Chapter 2.3 "Rules" For Traditional African Art

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3 “Rules” for Traditional African Art – The Bright Continent: African Art History
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THE BRIGHT CONTINENT: AFRICAN ART HISTORY
CONTENTS
Title Page
Introduction
Acknowledgments
Dedication
Chapter 1: Orientation to Africa and its Art
Chapter 2.1 Elements of Design
Chapter 2.2 Principles and Considerations of Design
Chapter 2.3 "Rules" for Traditional African Art
Chapter 2.4 Stylistic Analysis
Chapter 2.5 Contextual Analysis
Chapter 3: Themes in African Art
Chapter 4: The Impact of Religion and Hierarchy on African Art

Previous: Chapter 2.2 Principles and Considerations of Design
Appendix A: Taking Notes
Next: Chapter 2.4 Stylistic Analysis
https://pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/bright-continent/chapter/chapter-2-2-rules-for-traditional-african-art/ 1/11
26/05/2019 Chapter 2.3 “Rules” for Traditional African Art – The Bright Continent: African Art History
Appendix B: Studying for and Taking Tests Increase Font Size
Appendix C: Researching a Project--Introductory Level
Appendix D: Maps and Ethnic Groups
Map: Bamana and Mande
Map of the Kongo Peoples
Chapter 2: Analyzing and Discussing African Art
Chapter 2.3 “Rules” for Traditional African Art
Africa is immensely varied in visual expression. Even

though our course concentrates on art south of the Sahara
desert (with one upcoming exception), the variety of
traditional art is still immense. Nonetheless, a group of traits
applies generally to most figurative African traditional art.
When these rules are broken, which sometimes happens, it
is noteworthy.
Human-Centered
Traditional
African art is
Fig. 123. Even a whistle often bears a
human image. Holo artist, Democratic human-
Republic of Congo, 19th-20th century.
Ivory. Courtesy Dallas Museum of Art, centered. This
1969.S.62. The Clark and Frances is true even in
Stillman Collection of Congo Sculpture,
abstract terms:
gift of Eugene and Margaret McDermott
body arts are
by definition concerned directly with human
Fig. 124. This Tsonga headrest from South Africa or
beings, structures are built on a human scale, Zimbabwe incorporates a rare depiction of an
inanimate object without a human presence.
textiles are meant to wrap around a person or © British Museum, Af1954,+23.1824. Creative
decorate their environment, pots are meant for Commons CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
their direct use. Many utilitarian objects that

require no ornamentation–combs, cups, spoons, whistles (Fig. 123)–are nonetheless
ornamented with human faces or bodies. In figurative terms, itNext:
is clear that2.4most
Chapter traditional
Stylistic Analysis
African representations typically depict one of two things: human beings orIncrease
animals.Font
Landscape
Size
references do not exist, for the most part, nor does still life imagery of inanimate objects or
flowers and fruit. When such portrayals occur, these exceptions deserve comment (Fig. 124).
Fig. 125. This machine-embroidered Asante textile from Ghana includes the elephant as a symbol of leadership, along
with other leadership metaphors, including some inanimate object. 20th century. Minneapolis Institute of Arts,
86.100.42. Gift of Roberta and Richard Simmons. Public domain. CLICK TO ENLARGE
This concentration on the human form (even if it represents spirits or deities, which it
sometimes does) is greater than what is found in most parts of world art history. When animals
appear, they are rarely just allusions to the human habitat. While they can represent simple
game in a hunting society, they are more likely metaphors for certain types of human beings or
for human traits. Leopards and elephants, for example, often relate to rulership or leadership,
because of their deadliness or power, respectively. They are not simply observed animals who
happen to appear locally. Many of these are part of the verbal world featuring in commonly-
used proverbs that make their visual occurrences easily interpretable to their audience. An
Akan proverb from Ghana states, “No one following an elephant has to worry about vines
catching him”, i.e. the elephant plows down all obstacles in its path. This refers to a chief or
other powerful
Previous: man,2.2who
Chapter clearsand
Principles theConsiderations
way for thoseof who are attached to him. Because verbal
Design
references like this are part of the culture, representations of the elephant instantly call to mind
the chief (Fig. 125). Increase Font Size
One category of animals frequently occurs in art:

the liminal animal. Liminality, in general, refers to
a state of in-betweenness; the word’s Latin origin
means “threshold,” and defines a state that is
between two defined identities. In the insect
world, a caterpillar and a butterfly are two distinct
identities of one insect, and the cocoon marks its
Fig. 126. The crocodiles on this masquerade’s brass liminal state. In African cultural life, some societies
headpiece emerge from the nostrils of a deified ritual
specialist, signifying the power of his very breath. mark the liminal state of man’s changing identities
Ritual specialists are believed to be able to move
from this human world to the supernatural world. of child and adult with initiation, a period of
Edo artist, Benin Kingdom, Nigeria, 18th century. © transition and transformation. The
British Museum, Af1944,04.12. Creative Commons
CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. liminal animal, however, is at a threshold of a
different source. This is a class of animals that
regularly lives in two distinct worlds. Some liminal animals commonly depicted in African art
move between land and water, such as tortoises, crocodiles, pythons and other water snakes
(not snakes in general), and mudfish, a catfish-related animal that can crawl on damp earth or
survive in mud for extended periods. Others move between land and sky, such as most birds.
Animals like this can represent people who move between the two worlds of humans and
spirits, that is, priests/priestesses, ritual specialists (Fig. 126), monarchs, and witches.
Frontality
Frontality refers to the position of the body in both two and three dimensions. In a frontal
depiction, the head and spine are perfectly aligned in a straight line (Fig. 127). The position of
arms and legs is immaterial, but the head cannot turn or tilt. This reinforces formality; it is a
pose that artists have employed throughout world art’s history when representing deities and
rulers. Frontality imbues a figure with a sense of permanence and dignity. The concept of
frontality only applies to human beings, since animals’ heads and spines are not normally
aligned, and it only refers to representations that at least include a torso; i.e. masks are not
referred to as frontal.
In traditional African art, the non-frontal figure is usually negligible–a child (Fig. 128), a
member of an entourage, or some lesser being. Even these individuals are usually depicted
frontally, however.
It’s vital to remember that photographers often prefer to take object photos
Next: Chapter 2.4from an angle,
Stylistic Analysisso a
view Increase Font Size

er’s
imm
ediat
e
impr
essio
n
may
not
be
Fig. 127. Frontal figure on a Kanyok that
waterpipe from Democratic Republic of
of Congo, late 19th/early 20th
century. Dallas Museum of front
Art, 1969.S.18. The Clark and
Frances Stillman Collection of Congo ality.
Sculpture, gift of Eugene and If
Margaret McDermott. Public
domain. the
alignme
nt of
facial
features
on a
vertical Fig. 128. The child on his mother’s back turns his head, breaking
frontality. Children are not expected to be consistently dignified.
axis Yoruba artist from Oyo, Nigeria, first half 20th century. Indianapolis
Museum of Art, 1989.723. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Harrison Eiteljorg.
confor
ms to
the
known
line of Fig. 129. Although this Mende
the figure from Sierra Leone has
been photographed in a three-
spine, quarter view, you can “draw” an
invisible line down the middle of
howeve the face and it continues
r, between the breasts through the
rest of the torso–it’s frontal.
discern 1920-1950. Indianapolis
Museum of Art, 1995.131. Gift
ment of of Mr. and Mrs. Harrison
frontalit Eiteljorg.
y is
easily achieved (Fig. 129). Next: Chapter 2.4 Stylistic Analysis
Stillness Increase Font Size
An emphasis on dignity and permanence also favors the

representation of stillness in figurative art. Movement is
temporary and implies some form of work, however
tangential. Stillness underlines the innate qualities of an
elevated being. Although the mother in Fig. 128 above is not
quite frontal, since her head’s angle does not match that of
her spine, she is shown in a still, kneeling position of
maximum dignity.
Self-Composure (Expressionlessness)
Fig. 130. The self-composed
With very few exceptions, traditional African art does not expression of this Fang head is typical
of traditional African art. 1875–1925.
display human emotions. This is a reflection of desirable Photo Thomas R. DuBrock. Museum
of Fine Arts Houston, 2009.485.
public display (a ruler at a festival, an initiation girl when Museum purchase funded by the Alice
Pratt Brown, Museum Fund. Public
presented to the public, a politician posing for a formal domain.
photograph). The ideal “face” is that of serene self-
composure, unrocked by moods and reactions to others. This same ideal applies to artistic
imagery. Figures normally have a restrained, dignified expression on their faces, without scowls
or smiles (Fig. 130). When figures do show their teeth, it may be meant as an aggressive
gesture (Fig. 126 above).
Ephebism
Ephebism refers to ideal age. Culturally, age is valued and venerated in Africa, with privileges
not found among the young. Nonetheless, representations usually show individuals at a fully
adult age that is still replete with physical vigor, yet without youthful recklessness–the maturity
and power of someone in their early 30s. Even when a sculpture represents an elder, his face
does not reflect his age. Instead, cultural cues (which vary according to ethnic group) may
indicate advanced years. In Baule sculpture, for example, a beard is visual shorthand for an
elder, yet the faces of bearded figures lack wrinkles or sagging skin (Fig. 130). Youthful
musculature usually also marks the elder’s physique.
Hardly any artworks depict visible older individuals, but those rare instances that do are usually
representations of those who lack social position and therefore do not need to be flattered.
Conversely, although we see infants held by their mothers, older children cannot be
distinguished. There are even times when infants are represented as adults because of ideal
age–that is, in some West African cultures, twins who died in infancy are carved as fully grown
adults, visually appeased by providing them with the bodies they never
Next: attained.
Chapter (Fig.Analysis
2.4 Stylistic 131).
Abstraction Increase Font Size
Most traditional African art

avoids naturalism in favor of
abstraction, although there is
a full spectrum between the
extremes of each. There are
examples of naturalism, they
are simply not standard (Fig.
132). Disinterest
in realism often seems
conceptual; over-sized heads
Fig. 131. This Ewe twin figure from Fig. 130. The beard of this early
Togo represents a child that died in on Yoruba figures, for 20th-century Baule figure indicates
infancy, yet the carving provides her example, an elder, yet his face is smooth and
with full breasts, allowing her to wrinkle-free. Brooklyn Museum,
achieve the ideal age she was never exemplify philosophical 22.1091. Museum Expedition
able to reach. 1922, Robert B. Woodward
underpinnings that equate the Memorial Fund. Creative
head with one’s destiny Commons-BY.
and worthy of honor.

Quite a lot of African art
is fairly naturalistic, even
if exaggerations and
distortions occur, but
even extreme abstraction
(Fig. 133) has identifiable
characteristics that permit
recognition of humanity.
Generic Physiognomy
Fig. 133. Maskette (lukwakongo), Fig. 132. This Efut masquerade from Nigeria
When a traditional ca. 1900. Lega artist, Democratic has a very naturalistically-rendered face. Late
African artist creates a Republic of Congo. Princeton 19th/early 20th century. Princeton University
University Art Museum, 2015- Art Museum, 1997-6. Gift of the Friends of
face, his training tends to 6700. Gift of Perry E. H. Smith, the Princeton University Art Museum on the
Class of occasion of the 250th Anniversary of
ensure that face is 1957. artmuseum.princeton.edu Princeton University.
artmuseum.princeton.edu
consistent with other
faces he makes. That is, learning how to make an eye,
fashion a nose, or abstract an ear becomes habitual, and artists develop a “type” that they tend
to reproduce instead2.2ofPrinciples
Previous: Chapter individualizing each face.ofProducing
and Considerations Design faces that resemble specific
individuals is extremely rare; rather, generic physiognomy is the rule. This tends to work
hand-in-hand with abstraction, but is evident even in fairly naturalistic works.

Increase Font Size
While the apprenticeship system partially explains this approach, it may not be the whole story.
Avoidance of specificity may have its distant origins in concerns that reproducing someone’s
face might have nefarious origins, meant to control them or cause harm.
Hieratic Scale
Scale, as we’ve previously

discussed, relates to relative
size, while hierarchy is a
social sorting system–some
people are at the top, others
in the middle, with still others
at the bottom. In art, hieratic
scale or hierarchical scale or
social scale all mean the
same thing: figures whose
size indicates their relative
social standing. This concept
applies only when we aren’t
Fig. 134. These three figures all represent adults. The one at center is the
monarch, flanked by two of his chiefs. Their height disparity distinguishes their looking at single figures. A
social status. He is larger, thus clearly more important. Yale Art Gallery, size relationship must be
2006.51.194. Gift of Charles B. Benenson, B.A. 1933. Public domain.
present, and this cannot be a
natural size relationship–babies are naturally smaller than adults, and this does not reflect their
social status. Under hieratic scale, three figures of varying heights in an artwork do not indicate
three figures who happen to be taller or shorter than each other. Instead, the largest figure is
the most important, while the middle one is of lesser significance and the smallest are
inconsequential in comparison. This is determined by rank (Fig. 134), rather than individual
worth or age; the child of an important figure might be rendered larger than a member of that
figure’s entourage, despite a reverse height disparity in actual life.
Distorted Body Proportion
Abstraction in African art often means the exaggeration or distortion of one or more aspects of
the body. Some Chokwe figures, for example, have enormous hands and feet. Dogon sculpture
can have extremely elongated necks and/or torsos (Fig. 135), or Chamba figures may have
Previous:
shoulders Chapter
that push2.2 Principles
forward andunnatural
in an Considerations
mannerof Design
(Fig. 136).
These are all distortions of Increase Font Size

the natural body and aspects
of style that deserve
mention, as are over- or
undersized facial features.
One of the most notable
proportional distortions is
that of the head to the body:
that is, the head is often
significantly oversized in
African sculpture and can
sometimes be undersized– Fig. 136. This Chamba figure from Fig. 135. This Dogon figure from Mali
but it is extremely rare for Northern Nigeria has huge hands, as has an elongated torso and very short
well as shoulders that hunch forward legs. Quai Branly Museum,
the head-to-body in an unrealistic manner. Brooklyn 71.1935.60.371
Museum, 2011.31.1. Gift in honor of
relationship to be William C. Siegmann in recognition of
represented naturalistically. his contributions to the study and
understanding of African Arts;
What are natural head-to- 2011.31.1. Creative Commons-BY.
body proportions in an
adult (children, whose heads tend to be larger in relation to their bodies than those of adults,
are not part of this equation)? They tend to be fairly consistent, despite variations in height,
and are expressed in a mathematical ratio. That ratio is expressed as 1:x, with one
representing the measurements of the person’s head, and x representing their height with the
head as a unit. How many heads high is that person is the germane question, with the head
measured from chin to top, discounting beards, hats, and coiffures. Actual humans’ head-to-
body proportions are usually about 1:7 (Fig. 137)–the ratio always begins with 1 (the head as
the measurement) and the second number indicates “how many heads high”, and includes the
head itself.
African art displays a much greater variety of head-to-body ratios, as can be seen below (Fig.
138). Once you can visually isolate the head, you can mentally use it as a ruler to determine
head-to-body proportions, using the same ratio of 1(head): x (heads) to describe it. This
becomes challenging only when a figure is sitting, kneeling, or squatting, but follows the same
principles; one has to mentally wrap the heads (or portions of heads) around the bent joints.
Increase Font Size
Fig. 137. Despite the fact that these three adults have differing heights, their head-to-body ratios are all 1:7, natural
proportions for adults. Photo of three Yoruba musicians, Aran Orin, Nigeria, 1977. Tropenmuseum. Creative Commons
CC BY-SA 3.0, with overlays of heads added.
Fig. 138. The disembodied heads demonstrate the head-to-body ratios of these figures. L to R:
1) Bamana figure, Mali,19th or 20th century. Brooklyn Museum, 76.20.1. Gift of Marcia and
John Friede; 2) Lega figure, DRC, late 19th or early 20th century. Brooklyn
Next: Chapter 2.4 Museum, 74.66.1.
Stylistic Analysis
Gift of Marcia and John Friede; 3) Teke. Standing Female Figure (Buti), 19th or 20th
Increase century.
Font Size
Wood, 11 1/4 x 2 1/2 x 3 1/4in. (28.6 x 6.4 x 8.3cm). Brooklyn Museum, Museum Expedition
1922, Robert B. Woodward Memorial Fund, 22.111. All photos Creative Commons-BY.
Heads and text added, backgrounds cropped.
LICENSE
Chapter 2.3 "Rules" for Traditional African Art by Kathy Curnow is licensed under
a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International
License, except where otherwise noted.
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26/05/2019 Chapter 2.

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THE BRIGHT CONTINENT: AFRICAN ART HISTORY

Chapter 1: Orientation to Africa and its Art

Chapter 2.1 Elements of Design

Chapter 2.2 Principles and Considerations of Design

Chapter 2.4 Stylistic Analysis

Chapter 2.5 Contextual Analysis

Chapter 3: Themes in African Art

Chapter 4: The Impact of Religion and Hierarchy on African Art

Appendix B: Studying for and Taking Tests Increase Font Size

Appendix C: Researching a Project--Introductory Level

Appendix D: Maps and Ethnic Groups

Map: Bamana and Mande

Map of the Kongo Peoples

Chapter 2: Analyzing and Discussing African Art

Chapter 2.3 “Rules” for Traditional African Art

Africa is immensely varied in visual expression. Even

their direct use. Many utilitarian objects that

the chief (Fig. 125). Increase Font Size

One category of animals frequently occurs in art:

view Increase Font Size

Stillness Increase Font Size

An emphasis on dignity and permanence also favors the

Abstraction Increase Font Size

Most traditional African art

and worthy of honor.

hand-in-hand with abstraction, but is evident even in fairly naturalistic works.

Scale, as we’ve previously

Distorted Body Proportion

These are all distortions of Increase Font Size

Previous: Chapter 2.2 Principles and Considerations of Design

Next: Chapter 2.4 Stylistic Analysis

Increase Font Size

Open Source | Open Textbooks | Open Book Publishing | Learn More

Previous: Chapter 2.2 Principles and Considerations of Design

Next: Chapter 2.4 Stylistic Analysis

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