or average-sized models in
magazines lowered self-esteem and body satisfaction. The authors of 3 meta-
analyses68 –70 examined the association between media exposure and body dis-
satisfaction; only one study revealed no association.70
 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546 533

In What Ways Might Sociocultural Factors, Including Media Exposure,

Play an Important Role in Body Image?

There are 4 key components to the theory that media images and messages do
influence the body image of young viewers.71

1. Although the “ideal” woman has gotten increasingly thinner over the past 2
decades, the real woman has actually gotten heavier.40,56

2. Thinness has become associated with social, personal, and professional success.72,73

3. Especially for teen girls, the thin look has become normative,35,73,74 which
could relate to the superpeer concept.19

4. Adolescent girls and grown women have been led to believe that thinness can
actually be attained easily.35,74

In 1997, Signorelli73 conducted a content analysis of girls in the media and made
several relevant observations. Teen-oriented shows featured advertisements us-
ing beauty as a product appeal in 56% of ads targeting females and 3% of ads
targeting male viewers. Fully 56% of female characters in movies had their looks
remarked on, and 70% of girls wanted to look like a television character
(compared with 40% of boys). Half of those girls did something to change their
appearance as a result. Women are often caught up in the trap of living in a
culture in which they are expected to be the objects of the male gaze, but then feel
the need to compare favorably with ultra-thin role models.75,76

Similarly, 2 literature reviews37,77 concluded that female viewers exposed to ultra-

thin characters in the media are prone to idealize and internalize these models and,
thus, become dissatisfied with their own bodies: this is “thin internalization.”77
Levine and Harrison37 built on the social-comparison theory,78 whereby media
exposure leads to dissatisfaction with a viewer’s body, a drive to be thin, and,
ultimately, down a pathway to disordered eating. This review revealed small but
positive associations between media exposure and impact on body image. The
social-comparison theory asserts that individuals tend to evaluate themselves through
comparisons with others, maybe either upward (comparing to those considered
superior or, possibly, thinner) or downward (the other is perceived as being
inferior).30 In the case of media, with ultra-thin and glamorous characters, compar-
isons for the average viewer would be upward: the models and celebrities in the
media are quite different from the viewers’ self-appraisal, which leads to feelings of
dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem.79 “Our upward social comparisons could
compel us to eat in a disordered fashion and strive to be thin.”30

In a recent review, Cohen30 reviewed the current literature and examined the
social-comparison theory78 but also introduced the relevance of Gerbner’s cul-
tivation theory80 in the context of body dissatisfaction. The cultivation theory
534 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546

simply “predicts that people who are more exposed to greater degrees of televi-
sion will have attitudes that are more reflective of media realities, and less
reflective of real-world social realities.”30 The author gave the apt example of an
ultra-thin woman on television consuming junk food and not exercising; “in-
complete information about the link between diet and fitness are communicated
with the viewer.”30 She concluded, “Media exposure does seem to have an
impact on body dissatisfaction, disordered eating, and drive for thinness.”30 The
relationship is stronger for magazines than for television, both of which are
“thin-depicting” media, but the former is a more engaging pastime.30

One study of college women showed that those who were concerned about their body
shape judged thin celebrities as thinner than they were; however, those comfortable
with their body shape judged the celebrities accurately.81 Field et al74 conducted a
series of studies using a large database of 6770 adolescent girls aged 9 to 14 years.
Girls wanting to look like characters on television, in movies, or in magazines were
twice as likely to be concerned about weight, become constant dieters, or engage in
purging behaviors.6,14,74 A longitudinal study revealed that television viewing pre-
dicted thinner ideal body shapes and disordered eating 1 year later among 257
preteen girls,82 and a recent study of 11 000 adolescents, both male and female,
found a concerning correlation between wanting to look like media role models and
being more likely to use anabolic steroids or unproven protein supplements.26

A decade ago, Seventeen, Teen, and YM enjoyed readerships of ⬎6 million young

females52; subsequently, the teen-magazine market exploded, and Teen People, Elle
Girl, Teen Vogue, and others appeared. All of these magazines define the look that
is desirable, dictating that thin is good, thin with large breasts and small hips being
best. One adolescent stated: “Everybody feels like they are not good enough, not
pretty enough, not skinny enough . . .. Every time you open a magazine you always
see beautiful people . . . you have to look good to be a good person.”83 Several
studies have found a robust association between reading teen-oriented magazines and
weight concerns and/or symptoms of eating disorders in girls.54,74,75,84,85 In a study
of 548 middle and high school girls, Field et al74 found most of them to be
dissatisfied with their body shape; 69% believed that their ideal body shape was
influenced by magazines or other media images. The more frequently girls read
fashion magazines, the higher the likelihood they had been on diets or started an
exercise program to lose weight. The study authors concluded that “print media could
serve a public health role by refraining from relying on models who are severely
underweight and printing more articles on the benefits of physical activity.”74

An innovative study of college women found association between reading fash-

ion magazines and symptoms of body dissatisfaction. Young women in a waiting
room were provided either 4 fashion or 4 news magazines before answering a
survey about their body image and dieting practices. Those who chose a fashion
magazine reported more dissatisfaction with their weight, guilt associated with
eating, and greater fear of getting fat.86 An ongoing meta-analysis of ⬎20
 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546 535

experimental studies indicated that exposure to images of thin models causes an

increase in a young woman’s negative feelings about her own body.87

Surveys have revealed, despite the participants’ actual body weight, exaggerated
fears of obesity among adolescents.88,89 Viewers trust media, especially televi-
sion,90 but media portrayals of the ideal woman are distorted, especially with
today’s rising rates of overweight and obesity. With few exceptions, notably
Rosanne Barr years ago and Queen Latifah more recently, there is a dearth of
successful, charismatic overweight female media role models.34

In 1985, the BBC banned televising beauty pageants, labeling them “an
anachronism.”91 In the world of high fashion, the use of ultraskinny models is being
scrutinized, and in some situations models have been banned from the fashion
runway.92 American media seem obsessed by the ups and downs the weight of
popular film and television stars and models; “whether this degree of publicity about
actresses’ (and models’) body weights is healthy or harmful remains to be tested.”34
Everyone follows Oprah’s struggles with weight vicariously.

Is Everyone Susceptible?

Body image and dissatisfaction with one’s body vary across ethnic and racial groups
in America.1,79 Specifically, black female adolescents are “more tolerant of adipos-
ity,” and Asian American college-age adolescents are less so.93,94 However, black
young women who are dissatisfied with their body image may be at increased risk for
unintended pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections.95 One study revealed
that ethnic identity did not mitigate the relationship between depression and body
dissatisfaction for females,29 and a 2006 study suggested little difference in body dissat-
isfaction among women self-identifying as black, Asian American, or Hispanic.96

There has been little research on factors of personal characteristics that may enhance
body satisfaction. Some studies have suggested that positive relationships with
parents or feeling supported by surrounding social network are likely buffers.97–99
Presnell et al speculated that “theoretically, cognitive factors such as attributional
style or perceived control, which have been linked to depression and anxiety, may be
associated with body dissatisfaction.”97 More research on resilience and protective
factors for positive body image is needed.

Similar to other harmful effects of media, including violence, heavy viewers and
users of the plethora of media types may be at greater risk for body dissatisfaction
simply because they see more images. More research is needed on vulnerability: which
children and teenagers are at greater risk of internalizing media images and messages?

Is It Just Girls, or Boys, Too?

Although the bulk of research has involved females, males are clearly not immune
to mediated images and messages. More research on male children and teenagers is
536 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546

needed.3,4,6,87 One study of boys’ action figures (often featured on television shows)
between 1964 and 1998 found that the characters all had smaller waist sizes with
ballooning chests and biceps.100 Boys are more interested in bulking up, not weight
loss.44,75 In a study of ⬎10 000 adolescents, Field et al26 found that 8% of girls and
10% of boys reported using substances to enhance muscle mass, appearance, or
strength. Boys used the substances to bulk up muscle, but girls also reported a desire to
lose weight. Both genders were more likely to use substances if influenced by the
appearance of models in the media: “concern with muscle definition and media images
may lead young people to use unhealthful products to achieve a more desired
physique.”26 Boys seemingly possess sociocultural ideas that are different from young
women. However, the increasing epidemic of overweight and obesity in all age groups
and both genders may change these observations. The heavily publicized use of anabolic
steroids in baseball and other sports venues may influence adolescents, particularly young
men. A 1999 review revealed that young males are often dissatisfied with their bodies, not
because they are not thin enough but because they want to be both lean and muscular at
the same time. Some boys are concerned about weight loss; “there is evidence that boys
are divided between those who desire to lose weight and those who wish to gain weight
and musculature.”101 Girls uniquely strive for thinness, but “there may be 2 pathways to
body dissatisfaction among boys—weight concerns and muscularity concerns.”101 How-
ever, both genders aim toward a media-dictated body-image ideal.

DO THE MEDIA PLAY A ROLE IN EATING DISORDERS?

As startling as the research discussed above seems, the existing studies do not
yield a simplistic “yes” or “no” answer to the question of whether media
exposure causes eating disorders. “Probably the most conservative view is that
there is now considerable evidence that the media influence body image and
self-dissatisfaction among young girls and women”34 (see Fig 9). At the same
time, several cross-sectional studies have revealed an apparent link between the

Fig 9. Thin models in Style and Max Mara.

 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546 537

level (and type) of media exposure and the likelihood of having an eating
disorder or symptoms of disordered eating.14,71,102–106

The authors of a meta-analysis of 66 studies concluded that distorted, negative

body image plays a key role in the development of an eating disorder.107 As
discussed above, body-image development comes from many sources, including
family and peers but also media exposure. Looking from a different perspective,
young women with diagnosed eating disorders have reported being influenced by
magazines and newspapers.105 In experimental studies, this group of young
women overestimates body sizes.108,109
● A large survey of 11 000 adolescents revealed that those wanting to emulate
the looks of media role models were more likely to be concerned about
weight than their peers. As well, this study yielded a greater likelihood of
purging by those teenagers endorsing a “media ideal” of beauty.6
● A prospective cohort study of almost 7000 girls (aged 9 –14 years)
revealed both peer and media influences on purging: girls purging or
using laxatives at least monthly to control weight (⬃1% of the sample)
cited the importance of thinness to peers and trying to look like models
on television, in movies, or in magazines. Girls wanting to look like their
media role models had twice the risk of purging monthly.14
● A recent longitudinal study of ⬎2500 girls from middle through high
school revealed that those who were heavy readers of magazines with
dieting and weight-loss articles were twice as likely to engage in un-
healthy behaviors of purging and laxative use after 5 years.110
● Even young girls in elementary and middle school who read fashion magazines
were dissatisfied with their bodies and had more eating-disorder symptoms; their
own bodies suffered in comparison to the models in magazines.71,104
● In 1 study, college women who “internalized” the cultural bias toward
thinness scored higher on tests of body dissatisfaction and bulimia.111
● A cohort of college women exposed to “thin-ideal television” among 40
prime-time programs was a significant predictor of disordered eating for
women of all races. In the same study, women exposed to sports media
did not report disordered eating.112
● In an interesting approach, girls who decreased their reading of fashion
magazines had fewer eating-disorder symptoms.113

The Internet, often a valuable learning tool, is also a minefield of dangerous infor-
mation for the weight- and body-image– conscious teenager. A recent study identi-
fied at least 20 proanorexia Web sites that offer encouragement for disordered eating
behaviors.114 “The general attitude of the pro-ana (anorexia) and pro-mia (bulimia)
sites is one of superiority, empowerment, and pride, where young women encourage
one another to demonstrate self-control and reject weak societal values.”115 These
unmonitored sites clearly represent a danger to vulnerable, possibly seriously ill
young people; typical visitors on these sites are overweight young women and others
who have eating disorders or other mental health problems.1
538 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546

A naturalistic study reinforced concerns about the connection between media exposure
and eating disorders. Three years after the introduction of American television to the
island of Fiji, 15% of girls reported vomiting to control weight. Before the introduction
of American television shows, only 3% were dissatisfied with their weight or appearance.
The number of Fijian teenagers who scored high on a test for disordered eating doubled,
and 75% of the girls reported feeling “too big or fat” after mainstream American shows
such as Beverly Hills 90210 came to their country. Those girls watching television ⬎3
nights per week were 50% more likely to have negative body image and 30% more likely
to diet.116 Similarly, a recent longitudinal study of 3000 Spanish adolescents over 19
months found that those who read fashion magazines were 2 times more likely to
develop an eating disorder.117 The very young are not immune either. Harrison103
studied 300 children aged 6 to 8 years at 2 schools in the Midwest and found a
correlation between television viewing and eating-disorder symptoms.

Not all researchers have found an association between exposure to certain media
images and eating disorders.118 –122 Some studies have revealed one media
subtype to correlate with abnormal eating habits but not others (eg, fashion
magazines, music videos, and soap operas but not television in general).119,123
These findings could relate to sometimes unreliable self-reporting of media
exposure by subjects or to the “third person effect” (teenagers are known to be
susceptible to the belief that “media affects everyone but me”).124

Fig 10. Spoof of a Victoria’s Secret ad by Adbusters.org.

 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546 539

WHAT CAN BE DONE TO MAKE THE MEDIA HEALTHIER FOR

KIDS, VIS-À-VIS BODY SELF-IMAGE?

The media could certainly play a role as a catalyst or intermediate influence, rather than
a direct and complete cause of eating problems, perhaps only by certain subgroups of
young women.125 It is highly likely that media images and messages contribute to the
construction of a young women’s body image, often negative.35 In turn, a negative body
image occurring during early adolescence may make disordered eating more likely.126
Until these associations are examined further, adults must make media healthier for
young viewers and users of the increasing array of media today.

Media education presents the best opportunity to counter the harmful messages
and images on large and small screens and in the print media. Media education
involves teaching young people to be savvy, wise consumers of all media.
Media-educated teenagers learn several lessons127,128:
● Media have political, social, and economic implications.
● All media are constructed for a reason.
● Media contain ideological and value messages.
● Media construct our culture.
● Each form of media uses its own language and techniques.
● No two people experience media the same way.

Fig 11. Dove has successfully countered the traditional advertising of women by using full-sized
models in their ads.
540 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546

Adolescents can practice media education at home if involved, concerned parents

co-view media and encourage critical thinking and deconstruction of images and
messages. Young people also need access to healthy media; a new magazine for
girls, New Moon, emphasizes robust health and activity and engenders pride in
caring for the body you have. Although schools are already burdened to provide
more than the 3 R’s, they should incorporate media education into relevant health
units. Youth can also be steered to create their own media products, possibly
countering the dangerous body-image models so prevalent in media now. The
National Institute on Media and the Family created an innovative program to help
families, educators, and communities become “MediaWise.”129

As daunting as the prospect seems, engaging the media to provide healthier messages
about body images must be a key component of improving media for young people.

Fig 12.
 M. J. Hogan, V. C. Strasburger / Adolesc Med 19 (2008) 521–546 541

Ads that feature normal teenagers and shows that feature normal teenagers of all
shapes and sizes could go a long way in reorienting body image toward normalcy
(see Fig 10). Consumer complaints about magazine ads and articles and television
programs should be encouraged. Not surprisingly, other countries are more attuned
to the media’s role in body-image formation (eg, Great Britain).35 Ideally, shows,
articles, and advertisements would depict healthy nutritional choices and exercise as
the hallmarks of good health. Occasionally, examples of positive, believable, non-
skinny media characters do appear: the 2002 movie Real Women Have Curves depicted
an overweight Hispanic teenager played by America Ferrera, who is also featured in the
teen movie The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants and the television hit Ugly Betty.

Pediatricians and public health leaders must continue to recognize, prevent, and treat
obesity and eating disorders. Many professionals are viewing the epidemic of obesity
as one of the primary health concerns facing children and youth. Acknowledging the
role of media in influencing the escalating rates of these problems is key. The new
American Academy of Pediatrics guidelines for preventing obesity and its compli-
cations in childhood and adolescence recommend limited media use daily as part of
a comprehensive management plan.130 In addition to healthy dietary choices (em-
phasizing fruits and vegetables) and 60 minutes of vigorous exercise daily, media use
is clearly recognized as a contributor to the obesity epidemic. In a staged approach
for children with a BMI between the 85th and 94th percentiles, screen time should be ⬍2
hours daily as a preventive measure. For children and adolescents requiring a structured
weight-management protocol, the total screen-time recommendation is ⬍1 hour daily.130

CONCLUSIONS

Body image in adolescence is constructed from several factors: individual,

familial, peer, and cultural. “Interventions that reduce sociocultural pressures to
be thin and educate adolescents to more critically evaluate messages from the
media hold promise in reducing body dissatisfaction,”97 ultimately encouraging
positive body image and self-esteem and reducing the risk of harmful outcomes,
both physical and emotional (Fig 11).

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