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Electric Power Plant Design PDF
Electric Power Plant Design PDF
TECHNICAL MANUAL
REPRODUCTION AUTHORIZATION/RESTRICTIONS
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property and not subject to copyright.
Copyrighted material included in the manual has been used with the knowledge and permission of the proprie-
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terial, by itself and apart from this text, should seek necessary permission directly from the proprietors.
Reprints or republications of this manual should include a credit substantially as follows: “Department of the
Army, USA, Technical Manual TM 5-811-6, Electric Power Plant Design.
If the reprint or republication includes copyrighted material, the credit should also state: “Anyone wishing to
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A/(B blank)
TM 5-811-6
T ECHNICAL M A N U A L HEADQUARTERS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
NO. 5-811-6 W ASHINGTON , DC 20 January 1984
Paragraph Page
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 1-1
Design philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 1-1
Design criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 1-1
Economic considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 1-5
CHAPTER 2. SITE AND CIVIL FACILITIES DESIGN
Selection I. Site Selection
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 2-1
Environmental considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 2-1
Water supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 2-1
Fuel supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4 2-1
Physical characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5 2-1
Economic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 2-1
Section II. Civil Facilities, Buildings, Safety, and Security
Soils investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7 2-2
Site development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8 2-2
Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9 2-2
CHAPTER 3. STEAM TURBINE POWER PLANT DESIGN
Section I. Typical Plants and Cycles
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 3-1
Plant function and purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2 3-1
Steam power cycle economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3 3-1
Cogeneration cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 3-3
Selection of cycle steam conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 3-6
Cycle equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6 3-6
Steam power plant arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7 3-6
Section II. Steam Generators and Auxiliary Systems
Steam generator convention types and characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8 3-9
Other steam generator characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 3-11
Steam generator special types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10 3-12
Major auxiliary systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11 3-12
Minor auxiliary systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12 3-25
Section III. Fuel Handling and Storage Systems
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13 3-26
Typical fuel oil storage and handling system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14 3-26
Coal handling and storage systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15 3-27
Section IV. Ash Handling Systems
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16 3-29
Description of major components.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17 3-30
Section V. Turbines and Auxiliary Systems
Turbine prime movers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18 3-30
Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19 3-32
Turbine features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20 3-32
Governing and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21 3-33
Turning gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22 3-33
Lubrication systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23 3-33
Extraction features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24 3-34
Instruments and special tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25 3-34
Section VI. Condenser and Circulating Water System
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26 3-34
Description of major components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27 3-35
Environmental concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28 3-40
Section VII. Feedwater System
Feedwater heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-29 3-40
Boiler feed pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30 3-41
Feedwater supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31 3-43
Section VIII. Service Water and Closed Cooling Systems
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-32 3-43
Description of major components.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33 3-44
i
TM 5-811-6
Paragraph Page
ii
TM 5-811-6
Paragraph Page
LIST OF FiGURES
Page
3-10 Coal Handling System Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26
3-11 Typical Coal Handling System for Spreader Stoker Fired Boiler (with bucket elevator). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28
3-12 Pneumatic Ash Handling Systems-Variations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31
3-13 Types of Circulating Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-38
3-14 Typical Compressed Air System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-50
3-15 Typical Arrangement of Air Compressor and Acceesories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-51
4-1 Station Connections–Two Unit Station Common Bus Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
4-2 Station Connections–Two Unit Station–Unit Arrangment–Generator at Distribution Voltage. . . . . . . . . . 4-4
4-3 Station Connections–Two Unit Station–Unit Arrangement–Distribution Voltage Higher Than Genera-
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
4-4 One Lone Diagram-TypicalStation Service Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
4-5 Typical Synchronizing Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
4-6 Typical Main and TransferBus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
4-7 Typical Ring Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
4-8 Typical Breaker and a Half Bus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12
5-1 Economical Thickness of Heat Insulation (Typical Curves) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
6-1 Typical Indoor Simple Cycle Gas Turbine Generator PowerPlant.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
7-1 Typical Diesel Generator Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
8-1 Combined Cycle Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
LIST OF TABLES
iv
TM 5-811-6
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1
Table 1-1. General Description of Type of Plant.
TYPE OF POWER
Category Capacity No Export Steam With Export Steam
Primary Adequate to meet all peacetime Purchased electric power to match Purchased electric power and steam to
requirement. electric load. match electric load plus supplementary
boiler plant to match export steam load.
Continuous duty diesel plant, Automatic back pressure steam plant plus
Class “A” diesel. automatic packaged firetube boiler to
supplement requirements of export steam
load.
Straight condensing boilers and Automatic extraction steam plant boilers
and turbines matched in capacity and turbines matched in capacity se units
as units; enough units so plant and enough units installed so that plant
without largest unit can carry without largest unit can carry emergency
emergency load. load.
Standby Adequate with prime source to match Purchased electric power. Purchased electric power and steam to
mobilization needs; or alone to supply match electric power load plus supple-
emergency electric load and export mentary boiler plant.
steam load in case of primary source Standby diesel plant, Class “B” Standby diesel plant with supplementary
out age. diesel. boiler plant.
Equal to primary source . . . . . . . . . . . . Retired straight condensing plant. Retired automatic extraction steam plant.
Emergency To supply that part of emergency load Fixed emergency diesel plant, None.
that cannot be interrupted for m o r e Class “C” diesel.
than 4 hours. Mobile utilities support equipment. None.
NAVFAC DM3
TM 5-811-6
" A " . . . . . . . . . Continuous . . . . . . . 8,000 . . . . . Yearly . . . . . . . 4,000 hours plus . . . . . 40,000 hours plus
“B” . . . . . . . . . Standby . . . . . . . . . . 8,000 . . . . . Yearly . . . . . . . 1,000 to 4,000 hours . 20,000 to 40,000 hours
“c” . . . . . . . . . Emergency . . . . . . . . 650 . . . . . Monthly* . . . . . Under 1,000 hours . . . . Under 10,000 hours
Category S i z e
Small o to 2,500 kW
A A A A A
A (Primary) A
A A A
B (Standby) N/A N/A N/A
A= Applicable
=
N/A Not Applicable
1-3
TM 5-811-6
This type of information is particularly important if will be designed for the type of stack gas cleanup
the project involves cogeneration with the simul- equipment which meets federal, state, and munici-
taneous production of electric power and steam. pal emission requirements. For a solid fuel fired boil-
d. Fuel source, and cost. The type, availability, er, this will involve an electrostatic precipitator or
and cost of fuel will be determined in the early bag house for particulate, and a scrubber for sulfur
stages of design; taking into account regulatory re- compounds unless fluidized bed combustion or com-
quirements that may affect fuel and fuel characteris- pliance coal is employed. If design is based on com-
tics of the plant. pliance coal, the design will include space and other
e. Water supply. Fresh water is required for required provision for the installation of scrubber
thermal cycle makeup and for cooling tower or cool- equipment. Boiler design will be specified as re-
ing pond makeup where once through water for heat quired for NOx control.
rejection is unavailable or not usable because of g. Waste disposal.
regulatory constraints. Quantity of makeup will (1) Internal combustion plants. Solid and liq-
vary with the type of thermal cycle, amount of con- uid wastes from a diesel or combustion turbine gen-
densate return for any export steam, and the maxi- erating station will be disposed of as follows: Mis-
mum heat rejection from the cycle. This heat rejec- cellaneous oily wastes from storage tank areas and
tion load usually will comprise the largest part of sumps will be directed to an API separator. Supple-
the makeup and will have the least stringent re- mentary treating can be utilized if necessary to meet
quirements for quality. the applicable requirements for waste water dis-
f. Stack emissions. A steam electric power plant charge. For plants of size less than 1,000 kW, liquid
.
URBAN
----- Sumner Load [NDUSTRIAL TRACTION
Winter Load LOAD LOAD
Kw
12612612612612612612
AM PM AM PM AM PM
1-4
TM 5-811-6
oily wastes will be accumulated in sumps or small the style of surrounding buildings. Any anticipated
tanks for removal. Residues from filters and centri- noise or aesthetics problem will be resolved prior to
fuges will be similarly handled. the time that final site selection is approved.
(2) Steam electric stations. For steam electric
generating stations utilizing solid fuel, both solid 1-4. Economic considerations
and liquid wastes will be handled and disposed of in a. The selection of one particular type of design
an environmentally acceptable manner. The wastes for a given application, when two or more types of
can be categorized generally as follows: design are known to be feasible, will be based on the
(a) Solid wastes. These include both bottom results of an economic study in accordance with the
ash and fly ash from boilers. requirements of DOD 4270.1-M and the National
(b) Liquid wastes. These include boiler blow- Energy Conservation Policy Act (Public Law
down, cooling tower blowdown, acid and caustic 95-619,9 NOV 1978).
water treating wastes, coal pile runoff, and various b. Standards for economic studies are contained
contaminated wastes from chemical storage areas, in AR 11-28 and AFR 178-1, respectively. Addi-
sanitary sewage and yard areas. tional standards for design applications dealing
h. Other environmental considerations. Other en- with energy/fuel consuming elements of a facility
vironmental considerations include noise control are contained in the US Code of Federal Regula-
and aesthetic treatment of the project. The final lo- tions, 20 CFR 436A. Clarification of the basic stand-
cation of the project within the site area will be re- ards and guidelines for a particular application and
viewed in relation to its proximity to hospital and supplementary standards which may be required for
office areas and the civilian neighborhood, if appli- special cases may be obtained through normal chan-
cable. Also, the general architectural design will be nels from HQDA (DAEN-ECE-D), WASH DC
reviewed in terms of coordination and blending with 20314.
I I
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 8760-
— HOURS
1-5
-
TM 5-811-6
CHAPTER 2
2-1
.
TM 5-811-6
2-7. Soils investigation -Trucks for removal of ash, sludge and other
An analysis of existing soils conditions will be made waste materials.
to determine the proper type of foundation. Soils (2) Roadway material and width. Aside from
data will include elevation of each boring, water temporary construction roads, the last two catego-
table level, description of soil strata including the ries described above will govern most roadway de-
group symbol based on the Unified Soil Classifica- sign, particularly if the plant is coal fired. Roadway
tion System, and penetration data (blow count). The material and thickness will be based on economic
soils report will include recommendations as to type evaluations of feasible alternatives. Vehicular park-
of foundations for various purposes; excavation, de- ing for plant personnel and visitors will be located in
watering and fill procedures; and suitability of on- areas that will not interfere with the safe operation
site material for fill and earthen dikes including data of the plant. Turning radii will be adequate to han-
on soft and organic materials, rock and other perti- dle all vehicle categories. Refer to TM 5-803-5/
nent information as applicable. NAVPAC P-960/AFM 88-43; TM 5-818-2/
AFM 88-6, Chap. 4; TM 5-822-2/AFM 88-7, Chap.
2-8. Site development 7; TM 5-822-4/AFM 88-7, Chap. 4; TM
a. Grading and drainage. 5-822 -5/AFM 88-7, Chap. 3; TM 5-822-6/AFM
(1) Basic criteria. Determination of final grad- 88-7, Chap. 1; TM 5-822-7/AFM 88-6, Chap. 8; and
ing and drainage scheme for a new power plant will TM 5-822-8.
be based on a number of considerations including c. Railroads. If a railroad spur is selected to han-
size of property in relationship to the size of plant dle fuel supplies and material and equipment deliv-
facilities, desirable location on site, and plant access eries during construction or plant expansion, the de-
based on topography. If the power plant is part of sign will be in accordance with American Railway
an overall complex, the grading and drainage will be Engineering Association standards. If coal is the
compatible and integrated with the rest of the com- fuel, spur layout will accommodate coal handling fa-
plex. To minimize cut and fill, plant facilities will be cilities including a storage track for empty cars. If
located on high ground and storm water drainage liquid fuel is to be handled, unloading pumps and
will be directed away from the plant. Assuming on steam connections for tank car heaters may be re-
site soils are suitable, grading should be based on quired in frigid climates.
balanced cut and fill volume to avoid hauling of ex-
cess fill material to offsite disposal and replacement 2-9. Buildings
with expensive new material. a. Size and arrangement.
(2) Drainage. Storm water drainage will be (1) Steam plant. Main building size and ar-
evaluated based on rainfall intensities, runoff char- rangement depend on the selected plant equipment
acteristics of soil, facilities for receiving storm and facilities including whether steam generators
water discharge, and local regulations. Storm water are indoor or outdoor type; coal bunker or silo ar-
drains or systems will not be integrated with sani- rangement; source of cooling water supply relative
tary drains and other contaminated water drainage to the plant; the relationship of the switchyard to
systems. the plant; provisions for future expansion; and ,
(3) Erosion prevention. All graded areas will be aesthetic and environmental considerations. Gener-
stabilized to control erosion by designing shallow ally, the main building will consist of a turbine bay
slopes to the greatest extent possible and by means with traveling crane; an auxiliary bay for feedwater
of soil stabilization such as seeding, sod, stone, rip- heaters, pumps, and switchgear; a steam generator
rap and retaining walls. bay (or firing aisle for semi-outdoor units); and gen-
b. Roadways. eral spaces as may be required for machine shop,
(1) Basic roadway requirements. Layout of locker room, laboratory and office facilities. The
plant roadways will be based on volume and type of general spaces will be located in an area that will not
traffic, speed, and traffic patterns. Type of traffic or interfere with future plant expansion and isolated
vehicle functions for power plants can be catego- from main plant facilities to control noise. For very
rized as follows: mild climates the turbine generator sets and steam
-Passenger cars for plant personnel. generators may be outdoor type (in a weather pro-
-Passenger cars for visitors. tected, walk-in enclosure) although this arrange-
-Trucks for maintenance material deliveries. ment presents special maintenance problems. If in-
-Trucks for fuel supply. corporated, the elevator will have access to the high-
2-2
TM 5-811-6
est operating level of the steam generator (drum lev- areas, such as for the control room enclosure and for
els). offices, may utilize factory fabricated metal walls,
(2) Diesel plant. The requirements for a build- fixed or moveable according to the application.
ing housing a diesel generator plant are the same as (4) Roof decks. Main building roof decks will be
for a steam turbine plant except that a steam gener- constructed of reinforced concrete or ribbed metal
ator bay is not required. deck with built-up multi-ply roofing to provide wat-
b. Architectural treatment. erproofing. Roofs will be sloped a minimum of 1/4,-
(1) The architectural treatment will be de- inch per foot for drainage.
veloped to harmonize with the site conditions, both (5) Floors. Except where grating or checkered
natural and manmade. Depending on location, the plate is required for access or ventilation, all floors
environmental compatibility y may be the determin- will be designed for reinforced concrete with a non-
ing factor. In other cases the climate or user prefer- slip finish.
ence, tempered with aesthetic and economic factors, (6) Live loads. Buildings, structures and all
will dictate architectural treatment. Climate is a portions thereof will be designed and constructed to
controlling factor in whether or not a total or partial support all live and dead loads without exceeding
closure is selected. Semi-outdoor construction with the allowable stresses of the selected materials in
the bulk of the steam generator not enclosed in a the structural members and connections. Typical
boiler room is an acceptable design. live loads for power plant floors are as follows:
(2) For special circumstances, such as areas (a) Turbine generator floor 500 psf
where extended periods of very high humidity, fre- (b) Basement and operating floors except
quently combined with desert conditions giving rise turbine generator floor 200 psf
to heavy dust and sand blasting action, indoor con- (c) Mezzanine, deaerator, and
struction with pressurized ventilation will be re- miscellaneous operating floors 200 psf
quired not only for the main building but also, gen- (d) Offices, laboratories, instrument
erally, for the switchyard. Gas enclosed switchyard shops, and other lightly loaded areas 100 psf
installations may be considered for such circum- Live loads for actual design will be carefully re-
stances in lieu of that required above. viewed for any special conditions and actual loads
(3) Control rooms, offices, locker rooms, and applicable.
some out-buildings will be enclosed regardless of en- (7) Other loads. In addition to the live and dead
closure selected for main building. Circulating water loads, the following loadings will be provided for:
pumps may be installed in the open, except in the (a) Wind loading. Building will be designed to
most severe climates. For semi-outdoor or outdoor resist the horizontal wind pressure available for the
stations, enclosures for switchgear and motor con- site on all surfaces exposed to the wind.
trols for the auxiliary power system will be enclosed (b) Seismic loading. Buildings and other
in manufacturer supplied walk-in metal housings or structures will be designed to resist seismic loading
site fabricated closures. in accordance with the zone in which the building is
c. Structural design. located.
(1) Building framing and turbine pedestals. (c) Equipment loading. Equipment loads are
Thermal stations will be designed utilizing conven- furnished by the various manufacturers of each
tional structural steel for the main power station equipment item. In addition to equipment dead
building and support of boiler. The pedestal for sup- loads, impact loads, short circuit forces for genera-
porting the turbine generator (and turbine driven tors, and other pertinent special loads prescribed by
boiler feed pump if utilized) will be of reinforced con- the equipment function or requirements will be in-
crete. Reinforced concrete on masonry construction cluded.
may be used for the building framing (not for boiler d. Foundation design.
framing); special concrete inserts or other provision (1) Foundations will be designed to safely sup-
must be made in such event for support of piping, port all structures, considering type of foundation
trays and conduits. An economic evaluation will be and allowable bearing pressures. The two most com-
made of these alternatives. mon types of foundations are spread footings and
(2) Exterior walls. The exterior walls of most pile type foundations, although “raft” type of other
thermal power stations are constructed of insulated special approaches may be utilized for unusual cir-
metal panels. However, concrete blocks, bricks, or cumstances.
other material may be used depending on the aes- (2) Pile type foundations require reinforced
thetics and economics of the design. concrete pile caps and a system of reinforced con-
(3) Interior walls. Concrete masonry blocks will crete beams to tie the caps together. Pile load capa-
be used for interior walls; however, some specialized bilities may be developed either in friction or point
2-3
TM 5-811-6
bearing. The allowable load on piles will be deter- wheels. This can be achieved by careful piping de-
mined by an approved formula or by a load test. sign, but some access platforms or remote mechani-
Piles can be timber, concrete, rolled structural steel cal operators may be necessary.
shape, steel pipe, or steel pipe concrete filled. (4) Impact type handwheels will be used for
(3) Design of the reinforced concrete turbine high pressure valves and all large valves.
generator or diesel set foundation, both mat and (5) Valve centers will be mounted approximate-
pedestal, will be such that the foundation is isolated ly 7 feet above floors and platforms so that rising
from the main building foundations and structures stems and bottom rims of handwheels will not be a
by expansion joint material placed around its perim- hazard.
eter. The design will also insure that the resonance (6) Stairs with conventional riser-tread propor-
of the foundation at operating speed is avoided in tions will be used. Vertical ladders, installed only as
order to prevent cracking of the foundation and a last resort, must have a safety cage if required by .
damage to machines caused by resonant vibration. the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA).
The foundation will be designed on the basis of de- (7) All floors, gratings and checkered plates will
flection. The limits of deflection will be selected to have non-slip surfaces.
avoid values of natural frequency by at least 30 per- (8) No platform or walkway will be less than 3 ‘
cent above or 30 percent below operating speed. feet wide.
(4) Vibration mounts or “floating floor” foun- (9) Toe plates, fitted closely to the edge of all
dations where equipment or equipment foundation floor openings, platforms and stairways, will be pro-
inertia blocks are separated from the main building vided in all cases.
floor by springs or precompressed material will gen- (10) Adequate piping and equipment drains to
erally not be used in power plants except for ventila- waste will be provided.
tion fans and other building service equipment. In (11) All floors subject to washdown or leaks will
these circumstances where such inertia blocks are be sloped to floor drains.
considered necessary for equipment not normally so (12) All areas subject to lube oil or chemical
mounted, written justification will be included in spills will be provided with curbs and drains,
the project design analysis supporting such a neces- (13) If plant is of semi-outdoor or outdoor con-
sity. struction in a climate subject to freezing weather,
(5) The location of turbine generators, diesel en- weather protection will be provided for critical
gine sets, boiler feed pumps, draft fans, compres- operating and maintenance areas such as the firing
sors, and other high speed rotating equipment on aisle, boiler steam drum ends and soot blower loca-
elevated floors will be avoided because of the diffi- tions.
culty or impossibility of isolating equipment foun- (14) Adequate illumination will be provided
dations from the building structure. throughout the plant. Illumination will comply with
requirements of the Illuminating Engineers Society
2-10. Safety. (IES) Lighting Handbook, as implemented by DOD
a. Introduction. The safety features described in 4270.1-M.
the following paragraphs will be incorporated into (15) Comfort air conditioning will be provided
the power plant design to assist in maintaining a throughout control rooms, laboratories, offices and
high level of personnel safety. similar spaces where operating and maintenance
b. Design safety features. In designing a power personnel spend considerable time.
plant, the following general recommendations on (16) Mechanical supply and exhaust ventilation
safety will be given attention: will be provided for all of the power plant equipment
(1) Equipment will be arranged with adequate areas to alleviate operator fatigue and prevent accu-
access space for operation and for maintenance. mulation of fumes and dust. Supply will be ducted
Wherever possible, auxiliary equipment will be ar- to direct air to the lowest level of the power plant
ranged for maintenance handling by the main tur- and to areas with large heat release such as the tur-
bine room crane. Where this is not feasible, mono- bine or engine room and the boiler feed pump area.
rails, wheeled trucks, or portable A-frames should Evaporative cooling will be considered in low hu-
be provided if disassembly of heavy pieces is re- midity areas. Ventilation air will be filtered and
quired for maintenance. heated in the winter also, system air flow capacity
(2) Safety guards will be provided on moving should be capable of being reduced in the winter.
parts of all equipment. Battery room will have separate exhaust fans to re-
(3) All valves, specialties, and devices needing move hydrogen emitted by batteries as covered in
manipulation by operators will be accessible with- TM 5-811-2/AFM 88-9, Chap. 2.
out ladders, and preferably without using chain (17) Noise level will be reduced to at least the
2-4
TM 5-811-6
recommended maximum levels of OSHA. Use of fan (19) Color schemes will be psychologically rest-
silencers, compressor silencers, mufflers on internal ful except where danger must be highlighted with
combustion engines, and acoustical material is re- special bright primary colors.
quired as discussed in TM 5-805-4/AFM (20) Each equipment item will be clearly la-
88-37/NAVFAC DM-3.1O and TM 5-805-9/AFM belled in block letters identifying it both by equip
88-20/NAVFAC DM-3.14. Consideration should be ment item number and name. A complete, coordi-
given to locating forced draft fans in acoustically nated system of pipe markers will be used for identi-
treated fan rooms since they are usually the largest fication of each separate cycle and power plant serv-
noise source in a power plant. Control valves will be ice system. All switches, controls, and devices on all
designed to limit noise emissions. control panels will be labelled using the identical
(18) A central vacuum cleaning system should names shown on equipment or remote devices being
be considered to permit easy maintenance of plant. controlled.
2-5
TM 5-811-6
CHAPTER 3
3-1
TM 5-611-6
NAVFAC DM3
Figure 3-1. Typical straight condensing cycle.
less efficient cycles. Efficiency characteristics can pressed in terms of heat rate, which is total thermal
be listed as follows: input to the cycle divided by the electrical output of
(1) Higher steam pressures and temperatures the units. Units are Btu/kWh.
contribute to better, or lower, heat rates. (1) Conversion to cycle efficiency, as the ratio of
(2) For condensing cycles, lower back pressures output to input energy, may be made by dividing
increase efficiency except that for each particular the heat content of one kWh, equivalent to 3412.14
turbine unit there is a crossover point where lower- Btu by the heat rate, as defined. Efficiencies are sel-
ing back pressure further will commence to decrease dom used to express overall plant or cycle perform-
efficiency because the incremental exhaust loss ef- ance, although efficiencies of individual compo-
fect is greater than the incremental increase in avail- nents, such as pumps or steam generators, are com-
able energy. monly used.
(3) The use of stage or regenerative feedwater (2) Power cycle economy for particular plants or
cycles improves heat rates, with greater improve- stations is sometimes expressed in terms of pounds
ment corresponding to larger numbers of such heat- of steam per kilowatt hour, but such a parameter is
ers. In a regenerative cycle, there is also a thermody- not readily comparable to other plants or cycles and
namic crossover point where lowering of an extrac- omits steam generator efficiency.
tion pressure causes less steam to flow through the (3) For mechanical drive turbines, heat rates
extraction piping to the feedwater heaters, reducing are sometimes expressed in Btu per hp-hour, exclud-
the feedwater temperature. There is also a limit to ing losses for the driven machine. One horsepower
the number of stages of extraction/feedwater heat- hour is equivalent to 2544.43 Btu.
ing which may be economically added to the cycle. c. Heat rate applications. In relation to steam
This occurs when additional cycle efficiency no long- power plant cycles, several types or definitions of
er justifies the increased capital cost. heat rates are used:
(4) Larger turbine generator units are generally (1) The turbine heat rate for a regenerative tur-
more efficient that smaller units. bine is defined as the heat consumption of the tur-
(5) Multi-stage and multi-valve turbines are bine in terms of “heat energy in steam” supplied by
more economical than single stage or single valve the steam generator, minus the “heat in the feedwa-
machines. ter” as warmed by turbine extraction, divided by
(6) Steam generators of more elaborate design, the electrical output at the generator terminals.
or with heat saving accessory equipment are more This definition includes mechanical and electrical
efficient. losses of the generator and turbine auxiliary sys-
b. Heat rate units and definitions. The economy tems, but excludes boiler inefficiencies and pumping
or efficiency of a steam power plant cycle is ex- losses and loads. The turbine heat rate is useful for
3-2
TM 5-811-6
performing engineering and economic comparisons plant lighting, air conditioning and heating, general
of various turbine designs. Table 3-1 provides theo- water supply, startup and shutdown losses, fuel de-
retical turbine steam rates for typical steam throttle terioration losses, and related items. The gradual
conditions. Actual steam rates are obtained by di- and inevitable deterioration of equipment, and fail-
viding the theoretical steam rate by the turbine effi- ure to operate at optimum conditions, are reflected
ciency. Typical turbine efficiencies are provided on in plant operating heat rate data.
Figure 3-2. d. Plant economy calculations. Calculations, esti-
mates, and predictions of steam plant performance
ASR = will allow for all normal and expected losses and
where: ASR = actual steam rate (lb/kWh) loads and should, therefore, reflect predictions of
TSR = theoretical steam rate (l/kWh) monthly or annual net operating heat rates and
nt = turbine efficiency costs. Electric and district heating distribution
Turbine heat rate can be obtained by multiplying losses are not usually charged to the power plant
the actual steam rate by the enthalpy change across but should be recognized and allowed for in capacity
the turbine (throttle enthalpy - extraction or ex- and cost analyses. The designer is required to devel-
haust enthalpy). op and optimize a cycle heat balance during the con-
Ct = ASR(hl – h2) ceptual or preliminary design phase of the project.
where = turbine heat rate (Btu/kWh) The heat balance depicts, on a simplified flow dia-
ASR = actual steam rate lb/kWh) gram of the cycle, all significant fluid mass flow
h1 = throttle enthalpy rates, fluid pressures and temperatures, fluid en-
h1 = extraction or exhaust enthalpy thalpies, electric power output, and calculated cycle
heat rates based on these factors. A heat balance is
TSR usually developed for various increments of plant
load (i.e., 25%, 50%, 75%, 100% and VWO (valves
wide open)). Computer programs have been devel-
oped which can quickly optimize a particular cycle
heat rate using iterative heat balance calculations.
Use of such a program should be considered.
e. Cogeneration performance. There is no gener-
’ ally accepted method of defining the energy effi-
ciency or heat rates of cogeneration cycles. Various
methods are used, and any rational method is valid.
The difference in value (per Btu) between prime en-
ergy (i.e., electric power) and secondary or low level
energy (heating steam) should be recognized. Refer
FROM STANDARD HANDBOOK FOR MECHANICAL
ENGINEERS BY MARKS. COPYRIGHT © 1967,
to discussion of cogeneration cycles below.
. MCGRAW-HILL BOOK CO. USED WITH THE
PERMISSION OF MCGRAW- HILL BOOK COMPANY.
3-4. Cogeneration cycles
Figure 3-2. Turbine efficiencies vs. capacity.
a. Definition. In steam power plant practice, co-
m
generation normally describes an arrangement
(2) Plant heat rates include inefficiencies and whereby high pressure steam is passed through a
losses external to the turbine generator, principally turbine prime mover to produce electrical power,
the inefficiencies of the steam generator and piping and thence from the turbine exhaust (or extraction)
systems; cycle auxiliary losses inherent in power re- opening to a lower pressure steam (or heat) distribu-
quired for pumps and fans; and related energy uses tion system for general heating, refrigeration, or
such as for soot blowing, air compression, and simi- process use.
lar services. b. Common medium. Steam power cycles are par-
(3) Both turbine and plant heat rates, as above, ticularly applicable to cogeneration situations be-
are usually based on calculations of cycle perform- cause the actual cycle medium, steam, is also a con-
ance at specified steady state loads and well defined, venient medium for area distribution of heat.
optimum operating conditions. Such heat rates are (1) The choice of the steam distribution pres-
seldom achieved in practice except under controlled sure will be a balance between the costs of distribu-
or test conditions. tion which are slightly lower at high pressure, and
(4) Plant operating heat rates are long term the gain in electrical power output by selection of a
average actual heat rates and include other such lower turbine exhaust or extraction pressure.
losses and energy uses as non-cycle auxiliaries, (2) Often the early selection of a relatively low
3-3
TM 5-811-6
3-4
TM 5-811-6
steam distribution pressure is easily accommodated (1) Back pressure cycle. In this type of plant,
in the design of distribution and utilization systems, the entire flow to the turbine is exhausted (or ex-
whereas the hasty selection of a relatively high tracted) for heating steam use. This cycle is the
steam distribution pressure may not be recognized more effective for heat economy and for relatively
as a distinct economic penalty on the steam power lower cost of turbine equipment, because the prime
plant cycle. mover is smaller and simpler and requires no con-
(3) Hot water heat distribution may also be ap- denser and circulating water system. Back pressure
plicable as a district heating medium with the hot turbine generators are limited in electrical output by
water being cooled in the utilization equipment and the amount of exhaust steam required by the heat
returned to the power plant for reheating in a heat load and are often governed by the exhaust steam
exchange with exhaust (or extraction) steam. load. They, therefore, usually operate in electrical
c. Relative economy. When the exhaust (or ex- parallel with other generators.
traction) steam from a cogeneration plant can be (2) Extraction-condensing cycles. Where the
utilized for heating, refrigeration, or process pur- electrical demand does not correspond to the heat
poses in reasonable phase with the required electric demand, or where the electrical load must be carried
power load, there is a marked economy of fuel ener- at times of very low (or zero) heat demand, then con-
gy because the major condensing loss of the conven- densing-controlled extraction steam turbine prime
tional steam power plant (Rankine) cycle is avoided. movers as shown in Figure 3-3 may be applicable.
If a good balance can be attained, up to 75 percent of Such a turbine is arranged to carry a specified elec-
the total fuel energy can be utilized as compared trical capacity either by a simple condensing cycle
with about 40 percent for the best and largest Ran- or a combination of extraction and condensing.
kine cycle plants and about 25 to 30 percent for While very flexible, the extraction machine is rela-
small Rankine cycle systems. tively complicated, requires complete condensing
d. Cycle types. The two major steam power cogen- and heat rejection equipment, and must always pass
eration cycles, which may be combined in the same a critical minimum flow of steam to its condenser to
plant or establishment, are: cool the low pressure buckets.
3-5
TM 5-811-6
e. Criteria for cogeneration. For minimum eco- protection against internal corrosion.
nomic feasibility, cogeneration cycles will meet the c. Special considerations. Where the special cir-
following criteria: cumstances of the establishment to be served are
(1) Load balance. There should be a reasonably significant factors in power cycle selection, the fol-
balanced relationship between the peak and normal lowing considerations may apply:
requirements for electric power and heat. The (1) Electrical isolation. Where the proposed
peak/normal ratio should not exceed 2:1. plant is not to be interconnected with any local elec-
(2) Load coincidence. There should be a fairly tric utility service, the selection of a simpler, lower
high coincidence, not less than 70%, of time and pressure plant may be indicated for easier operation
quantity demands for electrical power and heat. and better reliability y.
(3) Size. While there is no absolute minimum (2) Geographic isolation. Plants to be installed
size of steam power plant which can be built for co- at great distances from sources of spare parts, main-
generation, a conventional steam (cogeneration) tenance services, and operating supplies may re-
plant will be practical and economical only above quire special consideration of simplified cycles, re-
some minimum size or capacity, below which other dundant capacity and equipment, and highest prac-
types of cogeneration, diesel or gas turbine become tical reliability. Special maintenance tools and facil-
more economical and convenient. ities may be required, the cost of which would be af-
(4) Distribution medium. Any cogeneration fected by the basic cycle design.
plant will be more effective and economical if the (3) Weather conditions. Plants to be installed
heat distribution medium is chosen at the lowest under extreme weather conditions will require spe-
possible steam pressure or lowest possible hot water cial consideration of weather protection, reliability,
temperature. The power energy delivered by the tur- and redundancy. Heat rejection requires special de-
bine is highest when the exhaust steam pressure is sign consideration in either very hot or very cold
lowest. Substantial cycle improvement can be made weather conditions. For arctic weather conditions,
by selecting an exhaust steam pressure of 40 psig circulating hot water for the heat distribution medi-
rather than 125 psig, for example. Hot water heat um has many advantages over steam, and the use of
distribution will also be considered where practical an antifreeze solution in lieu of pure water as a dis-
or convenient, because hot water temperatures of tribution medium should receive consideration.
200 to 240º F can be delivered with exhaust steam
pressure as low as 20 to 50 psig. The balance be- 3-6. Cycle equipment
tween distribution system and heat exchanger a. General requirements. In addition to the prime
costs, and power cycle effectiveness will be opti- movers, alternators, and steam generators, a com-
mized. plete power plant cycle includes a number of second-
ary elements which affect the economy and perform-
3-5. Selection of cycle steam conditions ance of the plant.
a. Balanced costs and economy. For a new or iso- b. Major equipment. Refer to other parts of this
lated plant, the choice of initial steam conditions manual for detailed information on steam turbine
should be a balance between enhanced operating driven electric generators and steam generators.
economy at higher pressures and temperatures, and c. Secondary cycle elements. Other equipment
generally lower first costs and less difficult opera- items affecting cycle performance, but subordinate
tion at lower pressures and temperatures. Realistic to the steam generators and turbine generators, are
projections of future fuel costs may tend to justify also described in other parts of this chapter.
higher pressures and temperatures, but such factors
as lower availability y, higher maintenance costs, 3-7. Steam power plant arrangement
more difficult operation, and more elaborate water a. General. Small units utilize the transverse ar-
treatment will also be considered. rangement in the turbine generator bay while the
b. Extension of existing plant. Where a new larger utility units are very long and require end-to-
steam power plant is to be installed near an existing end arrangement of the turbine generators.
steam power or steam generation plant, careful con- b. Typical small plants. Figures 3-4 and 3-6 show
sideration will be given to extending or paralleling typical transverse small plant arrangements. Small
the existing initial steam generating conditions. If units less than 5000 kW may have the condensers at
existing steam generators are simply not usable in the same level as the turbine generator for economy
the new plant cycle, it may be appropriate to retire as shown in Figure 3-4. Figure 3-6 indicates the
them or to retain them for emergency or standby critical turbine room bay dimensions and the basic
service only. If boilers are retained for standby serv- overall dimensions for the small power plants shown
ice only, steps will be taken in the project design for in Figure 3-5.
TM 5-811-6
3-7
TM 5-811-6
3-8
TM 5-811-6
3-8. Steam generator conventional tors for a steam power plant can be classified by
types and characteristics type of fuel, by unit size, and by final steam condi-
a. Introduction. Number, size, and outlet steam- tion. Units can also be classified by type of draft, by
ing conditions of the steam generators will be as de- method of assembly, by degree of weather protec-
termined in planning studies and confirmed in the fi- tion and by load factor application.
nal project criteria prior to plant design activities. (1) Fuel, general. Type of fuel has a major im-
Note general criteria given in Section I of this chap pact on the general plant design in addition to the
ter under discussion of typical plants and cycles. steam generator. Fuel selection may be dictated by
b. Types and classes. Conventional steam genera- considerations of policy and external circumstances
.!
36
43
31
16
6
11.3
7.5
3.7
1.2
5.5
5
17.5
5
8
11
Figure 3-6. Critical turbine room bay and power plant “B” dimensions.
3-9
TM 5-811-6
unrelated to plant costs, convenience, or location. stoker and grate selection, performance, and main-
Units designed for solid fuels (coal, lignite, or solid tenance. For pulverized coal firing, grindability is a
waste) or designed for combinations of solid, liquid, major consideration, and moisture content before
and gaseous fuel are larger and more complex than and after local preparation must be considered. Coal
units designed for fuel oil or fuel gas only. burning equipment and related parts of the steam
(2) Fuel coal. The qualities or characteristics of generator will be specified to match the specific
particular coal fuels having significant impact on characteristics of a preselected coal fuel as well as
steam generator design and arrangement are: heat- they can be determined at the time of design.
ing value, ash content, ash fusion temperature, fri- (3) Unit sizes. Larger numbers of smaller steam
ability, grindability, moisture, and volatile content generators will tend to improve plant reliability and
as shown in Table 3-2. For spreader stoker firing, flexibility for maintenance. Smaller numbers of larg-
the size, gradation, or mixture of particle sizes affect er steam generators will result in lower first costs
Table 3-2. Fuel Characteristcs.
Characteristic Effects
Coal
Heat balance.
Oil
Heat balance.
Fuel cost.
Preheating, pumping, firing.
Pumping and metering.
Vapor locking of pump suction.
Heat balance, fuel cost.
Allowable temp. of metal contacting
flue gas; removal from flue gas.
Gas
Heat balance.
Pressure, f i r i n g , f u e l c o s t .
Metering.
Heat balance, fuel cost.
Insignificant.
NAVFAC DM3
3-10
TM 5-811-6
per unit of capacity and may permit the use of de- building construction costs. Aesthetic, environmen-
sign features and arrangements not available on tal, or weather conditions may require indoor instal-
smaller units. Larger units are inherently more effi- lation, although outdoors units have been used SUC-
cient, and will normally have more efficient draft cessfully in a variety of cold or otherwise hostile cli-
fans, better steam temperature control, and better mates. In climates subject to cold weather, 30 “F. for
control of steam solids. 7 continuous days, outdoor units will require electri-
(4) Final steam conditions. Desired pressure cally or steam traced piping and appurtenances to
and temperature of the superheater outlet steam prevent freezing. The firing aisle will be enclosed
(and to a lesser extent feedwater temperature) will either as part of the main power plant building or as
have a marked effect on the design and cost of a a separate weather protected enclosure; and the
steam generator. The higher the pressure the heav- ends of the steam drum and retractable soot blowers
ier the pressure parts, and the higher the steam tem- will be enclosed and heated for operator convenience
perature the greater the superheater surface area and maintenance.
and the more costly the tube material. In addition to (8) Load factor application. As with all parts of
this, however, boiler natural circulation problems in- the plant cycle, the load factor on which the steam
crease with higher pressures because the densities generator is to be operated affects design and cost
of the saturated water and steam approach each oth- factors. Units with load factors exceeding 50% will
er. In consequence, higher pressure boilers require be selected and designed for relatively higher effi-
more height and generally are of different design ciencies, and more conservative parameters for fur-
than boilers of 200 psig and less as used for general nace volume, heat transfer surface, and numbers
space heating and process application. and types of auxiliaries. Plants with load factors
(5) Type of draft. less than 50% will be served by relatively less ex-
(a) Balanced draft. Steam generators for elec- pensive, smaller and less durable equipment.
tric generating stations are usually of the so called
“balanced draft” type with both forced and induced
draft fans. This type of draft system uses one or 3-9. Other steam generator characteris-
more forced draft fans to supply combustion air un- tics
der pressure to the burners (or under the grate) and a. Water tube and waterwell design. Power plant
one or more induced draft fans to carry the hot com- boilers will be of the water welled or water cooled
bustion gases from the furnace to the atmosphere; a furnace types, in which the entire interior surface of
slightly negative pressure is maintained in the fur- the furnace is lined with steam generating heating
nace by the induced draft fans so that any gas leak- surface in the form of closely spaced tubes usually
age will be into rather than out of the furnace. Nat- all welded together in a gas tight enclosure.
ural draft will be utilized to take care of the chimney b. Superheated steam. Depending on manufac-
or stack resistance while the remainder of the draft turer’s design some power boilers are designed to
friction from the furnace to the chimney entrance is deliver superheated steam because of the require-
handled by the induced draft fans. ments of the steam power cycle. A certain portion of
(b) Choice of draft. Except for special cases the total boiler heating surface is arranged to add
such as for an overseas power plant in low cost fuel superheat energy to the steam flow. In superheater
areas, balanced draft, steam generators will be spec- design, a balance of radiant and convective super-
ified for steam electric generating stations. heat surfaces will provide a reasonable superheat
(6) Method of assembly. A major division of characteristic. With high ‘pressure - high temper-
steam generators is made between packaged or fac- ature turbine generators, it is usually desirable to
tory assembled units and larger field erected units. provide superheat controls to obtain a flat charac-
Factory assembled units are usually designed for teristic down to at least 50 to 60 percent of load.
convenient shipment by railroad or motor truck, This is done by installing excess superheat surface
complete with pressure parts, supporting structure, and then attemperating by means of spray water at
and enclosure in one or a few assemblies. These the higher loads. In some instances, boilers are de-
units are characteristically bottom supported, while signed to obtain superheat control by means of tilt-
the larger and more complex power steam gener- ing burners which change the heat absorption pat-
ators are field erected, usually top supported. tern in the steam generator, although supplemen-
(7) Degree of weather protection. For all types tary attemperation is also provided with such a con-
and sizes of steam generators, a choice must be trol system.
made between indoor, outdoor and semi-outdoor in- c. Balanced heating surface and volumetric de-
stallation. An outdoor installation is usually less ex- sign parameters. Steam generator design requires
pensive in first cost which permits a reduced general adequate and reasonable amounts of heating surface
3-11
TM 5-811-6
and furnace volume for acceptable performance and steam header system may be more reliable and more
longevity. economical than unit operation. Where a group of
(1) Evaporative heating surface. For its rated steam turbine prime movers of different types; i.e.,
capacity output, an adequate total of evaporative or one back pressure unit plus one condensing/extrac-
steam generating heat transfer surface is required, tion unit are installed together, overall economy can
which is usually a combination of furnace wall ra- be enhanced by a header (or parallel) boiler arrange-
diant surface and boiler convection surface. Bal- ment.
anced design will provide adequate but not exces-
sive heat flux through such surfaces to insure effec- 3-10. Steam generator special types
tive circulation, steam generation and efficiency. a. Circulation. Water tube boilers will be specified
(2) Superheater surface. For the required heat to be of natural circulation. The exception to this
transfer, temperature control and protection of met- rule is for wasteheat boilers which frequently are a . .
al parts, the superheater must be designed for a bal- special type of extended surface heat exchanger de-
ance between total surface, total steam flow area, signed for forced circulation.
and relative exposure to radiant convection heat b. Fludized bed combustion. The fluidized bed
sources. Superheaters may be of the drainable or boiler has the ability to produce steam in an environ-
non-drainable types. Non-drainable types offer cer- mentally accepted manner in controlling the stack
tain advantages of cost, simplicity, and arrange- emission of sulfur oxides by absorption of sulfur in
ment, but are vulnerable to damage on startup. the fuel bed as well as nitrogen oxides because of its
Therefore, units requiring frequent cycles of shut- relatively low fire box temperature. The fluidized
down and startup operations should be considered bed boiler is a viable alternative to a spreader stoker
for fully drainable superheaters. With some boiler unit. A fluidized bed steam generator consists of a
designs this may not be possible. fluidized bed combustor with a more or less conven-
(3) Furnace volume. For a given steam gener- tional steam generator which includes radiant and
ator capacity rating, a larger furnace provides lower convection boiler heat transfer surfaces plus heat re-
furnace temperatures, less probability of hot spots, covery equipment, draft fans, and the usual array of
and a lower heat flux through the larger furnace wall steam generator auxiliaries. A typical fluidized bed
surface. Flame impingement and slagging, partic- boiler is shown in Figure 3-7.
ularly with pulverized coal fuel, can be controlled or
prevented with increased furnace size. 3-11. Major auxiliary systems.
(4) General criteria. Steam generator design a. Burners.
will specify conservative lower limits of total heat- (1) Oil burners. Fuel oil is introduced through
ing surface, furnace wall surface and furnace vol- oil burners, which deliver finely divided or atomized
ume, as well as the limits of superheat temperature liquid fuel in a suitable pattern for mixing with com-
control range. Furnace volume and surfaces will be bustion air at the burner opening. Atomizing meth-
sized to insure trouble free operation. ods are classified as pressure or mechanical type, air
(5) Specific criteria. Steam generator specifica- atomizing and steam atomizing type. Pressure
tions set minimum requirements for Btu heat re- atomization is usually more economical but is also
lease per cubic foot of furnace volume, for Btu heat more complex and presents problems of control,
release per square foot of effective radiant heating poor turndown, operation and maintenance. The
surface and, in the case of spreader stokers, for Btu range of fuel flows obtainable is more limited with
per square foot of grate. Such parameters are not set pressure atomization. Steam atomization is simple
forth in this manual, however, because of the wide to operate, reliable, and has a wide range, but con-
range of fuels which can affect these equipment de- sumes a portion of the boiler steam output and adds
sign considerations. The establishment of arbitrary moisture to the furnace gases. Generally, steam
limitations which may handicap the geometry of atomization will be used when makeup water is rela-
furnace designs is inappropriate. Prior to setting tively inexpensive, and for smaller, lower pressure
furnace geometry parameters, and after the type plants. Air atomization will be used for plants burn-
and grade of fuel are established and the particular ing light liquid fuels, or when steam reacts ad-
service conditions are determined, the power plant versely with the fuel, i.e., high sulfur oils.
designer will consult boiler manufacturers to insure (2) Gas and coal burners. Natural gas or pulver-
that steam generator specifications are capable of ized coal will be delivered to the burner for mixing
being met. with combustion air supply at the burner opening.
d. Single unit versus steam header system. For Pulverized coal will be delivered by heated, pressur-
cogeneration plants, especially in isolated locations ized primary air.
or for units of 10,000 kW and less, a parallel boiler or (3) Burner accessories. Oil, gas and pulverized
3-12
TM 5-811-6
coal burners will be equipped with adjustable air heating surfaces, and convenience of operation and
guide registers designed to control and shape the air control.
flow into the furnace, Some burner designs also pro- (5) Burner managerment systems. Plant safety
vide for automatic insertion and withdrawal of vary- practices require power plant fuel burners to be
ing size oil burner nozzles as load and operating con- equipped with comprehensive burner control and
ditions require. safety systems to prevent unsafe or dangerous con-
(4) Number of burners. The number of burners ditions which may lead to furnace explosions. The
required is a function both of load requirements and primary purpose of a burner management system is
boiler manufacturer design. For the former, the indi- safety which is provided by interlocks, furnace
vidual burner turndown ratios per burner are pro- purge cycles and fail safe devices.
vided in Table 3-3. Turndown ratios in excess of b. Pulverizes. The pulverizers (mills) are an essen-
those listed can be achieved through the use of mul- tial part of powdered coal burning equipment, and
tiple burners. Manufacturer design limits capacity are usually located adjacent to the steam generator
of each burner to that compatible with furnace flame and burners, but in a position to receive coal by
and gas flow patterns, exposure and damage to gravity from the coal silo. The coal pulverizers grind
STEAM OUTLET TO
SUPERHEATER IN BED
3-13
TM 5-811-6
and classify the coal fuel to specific particle sizes for clude sudden load changes, pulverized coal feeders
rapid and efficient burning. Reliable and safe pulver- are to be used.
izing equipment is essential for steam generator op- (2) Grate operation requires close and skillful
eration. Pulverized coal burning will not be specified operator attention, and overall plant performance is
for boilers smaller than 150,000 lb/hour. sensitive to fuel sizing and operator experience.
c. Stokers and grates. For small and medium Grates for stoker fired units occupy a large part of
sized coal burning steam generators, less than the furnace floor and must be integrated with ash re-
150,000 lb/hour, coal stokers or fluidized bed units moval and handling systems. A high proportion of
will be used. For power boilers, spreader stokers stoker ash must be removed from the grates in a
with traveling grates are used. Other types of wide range of particle sizes and characteristics al-
stokers (retort, underfeed, or overfeed types) are though some unburned carbon and fly ash is carried
generally obsolete for power plant use except per- out of the furnace by the flue gas. In contrast, a
haps for special fuels such as anthracite. larger proportion of pulverized coal ash leaves the .
(1) Spreader stokers typically deliver sized coal, furnace with the gas flow as finely divided particu-
with some proportion of fines, by throwing it into late,
the furnace where part of the fuel burns in suspen- (3) Discharged ash is allowed to COOl in the ash
sion and the balance falls to the traveling grate for hopper at the end of the grate and is then sometimes
burnout. Stoker fired units will have two or more put through a clinker grinder prior to removal in the
spreader feeder units, each delivering fuel to its own vacuum ash handling system described elsewhere in
separate grate area. Stoker fired units are less re- this manual.
sponsive to load changes because a large proportion d. Draft fans, ducts and flues.
of the fuel burns on the grate for long time periods (1) Draft fans.
(minutes). Where the plant demand is expected to in- (a) Air delivery to the furnace and flue gas re-
Burner Type
Turndown Ratio
NATURAL GM
Steam Atomizing
5:1 to 10:1
Mechanical Atomizing
3:1 to 10:1
COAL
Pulverized
3:1
Spreader-Stoker
2:1 to 3:1
Fluidized Bed (single bed)
2:1 to 3:1
3-14
I
I
TM 5-811-6
moval will be provided by power driven draft fans sion resistance and overall gas tightness. Adequate
designed for adequate volumes and pressures of air space and weight capacity will be allowed in overall
and gas flow. Typical theoretical air requirements plant arrangement to avoid awkward, noisy or mar-
are shown in Figure 3-8 to which must be added ex- ginal fan, duct and flue systems. Final steam gener-
cess air which varies with type of firing, plus fan ator design will insure that fan capacities (especially
margins on both volumetric and pressure capacity pressure) are matched properly to realistic air and
for reliable full load operation. Oxygen and carbon gas path losses considering operation with dirty
dioxide in products of combustion for various boilers and under abnormal operating conditions.
amounts of excess air are also shown in Figure 3-8. Damper durability and control characteristics will
(b) Calculations of air and gas quantities and be carefully designed; dampers used for control pur-
pressure drops are necessary. Since fans are heavy poses will be of opposed blade construction.
power consumers, for larger fans consideration e. Heat recovery. Overall design criteria require
should be given to the use of back pressure steam highest fuel efficiency for a power boiler; therefore,
turbine drives for economy, reliability and their abil- steam generators will be provided with heat recov-
it y to provide speed variation. Multiple fans on each ery equipment of two principal types: air pre-
boiler unit will add to first costs but will provide heater and economizers.
more flexibility and reliability . Type of fan drives (1) Efficiency effects. Both principal types of
and number of fans will be considered for cost effec- heat recovery equipment remove relatively low level
tiveness. Fan speed will be conservatively selected, heat from the flue gases prior to flue gas discharge
and silencers will be provided in those cases where to the atmosphere, using boiler fluid media (air or
noise by fans exceeds 80 decibels. water) which can effectively absorb such low level
(c) Power plant steam generator units de- energy. Such equipment adds to the cost, complex-
signed for coal or oil will use balanced draft design ity and operational skills required, which will be bal-
with both forced and induced draft fans arranged for anced by the plant designer against the life cycle
closely controlled negative furnace pressure. fuel savings.
(2) Ducts and flues. Air ducts and gas flues will (2) Air preheater. Simple tubular surface
be adequate in size and structural strength and de- heaters will be specified for smaller units and the re-
signed with provision for expansion, support, corro- generative type heater for larger boilers. To mini-
3-15
TM 5-811-6
mize corrosion and acid/moisture damage, especially height sometimes limited by aesthetic or other non-
with dirty and high sulphur fuels, special alloy steel economic considerations. Draft is a function of den-
will be used in the low temperature heat transfer sit y difference between the hot stack gases and am-
surface (replaceable tubes or “baskets”) of air pre- bient air, and a number of formulas are available for
heater. Steam coil air heaters will be installed to calculating draft and friction. Utilize draft of the
maintain certain minimum inlet air (and metal) tem- stack or chimney only to overcome friction within
peratures and thus protect the main preheater from the chimney with the induced draft fan(s) supplying
corrosion at low loads or low ambient air tempera- stack or chimney entrance. Maintain relatively high
tures. Figure 3-9 illustrates the usual range of mini- gas exit velocities (50 to 60 feet per second) to eject
mum metal temperatures for heat recovery equip- gases as high above ground level as possible. Reheat
ment. (usually by steam) will be provided if the gases are
(3) Economizers. Either an economizer or an air treated (and cooled) in a flue gas desulfurization
heater or a balanced selection of both as is usual in a scrubber prior to entering the stack to add buoy-
power boiler will be provided, allowing also for tur- ancy and prevent their settling to the ground after
bine cycle feedwater stage heating. ejection to the atmosphere. Insure that downwash
f. Stacks. due to wind and building effects does not drive the
(1) Delivery of flue gases to the atmosphere flue gas to the ground.
through a flue gas stack or chimney will be pro- g. Flue gas cleanup. The requirements for flue gas
vided. cleanup will be determined during design.
(2) Stacks and chimneys will be designed to dis- (1) Design considerations. The extent and na-
charge their gases without adverse local effects. Dis- ture of the air pollution problem will be analyzed
persion patterns and considerations will be treated prior to specifying the environmental control sys-
during design. tem for the steam generator. The system will meet
(3) Stacks and chimneys will be sized with due all applicable requirements, and the application will
regard to natural draft and stack friction with be the most economically feasible method of accom-
plishment. All alternative solutions to the problem
290 will be considered which will satisfy the given load
and which will produce the least objectionable
wastes. Plant design will be such as to accommodate
future additions or modifications at minimum cost.
Questions concerning unusual problems, unique ap-
placations or marginal and future requirements will
be directed to the design agency having jurisdiction
over the project. Table 3-4 shows the emission lev-
els allowable under the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards.
(2) Particulate control. Removal of flue gas par-
ticulate material is broadly divided into mechanical
dust collectors, electrostatic precipitators, bag fil-
ters, and gas scrubbing systems. For power plants
of the size range here considered estimated uncon-
trolled emission levels of various pollutants are
shown in Table 3-5. Environmental regulations re-
quire control of particulate, sulfur oxides and nitro-
gen oxides. For reference purposes in this manual,
typical control equipment performance is shown in
Table 3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 3-9, 3-10 and 3-11. These only
provide general guidance. The designer will refer to
TM 5-815-l/AFR 19-6/NAVFAC DM-3.15 for de-
tails of this equipment and related computational
requirements and design criteria.
(a) Mechanical collectors. For oil fired steam
generators with output steaming capacities less
NAVFAC DM3 than 200,000 pounds per hour, mechanical (centrifu-
gal) type dust collectors may be effective and eco-
Figure 3-9. Minimum metal temperatures for boiler heat
recovery equipment.
nomical depending on the applicable emission stand-
3-16
TM 5-811-6
ards. For a coal fired boiler with a spreader stoker, a efficiency slightly but also will increase collector
mechanical collector in series with an electrostatic dust loading and carryover. Ultimate collected
precipitator or baghouse also might be considered. dust material must be handled and disposed of sys-
Performance requirements and technical environ- tematically to avoid objectionable environmental ef-
mental standards must be carefully matched, and fects.
ultimate performance warranties and tests require (b) Electrostatic precipitators. For pulverized
careful and explicit definitions. Collected dust from coal firing, adequate particulate control will require
a mechanical collector containing a large proportion electrostatic precipitators (ESP). ESP systems are
of combustibles may be reinfected into the furnace well developed and effective, but add substantial
for final burnout; this will increase steam generator capital and maintenance costs. Very high percent-
3-17
Table3-5. Uncontrolled Emissions.
Pulverized Stokers or
Pollutant
Particulate
Sulfur Oxides
Nitrogen Oxides
1. The letter A indicates that the weight percentage of ash in the coal should be multiplied by
the value given. Example: If the factor is 16 and the ash content is 10 percent, the particulate
emissions before the control equipment would be 10 times 16, or 160 pounds of particulate per ton
of coal.
2. Without fly ash reinfection. With fly ash reinfection use 20A.
3. S equals the sulfur content, use like the factor A (see Note 1 above) for estimate emissions.
2-6 50
Internal Particle
Pressure Drop Gas Flow Velocity Collection Water Usage
Scrubber Type Energy Type In. H O Ft /Min Ft/Sec Efficiency Per 1000 Gal/Min
Pressure
Operating , Resistivity Gas Drop
Temperature at 300º F Flow In. of
Type °F ohm-cm Ft/Min Water
Reverse Flow 3-6 99+% Woven 1-5 Dust with good filter cleaning
properties, high temperature
collection (incinerator fly-
ash) with glass bags.
Pulse Jet 3-6 99+% Felted 4-20 Efficient for coal and oil fly
ash collection.
Reverse Jet 3-8 99+% Felted 10-30 Collection of fine dusts and
fumes.
Retrofit to
SO Removal Pressure Drop Recovery and Operational Existing
System Type Efficiency (%) (Inches of Water) Regeneration Reliability Installations
7) Single Alkali 90%+ Tray Tower Pressure Little Recovery Unknown Yea
Systems Drop 1.6-2.0 in. of Sodium Carbonate
H2O/tray, w/Venturi
add 10-14 in. H2O
g
Tabble 3-11. Techniques for Nitrogen Oxide Control.
Potential
Technique NO Reduction (%) Advantages Disadvantages
Low Excess Air Firing 15 to 40 Increased boiler thermal efficiency; A combustion control system which
possible reduction in particulate closely monitors and controls fuel/
emissions may be combined with a load air ratios is required.
reduction to obtain additional NOx
emission decrease; reduction in high
temperature corrosion and ash deposition.
Reduced Combustion Air 10-50 --- Not applicable to coal or oil fired
Preheat units; reduction in boiler thermal
efficiency; increase in exit gas
volume and temperature; reduction in
boiler load.
Flue Gas Recirculation 20-50 Possible improvement in combustion Boiler windbox must be modified to
efficiency end reduction in particu- handle the additional gas volume;
late emissions. ductwork, fans and Controls required.
ages of particulate removal can be attained (99 per- compressed air and injected into the boiler flue gas
cent, plus) but precipitators are sensitive to ash stream. SO2 and SO3 in the flue gas is absorbed by
composition, fuel additives, flue gas temperatures the slurry droplets and reacts with the calcium hy-
and moisture content, and even weather conditions. droxide of the slurry to form calcium sulfite. Evapo-
ESP’s are frequently used with and ahead of flue ration of the water in the slurry droplets occurs si-
gas washing and desulfurization systems. They may multaneously with the reaction. The dry flue gas
be either hot precipitators ahead of the air preheater then travels to a bag filter system and then to the
in the gas path or cold precipitators after the air pre- boiler stack. The bag filter system collects the boiler
heater. Hot precipitators are more expensive be- exit solid particles and the dried reaction products.
cause of the larger volume of gas to be handled and Additional remaining SO2 and SO3 are removed by
temperature influence on materials. But they are the flue gas filtering through the accumulation on
sometimes necessary for low sulfur fuels where cold the surface of the bag filters, Dry scrubbers permit
precipitators are relatively inefficient. the use of coal with a sulfur content as high as 3 per-
(c) Bag filters. Effective particulate removal cent.
may be obtained with bag filter systems or bag (3) Induced draft fan requirements. Induced
houses, which mechanically filter the gas by passage draft fans will be designed with sufficient capacity
through specially designed filter fabric surfaces. to produce the required flow while overcoming the
Bag filters are especially effective on very fine parti- static pressure losses associated with the ductwork,
cles, and at relatively low flue gas temperatures. economizer, air preheater, and air pollution control
They may be used to improve or upgrade other par- equipment under all operating (clean and dirt y) con-
ticulate collection systems such as centrifugal col- ditions.
lectors. Also they are probably the most economic (4) Waste removal. Flue gas cleanup systems
choice for most medium and small size coal fired usually produce substantial quantities of waste
steam generators. products, often much greater in mass than the sub-
(d) Flue gas desulfurization. While various stances actually removed from the exit gases. De-
gaseous pollutants are subject to environmental sign and arrangement must allow for dewatering
control and limitation, the pollutants which must be and stabilization of FGD sludge, removal, storage
removed from the power plant flue gases are the ox- and disposal of waste products with due regard for
ides of sulfur (SO2 and SO3). Many flue gas desulfuri- environmental impacts.
ztion (FGD) scrubbing systems to control SO2 and
SO3stack emission have been installed and oper- 3-12. Minor auxiliary systems
ated, with wide variations in effectiveness, reliabil- Various minor auxiliary systems and components
ity, longevity and cost. For small or medium sized are vital parts of the steam generator.
power plants, FGD systems should be avoided if a. Piping and valves. Various piping systems are
possible by the use of low sulfur fuel. If the parame- defined as parts of the complete boiler (refer to the
ters of the project indicate that a FGD system is re- ASME Boiler Code), and must be designed for safe
quired, adequate allowances for redundancy, capital and effective service; this includes steam and feed-
cost, operating costs, space, and environmental im- water piping, fuel piping, blowdown piping, safety
pact will be made. Alternatively, a fluidized bed and control valve piping, isolation valves, drips,
boiler (para. 3-10 c) may be a better economic choice drains and instrument connections.
for such a project. b. Controls and instruments. Superheater and
(1) Wet scrubbers utilize either limestone, ‘burner management controls are best purchased
lime, or a combination of lime and soda ash as sor- along with the steam generator so that there will be
bents for the SO2 and SO3 in the boiler flue gas integrated steam temperature and burner systems.
stream. A mixed slurry of the sorbent material is c. Soot blowers. Continuous or frequent on line
sprayed into the flue gas duct where it mixes with cleaning of furnace, boiler economizer, and air pre-
and wets the particulate in the gas stream. The S02 heater heating surfaces is required to maintain per-
and S09 reacts with the calcium hydroxide of the formance and efficiency. Soot blower systems,
slurry to form calcium sulfate. The gas then contin- steam or air operated, will be provided for this pur-
ues to a separator tower where the solids and excess pose. The selection of steam or air for soot blowing
solution settle and separate from the water vapor is an economic choice and will be evaluated in terms
saturated gas stream which vents to the atmosphere of steam and makeup water vs. compressed air costs
through the boiler stack. Wet scrubbers permit the with due allowance for capital and operating cost
use of coal with a sulfur content as high as 5 percent. components.
(2) Dry scrubbers generally utilize a diluted
solution of slaked lime slurry which is atomized by
3-25
k
TM 5-811-6
3-13. Introduction of the power plant facilities. Time for unloading will
a. Purpose. Figure 3-10 is a block diagram illus- be analyzed and unloading pump(s) optimized for
trating the various steps and equipment required the circumstances and oil quantities involved.
for a solid fuel storage and handling system. Heavier fuel oils are loaded into transport tanks hot
b. Fuels for consideration. Equipment required and cool during delivery. Steam supply for tank car
for a system depends on the type of fuel or fuels heaters will be provided at the plant if it is expected
burned. The three major types of fuels utilized for that the temperature of the oil delivered will be be-
steam raising are gaseous, liquid and solid. low the 120 to 150ºF. range.
(2) Storage of the fuel oil will be in two tanks so
3-14. Typical fuel oil storage and han- as to provide more versatility for tank cleanout in-
dling system spection and repair. A minimum of 30 days storage
The usual power plant fuel oil storage and handling capacity at maximum expected power plant load
system includes: (maximum steaming capacity of all boilers with
a. Unloading and storage. maximum expected turbine generator output and
(1) Unloading pumps will be supplied, as re- maximum export steam, if any) will be provided.
quired for the type of delivery system used, as part Factors such as reliability of supply and whether
3-26
TM 5-811-6
backup power is available from other sources may controls include combustion controls, burner man-
result in additional storage requirements. Space for agement system, control valves and shut off valves.
future tanks will be allocated where additional boil-
ers are planned, but storage capacity will not be pro- 3-15. Coal handling and storage systems
vided initially. a. Available systems. The following principal sys-
(3) Storage tank(s) for heavy oils will be heated tems will be used as appropriate for handling, stor-
with a suction type heater, a continuous coil extend- ing and reclaiming coal:
ing over the bottom of the tank, or a combination of (1) Relatively small to intermediate system;
both types of surfaces. Steam is usually the most coal purchases sized and washed. A system with a
economical heating medium although hot water can track or truck (or combined track/truck) hopper,
be considered depending on the temperatures at bucket elevator with feeder, coal silo, spouts and
which low level heat is available in the power plant. chutes, and a dust collecting system will be used.
Tank exterior insulation will be provided. Elevator will be arranged to discharge via closed
b. Fuelpumps and heaters. chute into one or two silos, or spouted to a ground
(1) Fuel oil forwarding pumps to transfer oil pile for moving into dead storage by bulldozer. Re-
from bulk storage to the burner pumps will be pro- claim from dead storage will be by means of bulldoz-
vided. Both forwarding and burner pumps should be er to track/truck hopper.
selected with at least 10 percent excess capacity (2) Intermediate system; coal purchased sized
over maximum burning rate in the boilers. Sizing and washed. This will be similar to the system de-
will consider additional pumps for future boilers and scribed in (1) above but will use an enclosed skip
pressure requirements will be selected for pipe fric- hoist instead of a bucket elevator for conveying coal
tion, control valves, heater pressure drops, and to top of silo.
burners. A reasonable selection would be one pump (3) Intermediate system alternatives. For more
per boiler with a common spare if the system is de- than two boilers, an overbunker flight or belt con-
signed for a common supply to all boilers. For high veyor will be used. If mine run, uncrushed coal
pressure mechanical atomizing burners, each boiler proves economical, a crusher with feeder will be in-
may also have its own metering pump with spare. stalled in association with the track/truck hopper.
(2) Pumps may be either centrifugal or positive (4) Larger systems, usually with mine run coal.
displacement. Positive displacement pumps will be A larger system will include track or truck (or com-
specified for the heavier fuel oils. Centrifugal pumps bined track/truck) unloading hopper, separate dead
will be specified for crude oils. Where absolute relia- storage reclaim hoppers, inclined belt conveyors
ability is required, a spare pump driven by a steam with appropriate feeders, transfer towers, vibrating
turbine with gear reducer will be used. For “black screens, magnetic separators, crusher(s), overbunk-
starts, ” or where a steam turbine may be inconven- er conveyor(s) with automatic tripper, weighing
ient, a dc motor driver may be selected for use for equipment, sampling equipment, silos, dust collect-
relatively short periods. ing system(s), fire protection, and like items. Where
(3) At least two fuel oil heaters will be used for two or more types of coal are burned (e.g., high and
reliability and to facilitate maintenance. Typical low sulphur), blending facilities will be required.
heater design for Bunker C! fuel oil will provide for (5) For cold climates. All systems, regardless of
temperature increases from 100 to 230° F using size, which receive coal by railroad will require car
steam or hot water for heating medium. thawing facilities and car shakeouts for loosening
c. Piping system. frozen coal. These facilities will not be provided for
(1) The piping system will be designed to main- truck unloading because truck runs are usually
tain pressure by recirculating excess oil to the bulk short.
storage tank. The burner pumps also will circulate b. Selection of handling capacity. Coal handling
back to the storage tank. A recirculation connection system capacity will be selected so that ultimate
will be provided at each burner for startup. It will be planned 24-hour coal consumption of the plant at
manually valved and shut off after burner is suc- maximum expected power plant load can be unload-
cessfully lit off and operating smoothly. ed or reclaimed in not more than 7-1/2 hours, or within
(2) Piping systems will be adapted to the type the time span of one shift after allowance of a 1/2-hour
of burner utilized. Steam atomizing burners will margin for preparation and cleanup time. The hand-
have “blowback” connections to cleanse burners of ling capacity should be calculated using the worst
fuel with steam on shutdown. Mechanical atomizing (lowest heating value) coal which may be burned in
burner piping will be designed to suit the require- the future and a maximum steam capacity boiler ef-
ments of the burner. ficiency at least 3 percent less than guaranteed by
d. Instruments and control. Instruments and boiler manufacturer.
3-27
TM 5-811-6
c. Outdoor storage pile. The size of the outdoor typical bucket elevator grade mounted silo arrange-
storage pile will be based on not less than 90 days of ment for a small or medium sized steam generating
the ultimate planned 24-hour coal consumption of facility.
the plant at maximum expected power plant load. (2) For large sized spreader stoker fired plants,
Some power plants, particularly existing plants silo type overhead construction will be specified. It
which are being rehabilitated or expanded, will have will be fabricated of structural steel or reinforced
outdoor space limitations or are situated so that it is concrete with stainless steel lined conical bottoms.
environmentally inadvisable to have a substantial (3) For small or medium sized plants combined
outdoor coal pile. live and reserve storage in the silo will be not less
d. Plant Storage. than 3 days at 60 percent of maximum expected
(1) For small or medium sized spreader stoker load of the boiler(s) being supplied from the silo so
fired plants, grade mounted silo storage will be spe- that reserves from the outside storage pile need not
cified with a live storage shelf above and a reserve be drawn upon during weekends when operating
storage space below. Usually arranged with one silo staff is reduced. For large sized plants this storage
per boiler and the silo located on the outside of the requirement will be 1 day.
firing aisle opposite the boiler, the live storage shelf
will be placed high enough so that the spout to the e. Equipment and systems.
stoker hopper or coal scale above the hopper (1) Bucket elevators. Bucket elevators will be
emerges at a point high enough for the spout angle chain and bucket type. For relatively small installa-
to be not less than 60 degrees from the horizontal. tions the belt and bucket type is feasible although
The reserve storage below the live storage shelf will not as rugged as the chain and bucket type. Typical
be arranged to recirculate back to the loading point bucket elevator system is shown in Figure 3-11.
of the elevator so that coal can be raised to the top of (2) Skip hoists. Because of the requirement for
the live storage shelf as needed. Figure 3-11 shows a dust suppression and equipment closure dictated by
TM 5-811-6
environmental considerations, skip hoists will not ceived” and’ ‘as fired” samples for large systems.
be specified. (f) Chutes, hoppers and skirts, as required,
(3) Belt conveyors. Belt conveyors will be se- fabricated of continuously welded steel for dust
lected for speeds not in excess of 500 to 550 feet per tightness and with wearing surfaces lined with
minute. They will be specified with roller bearings stainless steel. Vibrators and poke holes will be pro-
for pulleys and idlers, with heavy duty belts, and vided at all points subject to coal stoppage or hang-
with rugged helical or herringbone gear drive units. up.
(4) Feeders. Feeders are required to transfer (g) Car shakeout and a thaw shed for loosen-
coal at a uniform rate from each unloading and inter- ing frozen coal from railroad cars.
mediate hopper to the conveyor. Such feeders will be (h) Dust control systems as required through-
of the reciprocating plate or vibrating pan type with out the coal handling areas. All handling equip-
single or variable speed drive. Reciprocating type ment—hoppers, conveyors and galleries-will be en-
feeders will be used for smaller installations; the vi- closed in dust tight casings or building shells and
brating type will be used for larger systems. provided with negative pressure ventilation com-
(5) Miscellaneous. The following items are re- plete with heated air supply, exhaust blowers, sepa-
quired as noted rators, and bag filters for removing dust from ex-
(a) Magnetic separators for removal of tramp hausted air. In addition, high dust concentration
iron from mine run coal. areas located outside which cannot be enclosed, such
(b) Weigh scale at each boiler and, for larger as unloading and reclaim hoppers, will be provided
installations, for weighing in coal as received. Scales with spray type dust suppression equipment.
will be of the belt type with temperature compensat- (i) Fire protection system of the sprinkler
ed load cell. For very small installations, a low cost type.
displacement type scale for each boiler will be used. (j) Freeze protection for any water piping lo-
(c) Coal crusher for mine run coal; for large in- cated outdoors or in unheated closures as provided
stallations the crusher will be preceded by vibrating for dust suppression or fire protection systems.
(scalping) screens for separating out and by-passing (k) A vacuum cleaning system for mainte-
fines around the crusher. nance of coal handling systems having galleries and
(d) Traveling tripper for overbunker conveyor equipment enclosures.
serving a number of bunkers in series. (l) System of controls for sequencing and
(e) One or more coal samplers to check “as re- monitoring entire coal handling system.
3-29
TM 5-811-6
adequate and environmentally acceptable for this or mechanical exhauster for creating the vacuum
purpose. (Figure 3-12). This typical plant would probably
(2) Collect fly ash and to convey it dry to tem- have a traveling grate spreader stoker, a mechanical
porary or permanent storage as described above for collector, and a baghouse; in all likelihood, no on-site
bottom ash. Fly ash, being very light, will be wetted ash disposal area would be available.
and is mixed with bottom ash prior to disposal to (3) The ash system for the typical plant will in-
prevent a severe dust problem. clude the following for each boiler:
(a) A refractory lined bottom ash hopper to
3-17. Description of major components receive the discharge from the traveling grate. A
a. Typical oil fired system. Oil fired boilers do not clinker grinder is not required for a spreader stoker
require any bottom ash removal facilities, since ash although adequate poke holes should be incorpor-
and unburned carbon are light and carried out with ated into the outlet sections of the hopper.
the furnace exit gas. A mechanical collector may be (b) Gas passage fly ash hoppers as required
required for small or intermediate sized boilers hav- by the boiler design for boiler proper, economizer,
ing steaming rates of 200,000 pounds per hour or and air heater.
less. The fly ash from the gas passage and mechani- (c) Collector fly ash hoppers for the mechani-
cal collector hoppers can usually be handled manu- cal collector and baghouse.
ally because of the small amount of fly ash (soot) col- (d) Air lock valves, one at each hopper outlet,
lected. The soot from the fuel oil is greasy and can manually or automatically operated as selected by
coagulate at atmospheric temperatures making it the design engineer.
difficult to handle. To overcome this, hoppers (4) And the following items are common to all
should be heated with steam, hot water, or electric boilers in the plant:
power. Hoppers will be equipped with an outlet (a) Ash collecting piping fabricated of special
valve having an air lock and a means of attaching hardened ferro-alloy to transfer bottom and fly ash
disposable paper bags sized to permit manual hand- to Storage.
ling. Each hopper will be selected so that it need not (b) Vacuum producing equipment, steam or
be evacuated more than once every few days. If boil- mechanical exhauster as may prove economical. For
er size and estimated soot/ash loading is such that plants with substantial export steam and with low
manual handling becomes burdensome, a vacuum or quality, relatively inexpensive makeup require-
hydraulic system as described below should be con- ments, steam will be the choice. For plants with
sidered. high quality, expensive makeup requirements,
b. Typical ash handling system for small or inter consideration should be given to the higher cost me-
mediate sized coal fired boilers; chanical exhauster.
(1) Plant fuel burning rates and ash content of (c) Primary and secondary mechanical (centri-
coal are critical in sizing the ash handling system. fugal) separators and baghouse filter are used to
Sizing criteria will provide for selecting hoppers and clean the dust out of the ash handling system ex-
handling equipment so that ash does not have to be haust prior to discharge to the atmosphere. This
removed more frequently than once each 8-hour equipment is mounted on top of the silo.
shift using the highest ash content coal anticipated (d) Reinforced concrete or vitrified tile over-
and with boiler at maximum continuous steaming head silo with separator and air lock for loading silo
capacity. For the smaller, non-automatic system it with a “dustless” unloader designed to dampen
may be cost effective to select hoppers and equip ashes as they are unloaded into a truck or railroad
ment which will permit operating at 60 percent of car for transport to remote disposal.
maximum steam capacity for 3 days without remov- (e) Automatic control system for sequencing
ing ash to facilitate operating with a minimum operation of the system. Usually the manual initia-
weekend crew. tion of such a system starts the exhauster and then
(2) For a typical military power plant, the most removes bottom and fly ash from each separator col-
economical selection for both bottom and fly ash dis- lection point in a predetermined sequence. Ash un-
posal is a vacuum type dry system with a steam jet loading to vehicles is separately controlled.
3-30
Figure 3-12. Pneumatic ash handling systems—variations.
TM 5-811-6
3-32
TM 5-811-6
fans, or air compressor drives are usually single duction through the turbine bleed (extraction)
stage, back pressure, direct drive type designed for points.
mechanical simplicity and reliability. Both constant c. Single and multi-valve arrangements. What-
speed and variable speed governors are used de- ever type of governor is used, it will modulate the
pending on the application. turbine inlet valves to regulate steam flow and tur-
b. Arrangement. Turbine generators are horizon- bine output. For machines expected to operate ex-
tal shaft type with horizontally split casings. Rela- tensively at low or partial loads, multi-valve ar-
tively small mechanical drive turbines may be built rangements improve economy. Single valve tur-
with vertical shafts. Turbine rotor shaft is usually bines, in general, have equal economy and efficiency
supported in two sleeve type, self aligning bearings, at rated load, but lower part load efficiencies.
sealed and protected from internal casing steam
conditions. Output shaft is coupled to the shaft of 3-22. Turning gear
the generator which is provided with its own enclo- a. General. For turbines sized 10,000 kW and
sure but is always mounted on the same foundation larger, a motor operated turning gear is required to
as the turbine. prevent the bowing of the turbine rotor created by
(1) Balance. Balanced and integrated design of the temperature differential existing between the
the turbine, coupling and generator moving parts is upper and lower turbine casings during the long pe-
important to successful operation, and freedom riod after shutdown in which the turbine cools down.
from torsional or lateral vibrations as well as pre- The turbine cannot be restarted until it has com-
vention of expansion damage are essential. pletely cooled down without risk of damage to inter-
(2) Foundations. Foundations and pedestals for state packing and decrease of turbine efficiency,
turbine generators will be carefully designed to ac- causing delays in restarting. The turning gear is
commodate and protect the turbine generator, con- mounted at the exhaust end of the turbine and is
denser, and associated equipment. Strength, mass, used to turn the rotor at a speed of 1 to 4 rpm when
stiffness, and vibration characteristics must be con- the turbine is shut down in order to permit uniform
sidered. Most turbine generator pedestals in the cooling of the rotor. Turning gear is also used during
United States are constructed of massive concrete. startup to evenly warm up the rotor before rolling
the turbine with steam and as a jacking device for
3-21. Governing and control turning the rotor as required for inspection and
a. Turbine generators speed/load control. Electri- maintenance when the turbine is shut down.
cal generator output is in the form of synchronized b. Arrangement and controls. The turning gear
ac electrical power, causing the generator and driv- will consist of a horizontal electric motor with a set
ing turbine to rotate at exactly the same speed (or of gear chains and a clutching arrangement which
frequency) as other synchronized generators con- engages a gear ring on the shaft of the turbine. Its
nected into the common network. Basic speed/load controls are arranged for local and/or remote start-
governing equipment is designed to allow each unit ing and to automatically disengage when the tur-
to hold its own load steady at constant frequency, or bine reaches a predetermined speed during startup
to accept its share of load variations, as the common with steam. It is also arranged to automatically en-
frequency rises and falls. Very small machines may gage when the turbine has been shut down and de-
use direct mechanical governors, but the bulk of the celerated to a sufficiently slow speed. Indicating
units will use either mechanical-hydraulic governing lights will be provided to indicate the disengaged or
systems or electrohydraulic systems. Non-reheat engaged status of the turning gear and an interlock
condensing units 5000 kW and larger and back pres- provided to prevent the operation of the turning
sure units without automatic extraction will be gear if the pressure in the turbine lubrication oil sys-
equipped with mechanical-hydraulic governing. For tem is below a predetermined safe setting.
automatic extraction units larger than 20,000 kW,
governing will be specified either with a mechanical- 3-23. Lubrication systems
hydraulic or an electro-hydraulic system. a. General. Every turbine and its driven machine
b. Overspeed governors. All turbines require sep- or generator requires adequate lubricating oil sup
arate safety or overspeed governing systems to in- ply including pressurization, filtration, oil cooling,
sure inlet steam interruption if the machine exceeds and emergency provisions to insure lubrication in
a safe speed for any reason. The emergency gover- the event of a failure of main oil supply. For a typ-
nor closes a specially designed stop valve which not ical turbine generator, an integrated lube oil storage
only shuts off steam flow but also trips various safe- tank with built in normal and emergency pumps is
ty devices to prevent overspeed by flash steam in- usually provided. Oil cooling may be by means of an
3-33
TM 5-811-6
external or internal water cooled heat exchanger. Oil extracted steam will not be used or routed to any
temperatures should be monitored and controlled, substantial uses except for feedwater heating.
and heating may be required for startup. b. Automatic extraction. Controlled or automatic
b. Oil Pumps. Two full capacity main lube oil extraction turbines are more elaborate and equipped
pumps will be provided. One will be directly driven with variable internal orifices or valves to modulate
from the turbine shaft for multi-stage machines. internal steam flows so as to maintain extraction
The second full size pump will be ac electric motor pressures within specified ranges. Automatic ex-
driven. An emergency dc motor driven or turbine- traction machine governors provide automatic self-
driven backup pump will be specified to allow or- contained modulation of the internal flow orifices or
derly shutdown during normal startup and shut- valves, using hydraulic operators. Automatic ex-
down when the shaft driven pump cannot maintain traction governing systems can also be adapted to
pressure, or after main pump failure, or in the event respond to external controls or cycle parameters to
of failure of the power supply to the ac electric mo- permit extraction pressures to adjust to changing
tor driven pumps. cycle conditions.
c. Filtration. Strainers and filters are necessary c. Extraction turbine selection. Any automatic
for the protection and longevity of lubricated parts. extraction turbine is more expensive than its
Filters and strainers should be arranged in pairs for straight uncontrolled extraction counterpart of sim-
on line cleaning, inspection, and maintenance. Larg- ilar size, capacity and type; its selection and use re-
er turbine generator units are sometimes equipped quire comprehensive planning studies and economic
with special off base lubrication systems to provide analysis for justification. Sometimes the same ob-
separate, high quality filtering. jective can be achieved by selecting two units, one of
which is an uncontrolled extraction-condensing ma-
3-24. Extraction features chine and the other a back pressure machine.
a. Uncontrolled extraction systems. Uncontrolled 3-25. Instruments and special tools
bleed or extraction openings are merely nozzles in a. Operating instruments. Each turbine will be
the turbine shell between stages through which rela- equipped with appropriate instruments and alarms
tively limited amounts of steam may be extracted to monitor normal and abnormal operating condi-
for stage feedwater heating. Such openings add tions including speed, vibration, shell and rotor ex-
little to the turbine cost as compared with the cost pansions, steam and metal temperatures, rotor
of feedwater heaters, piping, and controls. Turbines straightness, turning gear operation, and various
so equipped are usually rated and will have efficien- steam, oil and hydraulic system pressures.
cies and performance based on normal extraction b. Special took. Particularly for larger machines,
pressures and regenerative feedwater heating calcu- complete sets of special tools, lifting bars, and re-
lations. Uncontrolled extraction opening pressures lated special items are required for organized and ef-
will vary in proportion to turbine steam flow, and fective erection and maintenance.
3-34
TM 5-811-6
3-27. Description of major components to permit variations in level for the condensate con-
a. Surface condensers. trol system.
(1) General description. These units are de- (4) Air removal offtakes. One or more air off-
signed as shell and tube heat exchangers. A surface takes in the steam space lead accumulating air to
condenser consists of a casing or shell with a cham- the air removal pump.
ber at each end called a “water box. ” Tube sheets (5) Tubes.
separate the two water boxes from the center steam (a) The tubes provide the heat transfer sur-
space. Banks of tubes connect the water boxes by face in the condenser are fastened into tube sheets,
piercing the tube sheets; the tubes essentially fill usually made of Muntz metal. Modern designs have
the shell or steam space. Circulating water pumps tubes rolled into both tube sheets; for ultra-tight-
force the cooling (circulating] water through the wa- ness, alloy steel tubes may be welded into tube
ter boxes and the connecting tubes. Uncontami- sheets of appropriate material. Admiralty is the
. most common tube material and frequently is satis-
nated condensate is recovered in surface condensers
since the cooling water does not mix with the con- factory for once through systems using fresh water
densing steam. Steam pressure in a condenser (or and for recirculating systems. Tube material in the
* vacuum) depends mainly on the flow rate and tem- “off gas” section of the condenser should be stain-
perature of the cooling water and on the effective- less steel because of the highly corrosive effects of
ness of air removal equipment. carbon dioxide and ammonia in the presence of
(2) Passes and water boxes. moisture and oxygen. These gases are most concen-
(a) Tubing and water boxes may be arranged trated in this section. Other typical condenser tube
for single pass or two pass flow of water through the materials include:
shell. In single pass units, water enters the water (1) Cupronickel
box at one end of the tubes, flows once through all (2) Aluminum bronze
the tubes in parallel, and leaves through the outlet (3) Aluminim brass
water box at the opposite end of the tubes. In two (4) Various grades of stainless steel
pass units, water flows through the bottom half of (b) Condenser tube water velocities range
the tubes (sometimes the top half) in one direction, from 6 to 9 feet per second (Table 3- 12). Higher flow
reverses in the far end water box, and returns rates raise pumping power requirements and erode
L through the upper or lower half of the tubes to the tubes at their entrances, thus shortening their life
near water box. Water enters and leaves through the expectancy. Lower velocities are inefficient from a
near water box which is divided into two chambers heat transfer point of view. Tubes are generally in-
by a horizontal plate. The far end water box is undi- stalled with an upwardly bowed arc. This provides
vided to permit reversal of flow. for thermal expansion, aids drainage in a shutdown
(b) For a relatively large cooling water source condenser, and helps prevent tube vibration.
and low circulating water pump heads (hence low b. Direct contact condensers. Direct contact con-
unit pumping energy costs), single pass units will be densers will not be specified.
. c. Condenser auxiliaries.
used. For limited cooling water supplies and high
circulating water pump heads (hence high unit (1) General. A condenser needs equipment and
pumping energy costs), two pass condensers will be conduits to move cooling water through the tubes,
< specified. In all cases, the overall condenser-circulat- remove air from the steam space, and extract con-
ing water system must be optimized by the designer densate from the hotwell. Such equipment and con-
to arrive at the best combination of condenser sur- duits will include:
face, temperature, vacuum, circulating water (a) Circulating water pumps.
pumps, piping, and ultimate heat rejection equip- (b) Condensate or hotwell pumps.
ment. (c) Air removal equipment and piping.
(c) Most large condensers, in addition to the (d) Priming ejectors.
inlet waterbox horizontal division, have vertical par- (e) Atmospheric relief valve.
titions to give two separate parallel flow paths (f) Inlet water tunnel, piping, canal, or com-
through the shell. This permits taking half the con- bination of these conduits.
densing surface our of service for cleaning while wa- (g) Discharge water tunnel, piping or canal,
ter flows through the other half to keep the unit run- or combination of these conduits.
ning at reduced load. (2) Circulating water pumps. A condenser uses
(3) Hot well. The hot well stores the condensate 75 to 100 pounds of circulating water per pound of
‘L and keeps a net positive suction head on the conden- steam condensed. Hence, large units need substan-
sate pumps. Hot well will have a capacity of at least tial water flows; to keep pump work to a minimum,
3 minutes maximum condensing load for surges and top of condenser water boxes in a closed system will
3-35
TM 5-811-6
Copper-Nickel Alloys:
NOTES :
(1) Not normally used, but if used, velocity shall not exceed 6.0 fps.
(2) For salt and brackish water , velocities in excess of 6.8 fps are
not recommended.
not be higher than approximately 27 feet above min- pumps handle much smaller flows than the circulat-
imum water source level which permits siphon oper- ing water pumps. They must develop heads to push
ation without imposing static head. With a siphon water through atmospheric pressure, pipe and con-
system, air bubbles tend to migrate to the top of the trol valve friction, closed heater water circuit fric-
system and must be removed with vacuum-produc- tion, and the elevation of the deaerator storage tank.
ing equipment. The circulating pumps then need to These pumps take suction at low pressure of two
develop only enough head to overcome the flow re- inches Hg absolute or less and handle water at sat-
sistance of the circulating water circuit. Circulating uration temperature; to prevent flashing of the con-
pumps for condensers are generally of the centrif- densate, they are mounted below the hotwell to re-
ugal type for horizontal pumps, and either mixed ceive a net positive suction head. Modern vertical
flow or propeller type for vertical pumps. Vertical “can” type pumps will be used. Specially designed
pumps will be specified because of their adaptability pump glands prevent air leakage into the conden-
for intake structures and their ability to handle high sate, and vents from the pump connecting to the va-
capacities at relatively low heads. Pump material por space in the condenser prevent vapor binding.
will be selected for long life. (4) Spare pumps. Two 100 percent pumps for
(3) Condensate pumps. Condensate (or hotwell) both circulating water and condensate service will
TM 5-811-6
3-37
I
TM 5-811-6
NAVFAC DM3
tion of the selected source. This level is a function of e. Circulating water system—recirculating type
the neap tide for an ocean source and seasonal level (1) General discussion.
variations for a natural lake or river. Cooling ponds (a) With a once-through system, the evapora-
are usually man-made with the level controlled with- tive losses responsible for rejecting heat to the at-
in modest limits. The pump motors and valve motor mosphere occur in the natural body of water as the
operators will be located so that no electrical parts warmed circulating water is mixed with the residual
will be immersed in water at the highest anticipated water and is cooled over a period of time by evapora-
elevation of the water source. tion and conduction heat transfer. With a recircula-
(4) System pressure control. On shutdown of a tion system, the same water constantly circulates;
circulating water pump, water hammer is avoided evaporative losses responsible for rejecting heat to
by ensuring that the pumps coast down as the pump the atmosphere occur in the cooling equipment and
isolation valves close. System hydraulics, circulat- must be replenished at the power plant site. Recircu-
ing pump coastdown times, and system isolation lating systems can utilize one of the following for
valve closing times must be analyzed to preclude heat rejection:
damage to the system due to water hammer. The (1) A natural draft, hyperbolic cooling tow-
condenser tubes and water boxes are to be designed er.
for a pressure of approximately 25 psig which is well (2) A mechanical draft cooling tower, us-
above the ordinary maximum discharge pressure of ually induced draft.
the circulating water pumps, but all equipment (3) A spray pond with a network of piping
must be protected against surge pressures caused serving banks of spray nozzles.
by sudden collapse of system pressure. (b) Very large, man-made ponds which take
(5) Inspection and testing. All active compo- advantage of natural evaporative cooling may be
nents of the circulating water system will be accessi- considered as “recirculating” systems, although for
ble for inspection during station operation. design purposes of the circulating water system
3-38
TM 5-811-6
they are once through and hence considered as such ratings for the pumps and condensers will be speci-
in paragraph d above. fied.
(c) To avoid fogging and plumes which are (4) Cooling tower design.
characteristic of cooling towers under certain at- (a) In an induced draft mechanical cooling
mospheric conditions in humid climates, so called tower, atmospheric air enters the louvers at the bot-
wet-dry cooling towers may be used. These towers tom perimeter of the tower, flows up through the
use a combination of finned heat transfer surface fill, usually counterflow to the falling water drop
and evaporative cooling to eliminate the fog and vis- lets, and is ejected to the atmosphere in saturated
ible plume. The wet-dry types of towers are expen- condition thus carrying off the operating load of
sive and not considered in this manual. Hyperbolic heat picked up in the condenser. Placement and ar-
towers also are expensive and are not applicable to rangement of the tower or towers on the power sta-
units less than 300-500 M W; while spray ponds tion site will be carefully planned to avoid recircula-
have limited application (for smaller units) because tion of saturated air back into the tower intake and
of the large ground area required and the problem of to prevent drift from the tower depositing on elec-
excessive drift. Therefore, the following descriptive trical buses and equipment in the switchyard, road-
material applies only to conventional induced draft ways and other areas where the drift could be detri-
cooling towers which, except for very special cir- mental.
cumstances, will be the choice for a military power (b) Hot circulating water from the condenser
plant requiring a recirculating type system. enters the distribution header at the top of the tow-
(2) System components. A typical recirculating er. In conventional towers about 75 percent of the
system with a mechanical draft cooling tower con- cooling takes place be evaporation and the re-
sists of the following components: mainder by heat conduction; the ratio depends on
(a) Intake structure which is usually an ex- the humidity of the entering air and various factors.
tension of the cooling tower basin. (5) Cooling tower performance. The principal
(b) Circulating water pumps. performance factor of a cooling tower is its approach
(c) Circulating water piping or tunnels to con- to the wet bulb temperature; this is the difference
densers and from condensers to top of cooling tower. between the cold water temperature leaving the tow-
(d) Cooling tower with makeup and blowdown er and the wet bulb temperature of the entering air.
systems. The smaller the approach, the more efficient and ex-
(3) System operation. pensive the tower. Another critical factor is the cool-
(a) The recirculating system functions as fol- ing range. This is the difference between the hot wa-
lows. Cooled water from the tower basin is directed ter temperature entering the tower and the cold wa-
to the circulating water pump pit. The pit is similar ter temperature leaving it is essentially the same as
to the intake structure for a once through system ex- the circulating water temperature rise in the conden-
cept it is much simpler because trash racks or trav- ser. Practically, tower approaches are 8 to 15°F with
eling screens are not required, and the pit setting ranges of 18 to 22°F. Selection of approach and
can be designed without reference to levels of a nat- range for a tower is the subject for an economic opti-
ural body of water. The circulating water pumps mization which should include simultaneous selec-
pressure the water and direct it to the condensers tion of the condensers as these two major items of
through the circulating water discharge piping. A equipment are interdependent.
stream of circulating water is taken off from the (6) Cooling tower makeup.
main condenser supply and by means of booster (a) Makeup must be continuously added to
pumps further pressurized as required for bearing the tower collecting basin to replace water lost by
cooling, generator cooling, and turbine generator oil evaporation and drift. In many cases, the makeup
cooling. From the outlet of the condensers and mis- water must be softened to prevent scaling of heat
cellaneous cooling services, the warmed circulating transfer surfaces; this will be accomplished by
water is directed to the top of the cooling tower for means of cold lime softening. Also the circulating
rejection of heat to the atmosphere. water must be treated with bioxides and inhibitors
(b) Circulating water pump and condenser while in use to kill algae, preserve the fill, and pre-
valving is similar to that described for a typical vent metal corrosion and fouling. Algae control is
once-through system, but no automatic back flush- accomplished by means of chlorine injection; acid
ing or mechanical cleaning system is required for and phosphate feeds are used for pH control and to
the condenser. Also, due to the higher pumping keep heat surfaces clean.
heads commonly required for elevating water to the (b) The circulating water system must be
top of the tower and the break in water pressure at blown down periodically to remove the accumulated
that point which precludes a siphon, higher pressure solid concentrated by evaporation.
3-39
TM 5-811-6
3-40
TM 5-811-6
3-41
TM 5-811-6
ize water from the deaerating feedwater heater or whenever the pump is in operation. The control sys-
deaerating hot process softener and feed it through tem will consist off
any high pressure closed feedwater heaters to the (a) Flow element to be installed in the pump
boiler inlet. Discharge from the boiler superheated suction line.
steam in order to maintain proper main steam tern- (b) Flow controller.
perature to the steam turbine generator. (c) Flow control valve.
b. Types. There are two types of centrifugal (d) Breakdown orifice.
multi-stage boiler feed pumps commonly used in (2) Whenever the pump flow decreases to mini-
steam power plants—horizontally split case and bar- mum required flow, as measured by the flow ele-
rel type with horizontal or vertical (segmented) split ment in the suction line, the flow controller will be
inner case. The horizontal split case type will be designed to open the flow control valve to maintain
used on boilers with rated outlet pressures up to 900 minimum pump flow. The recirculation line will be
psig. Barrel type pumps will be used on boilers with discharge to the deaerator. A breakdown orifice will
rated outlet pressure in excess of 900 psig. be installed in the recirculation line just before it en-
c. Number of pumps. In all cases, at least one ters the deaerator to reduce the pressure from boiler
spare feed pump will be provided. feed pump discharge level to deaerator operating
(1) For power plants where one battery of boiler pressure.
feed pumps feeds one boiler. f. Design criteria.
(a) If the boiler is base loaded most of the (1) Boiler feed pumps will comply with the lat-
time at a high load factor, then use two pumps each est revisions of the following standards:
at 110-125 percent of boiler maximum steaming ca- (a) Hydraulics Institute (HI).
pacity. (b) American National Standards Institute
(b) If the boiler is subject to daily wide range (ANSI).
load swings, use three pumps at 55-62.5 percent of (2) Pump head characteristics will be maximum
boiler maximum steaming capacity. With this ar- at zero flow with continuously decreasing head as
rangement, two pumps are operated in parallel be- flow increases to insure stable operation of one
tween 50 and 100 percent boiler output, but only one pump, or multiple pumps in parallel, at all loads.
pump is operated below 50 percent capacity. This ar- (3) Pumps will operate quietly at all loads with-
rangement allows for pump operation in its most ef- out internal flashing and operate continuously with-
ficient range and also permits a greater degree of out overheating or objectionable noises at minimum
flexibility. recirculation flow.
(2) For power plants where one battery of pump (4) Provision will be made in pump design for
feeds more than one boiler through a header system, expansion of
the number of pumps and rating will be chosen to (a) Casing and rotor relative to one another.
provide optimum operating efficiency and capital (b) Casing relative to the base.
costs. At least three 55-62.5 percent pumps should (c) Pump rotor relative to the shaft of the
be selected based on maximum steaming capacity of driver.
all boilers served by the battery to provide the flexi- (d) Inner and outer casing for double casing
bility required for a wide range of total feedwater pumps.
-
flows. (5) All rotating parts will be balanced statically
d. Location. The boiler feed pumps will be located and dynamically for all speeds.
at the lowest plant level with the deaerating heater (6) Pump design will provide axial as well as ra-
or softener elevated sufficiently to maintain pump dial balance of the rotor at all outputs.
suction pressure higher than the required NPSH of (7) One end of the pump shaft will be accessible
the pump under all operating conditions. This for portable tachometer measurements.
means a substantial margin over the theoretically (8) Each pump will be provided with a pump
calculated requirements to provide for pressures col- warmup system so that when it is used as a standby
lapses in the dearator under abnormal operating it can be hot, ready for quick startup. This is done
conditions. Deaerator level will never be decreased by connecting a small bleed line and orifice from the
for structural or aesthetic reasons, and suction pipe common discharge header to the pump discharge in-
connecting deaerator to boiler feed pumps should be side of the stop and check valve. Hot water can then
sized so that friction loss is negligible. flow back through the pump and open suction valve
e. Recirculation control system. to the common suction header, thus keeping the
(1) To prevent overheating and pump damage, pump at operating temperature.
each boiler feed pump will have its own recirculation (9) Pump will be designed so that it will start
control system to maintain minimum pump flow safely from a cold start to full load in 60 seconds in
TM 5-811-6
an emergency, although it will normally be warmed steam, the extraction steam, and the high pressure
before starting as described above. feedwater system. If there are low pressure closed
(10) Other design criteria should be as forth in heaters incorporated into the prime movers, the con-
Military Specification MIL-P-17552D. densate system usually remains independent for
g. Pump drives. For military plants, one steam each such prime mover; however, the deaerator and
turbine driven pump may be justified under certain boiler feed pumps are frequently common for all
conditions; e.g., if the plant is isolated, or if it is a co- boilers although paralleling of independent high
generation plant or there is otherwise a need for sub- pressure heater trains (if part of the cycle) on the
stantial quantities of exhaust steam. Usually, how- feedwater side maybe incorporated if high pressure
ever, adequate reliability can be incorporated into bleeds on the primer movers are uncontrolled. Each
the feed pumps by other means, and from a plant ef- cogeneration feedwater system must carefully be de-
ficiency point of view it is always better to bleed signed to suit the basic parameters of the cycle. Lev-
steam ‘from the prime mover(s) rather than to use el control problems can become complex, particu-
steam from an inefficient mechanical drive turbine. larly if the cycle includes multiple deaerators operat-
ing in parallel.
3-31. Feedwater supply c. Feedwater controls. Condensate pumps, boiler
a. General description. feed pumps, deaerator, and closed feedwater heaters
(1) In general terms, the feedwater supply in- are described as equipment items under other head-
cludes the condensate system as well as the boiler ings in this manual. Feedwater system controls will
feed system. consist of the following
(2) The condensate system includes the conden- (1) Condenser hotwell level controls which con-
sate pumps, condensate piping, low pressure closed trol hotwell level by recirculating condensate from
heaters, deaerator, and condensate system level and the condensate pump discharge to the hotwell, by
makeup controls. Cycle makeup may be introduced extracting excess fluid from the cycle and pumping
either into the condenser hotwell or the deaerator. it to atmospheric condensate storage (surge) tanks,
For large quantities of makeup as in cogeneration and by introducing makeup (usually from the same
plants, the deaerator maybe preferred as it contains condensate storage tanks) into the hotwell to replen-
a larger surge volume. The condenser, however, is ish cycle fluid.
better for this purpose when makeup is of high pur- (2) Condensate pump minimum flow controls to
ity and corrosive (demineralized and undeaerated). recirculate sufficient condensate back to the con-
With this arrangement, corrosive demineralized wa- denser hotwell to prevent condensate pumps from
ter can be deaerated in the condenser hotwell; the overheating.
excess not immediately required for cycle makeup is (3) Deaerator level controls to regulate amount
extracted and pumped to an atmospheric storage of condensate transferred from condenser hotwell to
tank where it will be passive in its deaerated state. deaerator and, in an emergency, to overflow excess
As hotwell condensate is at a much lower tempera- water in the deaerator storage tank to the conden-
ture than deaerator condensate, the heat loss in the sate storage tank(s).
atmospheric storage tank is much less with this ar- (4) Numerous different control systems are pos-
rangement. sible for all three of the above categories. Regardless
(3) The feedwater system includes the boiler of the method selected, the hotwell and the deaer-
feed pumps, high pressure closed heaters, boiler feed ator level controls must be closely coordinated and
suction and discharge piping, feedwater level con- integrated because the hotwell and deaerator tank
trols for the boiler, and boiler desuperheater water are both surge vessels in the same fluid system.
supply with its piping and controls. (5) Other details on instruments and controls
b. Unit vs. common system. Multiple unit cogen- for the feedwater supply are described under Section
eration plants producing export steam as well as 1 of Chapter 5, Instruments and Controls.
electric will always have ties for the high pressure
Section Vlll. SERVICE WATER
3-43
TM 5-811-6
quate to circulate through closed cooling water ex- (thermometers, pressure gages, and flow indicators)
changers. If the source is fresh water, these pumps should be incorporated into the system to allow
may also supply water to the water treating system. monitoring of equipment cooling.
Supplementary sources of water such as the area
public water supply or well water may be used for 3-33. Description of major components
potable use and/or as a supply to the water treating a. Service water systerm.
system. In some cases, particularly for larger sta- (1) Circulating water booster (or service water)
tions, the service water system may have its pumps pumps. These pumps are motor driven, horizontal
divorced from the circulating water pumps to pro- (or vertical) centrifugal type. Either two 100-per-
vide more flexibility y and reliability. cent or three 50-percent pumps will be selected for
(b) The closed cooling water exchangers this duty. Three pumps provide more flexibility; de-
transfer rejected heat from the turbine generator pending upon heat rejection load and desired water .
lube oil and generator air (or hydrogen) coolers, bear- temperature, one pump or two pumps can be oper-
ings and incidental use to the circulating water side- ated with the third pump standing by as a spare. A
stream pressurized by the booster pumps. The medi- pressure switch on the common discharge line
um used for this transfer is cycle condensate which alarms high pressure, and in the case of the booster
recirculates between the closed cooling exchangers pumps a pressure switch on the suction header or in-
and the ultimate equipment where heat is removed. terlocks with the circulating water pumps provides
This closed cooling cycle has its own circulating permissive to prevent starting the pumps unless
(closed cooling water) pumps, expansion tank and the circulating water system is in operation.
temperature controls. (2) Temperature control. In the event the sys-
(2) For stations with cooling towers. Circulat- tem serves heat rejection loads directly, temper-
ing water booster pumps (or separate service water ature control for each equipment where heat is re-
pumps). may also be used for this type of power moved will be by means of either automatic or man-
plant. In the case of cooling tower systems, how- ually controlled valves installed on the cooling wa-
ever, the treated cooling tower circulating water can ter discharge line from each piece of equiment, or by
be used directly in the turbine generator lube oil and using a by-pass arrangement to pass variable
generator air (or hydrogen) coolers and various other amounts of water through the equipment without
services where a condensate quality cooling medium upsetting system hydraulic balance.
is unnecessary. This substantially reduces the size b. Closed cooling water system.
of a closed cooling system because the turbine gen- (1) Closed cooling water pumps. The closed
erator auxiliary cooling requirements are the largest cooling water pumps will be motor driven, horizon-
heat rejection load other than that required for the tal, end suction, centrifugal type with two 100-per-
main condenser. If a closed cooling system is used cent or three 50-percent pumps as recommended for
for a station with a cooling tower, it should be de- the pumps described in a above.
signed to serve equipment such as air compressor (2) Closed cooling water heat exchangers. The
cylinder jackets and after coolers, excitation system closed cooling water exchangers will be horizontal
coolers, hydraulic system fluid coolers, boiler TV shell and tube test exchangers with the treated
cameras, and other similar more or less delicate plant cycle condensate on the shell side and circulat-
service. If available, city water, high quality well ing (service) water on the tube side. Two 100-per-
water, or other clean water source might be used for cent capacity exchangers will be selected for this
this delicate equipment cooling service and thus service, although three 50-percent units may be se-
eliminate the closed cooling water system. lected for large systems.
b. Equipment required—general. Equipment re- (3) Temperature control. Temperature control
quired for each system is as follows: for each equipment item rejecting heat will be simi-
(1) Service water system lar to that described above for the service water sys-
(a) Circulating water booster pumps (or sepa- tem.
rate service water pumps).
(b) Piping components, valves, specialities 3-34. Description of systems
and instrumentation. a. Service water system.
(2) Closed cooling water system. (1) The service water system heat load is the
(a) Cosed cooling water circulating pumps. sum of the heat loads for the closed cooling water
(b) Closed cooling water heat exchangers. system and any other station auxiliary systems
(c) Expansion tank. which may be included. The system is designed to
(d) Piping components, valves, specialities maintain the closed cooling water system supply
and instrumentation. Adequate instrumentation temperature at 950 For less during normal operation
TM 5-811-6
with maximum heat rejection load. The system will vide means to start a standby pump automatically.
also be capable of being controlled or manually ad- (2) The system will be designed to ensure ade-
justed so that a minimum closed cooling water sup quate heat removal based on the assumption that all
ply temperature of approximately 55 ‘F can be service equipment will be operating at maximum de-
maintained with the ultimate heat sink at its lowest sign conditions.
temperature and minimum head load on the closed
cooling water system. The service water system will 3-35. Arrangement
be designed with adequate backup and other reli- a. Service water system. The circulating water
ability features to provide the required cooling to booster pumps will be located as close as possible to
components as necessary for emergency shutdown the cooling load center which generally will be near
of the plant. In the case of a system with circulating the turbine generator units. All service water piping
water booster pumps, this may mean a crossover located in the yard will be buried below the frost
from a city or well water system or a special small line.
circulating water pump. b. Closed cooling water system. The closed cool-
(2) Where cooling towers are utilized, means ing water system exchangers will be located near
will be provided at the cooling tower basin to permit the turbine generators.
the service water system to remain in operation
while the cooling tower is down for maintenance or 3-36. Reliability of systems
repairs.
(3) The system will be designed such that opera- It is of utmost importance that the service and
tional transients (e.g., pump startup or water ham- closed cooling water systems be maintained in serv-
mer due to power failure) do not cause adverse ef- ice during emergency conditions. In the event power
fects in the system. Where necessary, suitable valv- from the normal auxiliary source is lost, the motor
ing or surge control devices will be provided. driven pumps and electrically actuated devices will
b. Closed cooling water system. be automatically supplied by the emergency power
(1) The closed cooling water coolant tempera- source (Chapter 4, Section VII). Each standby pump
ture is maintained at a constant value by automatic will be designed for manual or automatic startup
control of the service water flow through the heat upon loss of an operating pump with suitable alarms
exchanger. This is achieved by control valve modu- incorporated to warn operators of loss of pressure in
lation of the heat exchanger by-pass flow. All equip- either system.
ment cooled by the cooling system is individually
temperature controlled by either manual or auto- 3-37. Testing
matic valves on the coolant discharge from, or by The systems will be designed to allow appropriate
by-pass control around each piece of equipment. The initial and periodic testing to:
quantity of coolant in the system is automatically u. Permit initial hydrostatic testing as required in
maintained at a predetermined level in the expan- the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
sion tank by means of a level controller which oper- b. Assure the operability and the performance of
ates a control valve supplying makeup from the the active components of the system.
cycle condensate system. The head tank is provided c. Permit testing of individual components or
with an emergency overflow. On a failure of a run- subsystems such that plant safety is not impaired
ning closed cooling water pump, it is usual to pro- and that undesirable transients are not present.
3-45
TM 5-811-6
ment, which may also include some degree of soften- (a) Removal of suspended matter by sedimen-
ing, will normally be adequate without further treat- tation, coagulation, and filtration (clarification).
ment for cooling tower makeup and other general (b) Deaeration and degasification for removal
plant use. of gases.
b. Methods of conditioning. (c) Cold or hot lime softening.
(1) Water conditioning can be generally cate- (d) Sodium zeolite ion exchange.
gorized as’ ‘external” treatment or’ ‘internal” treat- (f) Choride cycle dealkalization.
ment. External treatment clarifies, softens, or puri- (g) Demineralization (ultimate ion exchange).
fies raw water prior to introducing it into the power (h) Internal chemical treatment.
plant fluid streams (the boiler feed water, cooling (i) Blowdown to remove sludge and concen-
tower system, and process water) or prior to utiliz- tration buildups.
ing it for potable or general washup purposes. Inter- c. Treatment Selection. Tables 3-13, 3-14, and
nal treatment methods introduce chemicals directly 3-15 provide general guidelines for selection of
into the power plant fluid stream where they coun- treatment methodologies. The choice among these is
teract or moderate the undesirable effects of water an economic one depending vitally on the actual con-
impurities. Blowdown is used in the evaporative stituents of the incoming water. The designer will
processes to control the increased concentration of make a thorough life cycle of these techniques in
dissolved and suspended solids at manageable lev- conjunction with the plant data. Water treatment
els. experts and manufacturer experience data will
(2) Some of the methods of water conditioning called upon.
are as follows:
Section X. COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS
3-46
TM5-811-6
NOTES :
(1) Guide is based on boiler water concentrations recommended in the
American Boiler and Affiliated Industries “Manual of Industry
Standards and Engineering Information.”
(2) Add filters when turbidity exceeds 10mg./l.
(3) See Table 3-15 for effectiveness of treatments.
(4) reg./l. = p.p.m.
3-47
TM 5-811-6
3-48
TM 5-811-6
Sodium Zeolite
Plus Chloride o to 2 15 to 35 Low Unchanged Unchanged
Anion Exchanger
3-49
WET AIR
ENTRAINMENT
SEPARATOR
will be of the automatic heat reactivating, dual elude work shops, laboratory, air hose stations for
chamber, chemical desiccant, downflow type. It will maintenance use, and like items. Air hose stations
contain a prefilter and afterfilter to limit particulate should be spaced so that air is available at each
size in the outlet dried air. Reactivating heat will be piece of equipment by using an air hose no longer
provided by steam heaters. than 75 feet. Exceptions to this will be as follows:
(1) The turbine operating floor will have service
3-41. Description of systems air stations every 50 feet to handle air wrenches
a. General. The service (or plant) air and the in- used to tension the turbine hood bolts.
strument air systems may have separate or common (2) No service air stations are required in the
compressors. Regardless of compressor arrange- control room and in areas devoted solely to switch-
ment, service and instrument air systems will each gear and motor control centers.
have their own air receivers. There will be isolation (3) Service air stations will be provided inside
in the piping system to prevent upsets in the service buildings at doors where equipment or supplies may
air system from carrying over into the vital instru- be brought in or out.
ment air system. c. Instrument air sys tern. A detailed analysis will
b. Service air system. The service air system be performed to determine system requirements.
capacity will meet normal system usage with one The analysis will be based on:
compressor out of service. System capacity will in- (1) The number of air operated valves and
clude emergency instrument air requirements as dampers included in the mechanical systems.
well as service air requirements for maintenance (2) The number of air transmitters, controllers
during plant operation. Service air supply will in- and converters.
3-50
TM 5-811-6
(3) A list of another estimated air usage not in- (2) Instrument air reserve. In instances where
eluded in the above items. short term, large volume air flow is required, local
d. Piping system. air receivers can be considered to meet such needs
(1) Headers. Each separate system will have a and thereby eliminate installation of excessive com-
looped header to distribute the compressed air, and pressor capacity. However, compressor must be
for large stations a looped header will be provided at sized to recharge the receivers while continuing to
each of the floor levels. supply normal air demands.
3-51
. ”
TM 5-811-6
CHAPTER 4
4-1. Voltages common bus system and a unit system. The distinc-
a. General. Refer to ANSI Standard C84. 1 for tion is based on the relationship between the gener-
voltage ratings for 60 Hz electric power systems ating unit and the auxiliary transformer supplying
and equipment. In addition, the standard lists appli- power for its auxiliary equipment.
cable motor and motor control nameplate voltage (1) In the common bus system the auxiliary
ranges up to nominal system voltages of 13.8 kV. transformer will be connected through a circuit
b. Generators. Terminal voltage ratings for power breaker to a bus supplied by a number of units and
plant generators depend on the size of the genera- other sources so that the supply has no relationship
tors and their application. Generally, the larger the to the generating unit whose auxiliary equipment is
generator, the higher the voltage. Generators for a being served. In the unit system the auxiliary trans-
power plant serving an Army installation will be in former will be connected solidly to the generator
the range from 4160 volts to 13.8 kV to suit the size leads and is switched with the generator. In either
of the unit and primary distribution system voltage. case, the auxiliary equipment for each generating
Generators in this size range will be offered by the unit usually will be supplied by a separate transfor-
manufacturer in accordance with its design, and it mer with appropriate interconnections between the
would be difficult and expensive to get a different secondary side of the transformers.
voltage rating. Insofar as possible, the generator (2) The unit type system has the disadvantage
voltage should match the distribution voltage to that its station service power requirements must be
avoid the installation of a transformer between the supplied by a startup transformer until the generat-
generator and the distribution system. ing unit is synchronized with the system. This start-
c. Power plant station service power systems. up transformer also serves as the backup supply in
(1) Voltages for station service power supply case of transformer failure. This arrangement re-
within steam electric generating stations are related quires that the station service power supply be
to motor size and, to a lesser extent, distances of ca- transferred from the startup source to the unit
ble runs. Motor sizes for draft fans and boiler feed source with the auxiliary equipment in operation as
pumps usually control the selection of the highest apart of the procedure of starting the unit.
station service power voltage level. Rules for select- (3) The advantages of the unit system are that
ing motor voltage are not rigid but are based on rela- it reduces the number of breakers required and that
tive costs. For instance, if there is only one motor its source of energy is the rotating generating unit
larger than 200 hp and it is, say, only 300 hp, it so that, in case of system trouble, the generating
might be a good choice to select this one larger mo- unit and its auxiliaries can easily be isolated from
tor for 460 volts so that the entire auxiliary power the rest of the system. For application to Army in-
system can be designed at the lower voltage. stallations, the advantage of switching the gener-
(2) Station service power requirements for com- ator and its auxiliary transformer as a unit is not
bustion turbine and internal combustion engine gen- very important, so the common bus system will nor-
erating plants are such that 208 or 480 volts will be mally be used.
used. b. Common bus system. In this system, gener-
d. Distribution system. The primary distribution ators will be connected to a common bus and the
system for an Army installation with central in- auxiliary transformers for all generating units will
house generation should be selected in accordance be fed from that common bus. This bus may have
with TM 5-811 -l/AFM 88-9. one or more other power sources to serve for station
startup.
4-2. Station service power systems. (1) Figure 4-1 is a typical one-line diagram for
a. General. Two types of station service power such a system. This type system will be used for
systems are generally in use in steam electric plants diesel generating plants with all station service sup-
and are discussed herein. They are designated as a plied by two station service transformers with no
4-1
TM 5-811-6
4-2
TM 5-811-6
isolation between auxiliaries for different generat- one-line diagram of this arrangement. If the highest
ing units. It also will be used for steam turbine and level of auxiliary voltage required is more than 480
gas turbine generating plants. For steam turbine volts, say 4.16 kV, the auxiliary switchgear air cir-
generating plants the auxiliary loads for each unit in cuit breakers will only serve motors 250 hp and larg-
the plant will be isolated on a separate bus fed by a er and feeders to unit substations. Each unit substa-
separate transformer. A standby transformer is in- tion will include a transformer to reduce voltage
cluded and it serves the loads common to all units from the highest auxiliary power level to 480 volts
such as building services. together with air circuit breakers in a lineup for
(2) The buses supplying the auxiliaries for the starting of motors 100 to 200 hp and for’ serving
several units will be operated isolated to minimize 480-volt motor control centers. The motor control
fault current and permit use of lower interrupting centers will include combination starters and feed-
rating on the feeder breakers. Provision will be made ers breakers to serve motors less than 100 hp and
for the standby transformer to supply any auxiliary other small auxiliary circuits such as power panels.
bus. e. Startup auxiliary transformer. In addition to
c. Unit type system. the above items, the unit auxiliary type system will
(1) The unit type station service power system incorporate a “common” or “startup” arrangement
will be used for a steam electric or combustion tur- which will consist of a startup and standby auxil-
bine generating station serving a utility transmis- iary transformer connected to the switchyard bus or
sion network. It will not be, as a rule, used for a other reliable source, plus a low voltage switchgear
diesel generating station of any kind since the sta- and motor control center arrangement similar to
tion service power requirements are minimal. that described above for the unit auxiliary system.
(2) The distinguishing feature of a unit type sta- The common bus system may have a similar ar-
tion power system is that the generator and unit rangement for the standby transformer.
auxiliary transformer are permanently connected to- (1) This common system has three principal
gether at generator voltage and the station service functions:
power requirements for that generating unit, includ- (a) To provide a source of normal power for
ing boiler and turbine requirements, are normally power plant equipment and services which are com-
supplied by the auxiliary transformer connected to mon to all units; e.g., water treating system, coal
the generator leads. This is shown in Figure 4-2. If and ash handling equipment, air compressors, light-
the unit is to be connected to a system voltage that is ing, shops and similar items.
higher than the generator voltage, the unit concept (b) To provide backup to each auxiliary power
can be extended to include the step-up transformer system segment if the transformer supplying that
by tying its low side solidly to the generator leads segment fails or is being maintained.
and using the high side breaker for synchronizing (c) In the case of the unit system, to provide
the generator to the system. This arrangement is startup power to each unit auxiliary power system
shown in Figure 4-3. until the generator is up to speed and voltage and is
d. Station service switchgear. A station service synchronized with the distribution system.
switchgear lineup will be connected to the low side (2) The startup and standby transformer and
of the auxiliary transformer; air circuit breakers will switchgear will be sized to accomplish the above
be used for control of large auxiliary motors such as three functions and, in addition, to allow for possible
boiler feed pumps, fans and circulating water pumps future additions to the plant. Interconnections will
which use the highest station service voltage, and be provided between the common and unit switch-
for distribution of power to various unit substations gear. Appropriate interlocks will be included so that
and motor control centers to serve the remaining no more than one auxiliary transformer can feed any
station service requirements. Figure 4–4 is a typical switchgear bus at one time.
4-3
TM 5-811-6
w
LEGEND
Figure 4-3. Station connections, two unit station unit arrangement-distribution voltage higher than generation.
TM 5-811-6
with the number of poles dependent on the speed se- pole generators. Generators may be obtained totally
lected which is the result of an economic evaluation enclosed with water cooling if desired because of
by the manufacturer to optimize the best combina- high ambient temperatures or polluted atmosphere.
tion of turbine, gear and generator. (4) Generators for diesel service are revolving
(3) Generators for gas turbine service are re- field, salient pole, air cooled, open type, direct con-
volving field, non-salient or salient pole, self-venti- nected, and with amortisseur windings to dampen
lated, open drip-proof type, sometimes connected pulsating engine torque. Number of poles is six or
through a gear reducer, depending on manufactur- more to match low speeds typical of diesels,
er’s gas turbine design speed, to the gas turbine b. Standards. Generators will meet the require-
power takeoff shaft. Non-salient pole generators are ments of ANSI C50. 10, C50. 13 and C50.14 is applic-
two-pole, 3600 rpm for 60 Hz, although manufactur- able as well as the requirements of NEMA SM 12
ers of machines smaller than 1500 kVA may utilize and SM 13.
1800 rpm, four-pole, or 1200 rpm, six-pole, salient (1) ANSI C84.1 designates standard voltages
4-6
TM 5-811-6
4-7
TM 5-811-6
type of short circuit at its terminals for times not ex- 4-5. Excitation systems
ceeding its short time thermal capabilities at rated Rotating commutator exciters as a source of dc pow-
kVA and power factor with 5 percent over rated er for the ac generator field generally have been re-
voltage, provided that maximum phase current is placed by silicon diode power rectifier systems of
limited externally to the maximum current obtained the static or brushless type.
from the three-phase fault. Stator windings must a. A typical brushless system includes a rotating
withstand a normal high potential test and show no permanent magnet pilot exciter with the stator con-
abnormal deformation or damage to the coils and nected through the excitation switchgear to the sta-
connections. tionary field of an ac exciter with rotating armature
d. Excitation voltage. Excitation system will be and a rotating silicon diode rectifier assembly,
wide range stabilized to permit stable operation which in turn is connected to the rotating field of the
down to 25 percent of rated excitation voltage on generator. This arrangement eliminates both the .
manual control. Excitation ceiling voltage on man- commutator and the collector rings. Also, part of
ual control will not be less than 120 percent of rated the system is a solid state automatic voltage regula-
exciter voltage when operating with a load resist- tor, a means of manual voltage regulation, and nec-
ance equal to the generator field resistance, and ex- essary control devices for mounting on a remote
citation system will be capable of supplying this panel. The exciter rotating parts and the diodes are
ceiling voltage for not less than 1 minute. These cri- mounted on the generator shaft; viewing during
teria, as set for manual control, will permit oper- operation must utilize a strobe light.
ation when on automatic control. Exciter response b. A typical static system includes a three-phase
ratio as defined in ANSI/IEEE 100 will not be less excitation potential transformer, three single-phase
than 0.50. current transformers, an excitation cubicle with
e. Wave shape. Deviation factor of the open cir- field breaker and discharge resistor, one automatic
cuit terminal voltage wave will not exceed 10 per- and one manual static thyristor type voltage regula-
cent. tors, a full wave static rectifier, necessary devices
f. Telephone influence factor. The balanced tele- for mounting on a remote panel, and a collector as-
phone influence factor (TIF) and the residual compo- sembly for connection to the generator field.
nent TIF will meet the applicable requirements of
ANSI C50.13.
4-8
I
TM 5-811-6
area covered by the distribution system requires used with more than eight bus sections because of
distribution feeders in excess of 2 miles, it may be the possibility of simultaneous outages resulting in
advantageous to connect the generators to a higher the bus being split into two parts. The breaker and a
voltage bus and feed several distribution substa- half arrangement, shown in Figure 4-8, is the high-
tions from that bus with step-down substation est cost alternative and provides the highest relia-
transformers at each distribution substation as bility without limitation on the number of circuits.
shown in Figure 4-3.
e. The configuration of the high voltage bus will 4-7. Generator leads
be selected for reliability and economy. Alternative a. Cable.
bus arrangements include main and transfer bus, (1) Connections between the generator and
ring bus and breaker and a half schemes. The main switchgear bus where distribution is at generator
and transfer arrangement, shown in Figure 4-6, is voltage, and between generator and stepup trans-
the lowest cost alternative but is subject to loss of former where distribution is at 34.5 kV and higher,
all circuits due to a bus fault. The ring bus arrange- will be by means of cable or bus duct. In most in-
ment, shown in Figure 4-7, costs only slightly more stances more than one cable per phase will be neces-
than the main and transfer bus arrangement and sary to handle the current up to a practical maxi-
L eliminates the possibility of losing all circuits from a mum of four conductors per phase. Generally, cable
bus fault since each bus section is included in the installations will be provided for generator capac-
protected area of its circuit. Normally it will not be ities up to 25 MVA. For larger units, bus ducts will
4-9
TM 5-811-6
LOAD LOAD
be evaluated as an alternative. be tri-plexed; i.e., all run in one steel armored enclo-
(2) The power cables will be run in a cable tray, sure. In the event that single phase cables are re-
separate from the control cable tray; in steel con- quired, the armor will be nonmagnetic.
duit; suspended from ceiling or on wall hangers; or (5) In no event should the current carrying ca-
in ducts depending on the installation requirements. pacity of the power cables emanating from the gen-
(3) Cable terminations will be made by means of erator be a limiting factor on turbine generator out-
potheads where lead covered cable is applied, or by put. As a rule of thumb, the cable current carrying
compression lugs where neoprene or similarly jack- capacity will be at least 1.25 times the current asso-
eted cables are used. Stress cones will be used at ciated with kVA capacity of the generator (not the
4.16 kV and above. kW rating of the turbine).
(4) For most applications utilitizing conduit, b. Segregated phase bus.
cross-linked polyethylene with approved type filler (1) For gas turbine generator installations the
or ethylene-propylene cables will be used. For appli- connections from the generator to the side wall or
cations where cables will be suspended from hangers roof of the gas turbine generator enclosure will have
or placed in tray, armored cable will be used to pro- been made by the manufacturer in segregated phase
vide physical protection. If the cable current rating bus configuration. The three phase conductors will
does not exceed 400 amperes, the three phases will be flat copper bus, either in single or multiple con-
4-10
TM 5-811-6
ductor per phase pattern. External connection to bles but final selection will be based on expected
switchgear or transformer will be by means of segre- field conditions.
gated phase bus or cable. In the segregated phase c. Isolated phase bus.
bus, the three bare bus-phases will be physically sep- (1) For steam turbine generator ratings of 25
arated by non-magnetic barriers with a single enclo- MVA and above, the use of isolated phase bus for
sure around the three buses. connection from generator to stepup transformer
(2) For applications involving an outdoor gas will be used. At such generator ratings, distribution
turbine generator for which a relatively small lineup seldom is made at generator voltage. An isolated
of outdoor metal clad switchgear is required to han- phase bus system, utilizing individual phase copper
dle the distribution system, segregated phase bus or aluminum, hollow square or round bus on insula-
will be used. For multiple gas turbine generator in- tors in individual non-magnetic bus enclosures, pro-
stallations, the switchgear will be of indoor con- vides maximum reliability by minimizing the possi-
struction and installed in a control/switchgear build- bility of phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase faults.
ing. For these installations, the several generators (2) Isolated phase bus current ratings should
will be connected to the switchgear via cables. follow the rule of thumb set forth above for gener-
(3) Segregated bus current ratings may follow ator cables.
the rule of thumb set forth above for generator ca-
4-11
TM 5-811-6
AD
b
4-12
I
TM 5-811-6
4-13
TM 5-811-6
and fault current requirements before selecting oil time. Power circuits can be operated for extended,
circuit breakers. Short circuit calculations must be periods with a part of the instrumentation and me-
made for any power system, but for extensive power tering out of service; they should not be operated for
systems operating in parallel with a utility, a sys- extended periods without the protective devices.
tem study will be performed prior to selecting the oil f. Duct system.
circuit breakers. Power networks analyzers or com- (1) Except as otherwise described herein, duct
puter programs will be utilized in such work. systems will be in accordance with TM 5-811-1/
e. Potential and current transformers. AFM 88-9.
(1) For power systems through 69 kV, potential (2) Power and control cables will be run in un-
transformers are generally used to provide voltages derground conduit in a concrete duct system be-
in the 69- and 120-volt ranges for voltmeters, watt- tween the generating station and switchyard; the
meters, varmeters, watt-hour meters, power factor two types of cable maybe run in the same duct bank
meters, synchroscopes, various recorders, and for but in separate conduits. If in the same duct bank,
certain protective relays and controls. Above 69 kV, the manholes will be divided with a concrete barrier
the cost becomes prohibitive and capacitor potential between the power and control cable sections. The
devices are used. The latter do not have as much main power cables will be run in their own duct
volt-ampere capacity as potential transformers so system and will terminate at the power transform-
care must be taken not to overload the potential de- ers which are usually placed in a single row.
vices by placing too many instruments or devices in (3) At the point of entrance into the switchyard,
the circuit. the control cable duct system will empty into a con-
(2) Both the potential transformers (pt’s) and crete cable trench system, either poured in place or
capacitor potential devices (cpd’s) will be purchased assembled from prefabricated runs. The U-shaped
with dual 120 volt secondaries, each tapped at 69 trench will be of sufficient size in width and depth to
volts for circuit flexibility y. All should be for single accommodate control and auxiliary power cables for
phase-to-ground application on the high voltage present transformers, breakers, disconnect
side. switches, pt’s and ct ‘s, ac and dc auxiliary power ca-
(3) Three line-to-ground pt’s or cpd’s will be em- bles and lighting circuits, plus provision of at least
ployed on each main high voltage bus. Generally, 25 percent for expansion of the switchyard.
only one pt or cpd is needed on each feeder for syn- (4) Checkered plate or sectionalized prefabri-
chronizing or hot line indication; but for ties to the cated concrete covers will be placed on the trench,
outside utility or for special energy metering for bill- complete with holes or tilt-up recessed handles for
ing purposes or other energy accounting, or for re- assistance in removal of each cover section.
laying, three devices will be necessary. (5) Control cables will be run through sleeves
(4) Current transformers (et’s) of the through from the trench then through galvanized steel con-
type, where the primary winding is connected in the duit buried 18 inches deep to the point of rising to
circuit, will seldom be used. In the usual case, there the circuit breaker mechanism housing or other ter-
are sufficient bushing type ct’s in the oil circuit mination. Risers will be attached securely to the ter-
breakers and power transformers. Multi-ratio units minating device.
will be employed, as described under d above, for g. Ac and dc distribution. One or more 120/208
control, indication and protective relaying. Should Vat, 24 or 40 circuit distribution panlboards and
billing metering be needed, more accurate metering one 125 Vdc, 24-circuit distribution panel will be
type bushing type ct’s will be used. provided in weatherproof enclosures in a central lo-
(5) Current transformer ratios do not necessar- cation in the switchyard. Oil circuit breakers require
ily have a direct relationship with the continuous 125 Vdc for closing, tripping and indication. Com-
current capacity of the circuit breaker or transform- pressor motors or spring winding motors for the oil
er bushing on which they are mounted. The high cur- circuit breakers will require 120 or 208 volts ac, as
rent portion of the ratio shoul be selected so that will the radiator cooling fans for the power trans-
the circuit full load current ‘wall beat approximately formers. Strip heaters for the ocb transformer
70-80 percent of instrument full scale for best accu- mechanism housings will operate at 208 Vat. Light-
racy. Ratios for protective relaying will be specially ing circuits will require 120 Vat. Weatherproof,
selected to fill the particular relays being applied. grounding type convenience outlets at 120 volts and
(6) Joint use of a particular set of et’s for both 208 volts will be provided for electrically operated
instrumentation and protective relaying will be tools and maintenance equipment needed to main-
avoided because the two ratio requirements may be tain the switchyard.
different and testing or repair of instrument circuits h. Grading and fencing.
may require those circuits to be out of service for a (1) The entire switchyard area will be at the
4-14
TM 5-811-6
same grade except for enough slope to provide the perimeter, cross-connections from side to side
drainage. The concrete pads and foundations for all and end to end will be 250 MCM stranded tinned
ocb’s and transformers; for all bus, pt and ct sup- copper cable on 10- to 12-foot spacing in accord-
porting structures; and for the switchyard struc- ance with TM 5-811-l/AFM 88-9. Taps will be
tures will be designed for the same top elevation, made to each vertical bay column of the switchyard
and final rough grade will set some 9 inches below structure, to every pt and ct and bus support struc-
top of concrete. ture, to every ocb and transformer, and to every dis-
(2) Three inches of coarse gravel and 3 inches of connect switch structure with 4/0 stranded tinned
fine gravel will be provided on the rough grade copper conductor. Two taps will be run to each cir-
which will allow the top of the concrete to be ex- cuit breaker and power transformer from different
posed 3 inches above the final crushed rock grade. 250 MCM cross-connections.
The rough grade will be sloped at 1 inch per hundred (3) Taps will extend outward from the 500
feet to provide drainage, but the final crushed rock MCM perimeter cable to a fence rectangular loop
course will be dead level. Crushed rock will extend 3 with taps at no more than 40-foot centers. This loop
feet outside the fence line. will be run parallel to the fence, 2 feet outside the
(3) All concrete foundations will have a l-inch, fence line, and the fence loop will be tapped every 20-
45-degree chamfer so the edges will not chip. feet via 2/0 stranded tinned copper taps securely
(4) An 8-foot galvanized steel chain link fence bolted to the fence fabric near the top rail. Flexible
with round line and corner posts will enclose the en- tinned copper ground straps will be installed across
tire substation. The fence will be angle braced in the hinge point at each swinging gate.
both directions. End posts for personnel and vehicle (4) At least two 500 MCM bare-stranded,
gates will be similarly braced. Posts will be mounted tinned copper cables will be connected via direct
in poured concrete footings, having the top cap burial to the generating station ground grid. Con-
rounded for drainage. nection will be made to opposite ends of the switch-
(5) Two 36-inch wide personnel gates will be yard 500 MCM loop and to widely separated points
placed in diagonally opposite locations; one located at the generating station grid.
for convenience for operator and maintenance regu- (5) Ground rods, at least 8 feet long, 3/4-inch di-
lar access, and the other to provide an emergency ameter, will be driven at each main grid intersection
exit. The gate for regular access will be padlockable. point and at 20-foot centers along the fence loop to
The emergency exit gate will not be padlocked but a depth of 13 inches above the intersection about 17
will be openable only from inside the switchyard by inches below rough grade.
means of removing a drop-in pin; the pin will be so (6) Every grid intersection and every ground
barriered that it cannot be removed from outside the rod connection to both grids will be exothermic
fence. This panic hardware will be designed for in- welded using appropriate molds.
stant, easy removal in the event use of the emergen- (7) The ground grid system described above will
cy exit is necessary. suffice for most Army establishments except in par-
(6) A double hung, padlockable vehicle gate will ticularly rocky areas or in the Southwest desert
be installed; each section will be 8 feet in width to states. Target is to obtain not greater than five
provide adequate room for transformer removal and ohms ground resistance. In rocky or desert areas,
line truck entrance and egress. special connections of the switchyard grid to remote
(7) If local codes will permit, a three-strand grounding pits via drilled holes perhaps 200 feet
barbed wire security extension, facing outward at deep or grids buried in remote stream beds may be
45 degrees, will be mounted on top of the fence and necessary. NOTE: TM 5-811-1 describes a grad-
gates. ing, fencing and grounding system in considerable
i. Grounding. detail for station and substation applications where
(1) A grounding grid, buried approximately 2 power is purchased from a utility or small genera-
feet below rough grade level will be installed prior to tors are installed. The intent herein is to provide for
installation of cable ducts, cable trenches and the additional requirements for a larger (5000-
crushed rock, but simultaneously with the installa- 30,000 kW) generating station stepup switchyard
tion of switchyard structure, ocb, and transformer which permits connection to a distribution system
footings. and interconnection with an outside utility system.
(2) The main rectangular grid will be looped The system herein described is a “heavy duty” sys-
around the perimeter of the yard and composed of tem. TM 5-811-UAFM 88-9 will be followed for de-
500 MCM bare stranded tinned copper cable. From tail not described herein.
4-15
TM 5-811-6
4-16
TM 5-811-6
(1) As a rule of thumb, the unit auxiliary trans- 4-11. Unit substation transformer
former for a steam electric station will have a kVA a. Definition. The phrase “unit substation” is
rating on the order of 6 to 10 percent of the genera- used to denote a unit of equipment comprising a
tor maximum kVA rating. The percent goes down transformer and low-side switchgear designed and
slightly as generator kVA goes up and coal fired factory assembled as a single piece of equipment. It
plants have highest auxiliary power requirements is used herein to denote an intermediate voltage re-
while gas fired plants have the least. The actual rat- ducing station fed by one or two circuits from the
ing specified for an installation will be determined auxiliary switchgear and, in turn, serving a number
from the expected station service loads developed of large motors or motor control centers. The break-
by the design. The station startup and standby aux- ers will have lower ratings than those in the auxilia-
iliary transformer for plants having a unit system ry switchgear but higher ratings than those in the
will have a kVA rating on the order of 150 percent of motor control centers. The transformer in the “unit
a unit auxiliary transformer— say 10 to 12 percent of substation” is referred to as a “unit substation
the maximum generator kVA. The additional capac- transformer.”
it y is required because the transformer acts as 100 (1) The term “unit auxiliary transformer” is
percent spare for the unit auxiliary transformer for used to denote the transformer connected to the
each of one or more generators, while also serving a generator leads that provides power for the auxilia-
number of common plant loads normally fed from ries of the unit to which it is connected. It feeds the
this source. If the auxiliary power system is not on “auxiliary switchgear” for that unit.
the unit basis; i.e., if two or more auxiliary trans- (2) The “unit stepup transformer” designates
formers are fed from the station bus, sizing of the the stepup transformer that is connected perma-
auxiliary transformer will take into account the aux- nently to the generator terminals and connects that
iliary power loads for all units in the station plus all generator to the distribution system.
common plant loads. The sizing of auxiliary trans- b. Rating. For steam electric stations there will
formers, in any case, will be subject to an analysis of be a minimum of two unit substations per turbine
all loads served under any set of startup, operating, installation so that each can be located near an area
or shutdown conditions with reasonable assumed load center to minimize the lengths of cables serving
transformer outages and will include a minimum of the various low voltage loads. The kVA rating of the
10 percent for future load additions. transformer in each unit substation will be suffi-
(2) Auxiliary transformer voltage ratings will cient to handle the full kVA of the connected load,
be compatible with the switchyard voltage and the including the starting kVA of the largest motor fed
auxiliary switchgear voltages. Two 2 1/2 percent taps from the center, plus approximately 15 percent for
above and below rated voltage on the high voltage future load additions. For diesel engine or gas tur-
side will be included f or each transformer. bine installations, these unit substations may not be
b. Control. required or one such unit substation may serve more
(1) One step of fan control is commonly pro- than one generating unit.
vided, resulting in an OA/FA rating. Fan control for c. Control. No fans or pumps are required and
auxiliary transformers will be similar to that de- thus no control voltage need be brought to the
scribed for the generator stepup transformer, except transformer.
that it is not necessary to provide for dual power d. Alarms. Protective devices will be mounted on
sources to the fans. Since the unit auxiliary and the the transformer with alarm leads run to an easily ac-
station auxiliary transformers can essentially fur- cessible terminal board. Devices will include a wind-
nish power for the same services, each transformer ing hot spot temperature indicator having two
serves as a spare for the other. Also, if a fan source alarm stages for two temperature levels with elec-
fails, the transformer it serves can still be operated trically independent alarm contacts. On occasion, it
continuously at the base self-cooled rating. will be found that design and construction of the
(2) The protective devices and alarms will be unit substation transformer and its physically at-
identical to those of the generator stepup trans- tached 480-volt switchgear may require the ground
former. indication pt’s and their ground indicating lamps to
(3) The control compartment will be similar to be mounted within and on the transformer venti-
that of the generator stepup transformer. lated enclosure. In this event, the ground alarm re-
c. Miscellaneous. The miscellaneous items will be lays will be mounted in a readily accessible portion
similar to those for the generator stepup transform- of the enclosure with leads brought to terminal
er, except that only one set of multi-ratio bushing blocks for external connection to the control room
ct’s need be provided on each of the high and low annunicator.
side bushings.
4-17
TM 5-811-6
4-18
TM 5-811-6
relay to be used as a fault detector relay (ANSI De- (1) Incoming line: three–long time and short
vice 51G) time elements.
(4) One–Transformer sudden gas pressure re- (2) Motor control center feeders: three–long
lay (ANSI Device 63). time and short time elements.
f. Switchyard bus relaying. Each section of the (3) Motor feeders: three–long time and instan-
switchyard bus will be provided with bus differen- taneous elements.
tial relaying if the size of the installation, say 25,000 c. Motor control center protection (480-volt sys-
kW or more, requires high speed clearing of bus tem). Because of the lower rating, breakers will be
faults. molded case type employing thermal/magnetic ele-
g. Distribution feeder relaying. Whether feeders ments for protection on direct feeders. Combination
emanate from the switchyard bus at, say 34.5kV, or starters will employ three thermal protective heater
from the generator bus at 13.8 kV, the following re- type elements in conjunction with the starter.
lays will be provided for each circuit:
(1) Three–Phase time overcurrent relays with 4-14. Instrumentation and metering
instantaneous element (ANSI Device 50/5 1). The following instruments will be mounted on the
. (2) One–Residual ground time overcurrent re- control board in the operating room to provide the
lay with instantaneous element (ANSI Device operator with information needed for operations:
50/51 N). a. Generator.
h. Ties to utility. Relaying of tie lines to the util- (1) Ammeter with phase selector switch
ity company must be coordinated with that utility (2) Voltmeter with phase selector switch
and the utility will have its own standards which (3) Wattmeter
must be met. For short connections, less than 10 (4) Varmeter
miles, pilot wire relaying is often used (ANSI device (5) Power factor meter
87PW). For longer connections, phase directional (6) Frequency meter
distance and ground distance relays are often used (7) Temperature meter with selector switch for
(ANSI device 21 and 21 G). Various auxiliary relays stator temperature detectors
will also be required. Refer to the utility for these tie (8) D.C. volmeter for excitation voltage
line protective relaying requirements. (9) D.C. ammeter for field current
b. Stepup transformer.
4-13. Switchgear and MCC protection (1) Voltmeter on high voltage side with selector
a. Medium voltage switchgear (4160 volt system). switch
(1) The incoming line breaker will be provided (2) Ammeter with selector switch
with: Three-Phase time overcurrent relays set (3) Wattmeter
high enough to provide protection against bus faults (4) Varmeter
on the switchgear bus and not to cause tripping on (5) Power factor meter
feeder faults (ANSI Device 50/51). c. Auxiliary transformer.
(2) Each transformer feeder will be provided (1) Voltmeter on low voltage side with selector
with: switch
(a) Three-Phase time overcurrent relays (2) Ammeter with selector switch
with instantaneous trip attachments (ANSI Device (3) Wattmeter
50/51). (4) Varmeter
(b) One–Residual ground time overcurrent (5) Power factor meter
relay with instantaneous trip attachment (ANSI d. Common.
Device 50N/51N). (1) Voltmeter with selector switch for each bus
(3) Each motor feeder will be provided with: (2) Synchroscope
(a) Three–Phase time overcurrent relay e. Integrating meters. The following integrating
(ANSI Device 50/51). meters will be provided but need not be mounted on
(b) One–Replica type overcurrent relay the control board:
(ANSI Device 49) (to match motor characteristic (1) Generator output watthour meter
heating curves). (2) Auxiliary transformer watthour meter for
(4) Each bus tie will be provided with: Three– each auxiliary transformer.
Phase time overcurrent relays (ANSI Device 50). f. Miscellaneous. For units rated 20,000 kW or
b. Unit substation switchgear protection (480 volt larger, a turbine-generator trip recorder will be pro-
system). Breakers in the 480-volt substations uti- vided but not necessarily mounted on the control
lize direct acting trip devices. These devices will be board. This is for use in analyzing equipment fail-
provided as follows: ures and shutdowns.
4-19
TM 5-811-6
4-20
TM 5-811-6
with copper or aluminum buses braced to withstand receptacle system and the like. Loads should be
the corresponding 350 MVA short circuit. Quantity grouped in such a manner as to result in relatively
of breakers will be determined to handle incoming short feeder runs from the centers, and also to facili-
transformer, large motors above 200 hp and trans- tate alternate power sources to vital services.
former feeds to the 480 volt unit substations. d. Cable space. Connection to the MCC’s will be
b. Cable entrance. Power and control cable en- via overhead cable tray, and thus the top horizontal
trance from above or below the gear will depend on section of the MCC will incorporate ample cable
final locations in the power plant. training space. Control and power leads will termi-
c. Relaying. Appropriate protective relaying will nate in each compartment. The MCC’s can be de-
be applied to each incoming and outgoing circuit as signed with all external connections brought by the
discussed in paragraph 4- 13a above. manufacturer to terminal blocks in the top or bot-
tom horizontal compartments, at added expense.
4-18. 480 volt unit substations e. Enclosures. Table 4-1 lists standard MCC en-
a. General arrangement. The unit substation as closures. Type 2, drip tight, will be specified for all
defined in subparagraph 4-1 la, or power centers, indoor power plant applicants; Type 3, weather re-
employ a 4160-480 volt transformer close coupled sistant, for outdoor service. The other types listed in
to a section of 480 volt switchgear. Switchgear por- Table 4-1 should be used when applicable.
tion will utilize drawout breakers and have breakers
and buses braced to interrupt and withstand, re- 4-20. Foundations
spectively, a short circuit of 42 kA, symmetrical. a. Transformers. The outdoor auxiliary power
Buses may be of aluminum or copper. transformers will be placed on individual reinforced
b. Loads served. The unit substations will serve concrete pads.
as sources for 480-volt auxiliary motor loads be- b. Medium voltages switchgear. The medium volt-
tween 75 and 200 horsepower, and also serve as sup- age switchgear assemblies will be mounted on flush
ply to the 480-volt motor control centers. embedded floor channels furnished by the switch-
c. Cable entrance. Power and control cable en- gear manufacturer prior to shipment of the gear.
trance from above or below will depend on final loca- c. Unit substations and motor control centers.
tion in the station. 480-volt unit substation transformers and switch-
d. Trip devices. Direct acting trip devices will be gear, and all MCC's will be mounted on chamfered
applied to match the appropriate transformer or concrete pads at least 3 inches above finished floor
motor feeder load and fault characteristics as dis- grade. Foundations will be drilled for clinch anchors
cussed in paragraph 4- 13b above. after the foundation has been poured and set; the
anchor placement will be in accordance with the
4-19. 480-volt motor control centers switchgear manufacturer’s recommendation.
a. General arrangement. Motor control centers
(MCC’S) will utilize plug-in type circuit breakers and 4-21. Grounding
combination starters in either a front only or a back- A minimum 1/4-inch by 2-inch copper ground bus
to-back free standing construction, depending on will be incorporated within the lower rear of each
space limitations. Main bus, starters and breakers section of switchgear and MCC. Each ground bus .
will be braced to withstand a short circuit of 22 kA, will be connected to the station ground grid with
symmetrical. A power panel transformer and feeder two 4/0 stranded copper cables.
breaker, complete with a 120/208 volt power panel
and its own main breaker, may be built into the 4-22. Conduit and tray systems
MCC. a. Power cables. Power cables will generally be
b. Current limiting reactors. Dry type three phase run in galvanized rigid steel conduit to the motor
reactors, when necessary, will be located in a verti- and switchgear terminations, although a ladder
cal section of the MCC’s to reduce the available type galvanized steel cable tray system having ade-
short circuit at the 480-volt unit substations to 22 quate support may be used with conduit runouts
kA at the MCC’s. Each system will be investigated from trays to terminations.
to determine the necessity for these current limiting b. Control cables. Control cables will be run in an
reactors; cable reactance will play an important part expanded metal galvanized steel overhead tray sys-
in determining the necessity for reactors. tem wherever possible. Adequate support will be
c. Location. The several motor control centers provided to avoid sagging. Exit from the tray will
will be strategically located in the power plant to be via rigid steel conduit.
serve most of the plant auxiliary motor loads, light- c. Grounding. Every cable tray length (i.e., each
ing transformers, motor operated devices, welding construction section) will be grounded by bolting to
4-21
TM 5-811-6
Type 1:
General purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A sheet metal case designed primarily
to protect against accidental contact
with the control mechanism.
Type 1:
Gasketed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The general purpose enclosure with
gasketed door or cover.
Type 2:
Drip tight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Similar to Type 1 with the addition of
drip shields or the equivalent.
Type 3:
Weather-resistant ............ Designed to provide protection against
weather hazards such as rain and sleet.
Type 4:
Watertight ................... Designed to meet the hose test described
in NEMA Definition lC-1.2.6B.
Type 7:
Hazardous locations, Class 1,
Air break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 9: Enclosures designed to meet the application
Hazardous locations, Class 2, requirements of the NEC for the indicated
Groups F & G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . specific classes of hazardous locations.
Type 9-C:
Hazardous locations, Class 2,
Group E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 12:
Industrial use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A sheet metal case designed with welded
corners and no knockouts to meet the
Joint Industry Conference standards for
use where it is desired to exclude dust,
l i n t , fibers and fillings, and oil or
coolant seepage.
a stranded bare copper ground cable which will be 4-23. Distribution outside the power
run throughout the tray system. The tray cable it- plant
self will be tapped to the plant ground grid at each Electrical distribution system for the installation
building column. Basic tray cable will be 4/0 bare outside of the power plant is covered in TM
stranded copper with connections to station taps of 5-811-11AFM88-9.
minimum 2/0 copper.
4-22
TM 5-811-6
4-24. Battery and charger ously. To assure, however, that the manufacturer of
a. General requirements. The dc system, consist- all dc operated devices is aware of the source of dc
ing of a station battery, chargers and dc distribution system voltage, the various equipment specifica-
panels, provides a continuous and reliable source of tions will advise that the nominal system voltage
dc control voltage for system protection during nor- will be 125 volts but will have an equalizing charge
mal operation and for emergency shutdown of the applied periodically.
power plant. Battery will be nominal 125 volts, (2) Appurtenances. The following instruments
mounted on wooden racks or metal racks with PVC and devices will be supplied for each charger:
covers on the metal supporting surfaces. Lead calci- (a) Relay to recognize loss of ac supply.
urn cells having pasted plates Plante or other suit- (b) Ac voltage with selector switch.
able cells will be considered for use. (c) Dc ground detection system with test de-
b. Duty cycle. Required capacity will be calcu- vice.
lated on an 8-hour duty cycle basis taking into ac- (d) Relay to recognize loss of dc output.
count all normal and emergency loads. The duty (e) Relay to alarm on high dc voltage.
cycle will meet the requirements of the steam gen- (f) Relay to alarm on low dc voltage.
erator burner control system, emergency cooling (g) Dc voltmeter.
systems, control benchboard, relays and instrument (h) Dc ammeter with shunt.
panels, emergency lighting system, and all close/trip d. Battery room. Only the battery will be located
functions of the medium voltage and 480-volt cir- in a ventilated battery room, which will be in accord-
cuit breaker systems. In addition, the following ance with TM 5-811-2. The chargers maybe wall or
emergency functions shall be included in the duty floor mounted, together with the main dc distribu-
cycle: tion panel, immediately outside the battery room.
(1) Simultaneously close all normally open e. DC distribution panel. The distribution panel
breakers and trip 40 percent of all normally closed will utilize molded case circuit breakers or fuses se-
breakers during the first minute of the duty cycle; lected to coordinate with dc breakers furnished in
during the last minute, simultaneously trip all main control panels and switchgear. The breakers will be
and tie breakers on the medium voltage system. equipped with thermal magnetic trip devices, and
(2) One hour (first hour) running of the turbine for 20 kA dc interrupting rating.
generator emergency lube oil pump motor and, for
hydrogen cooled units, 3-hour running of the emer- 4-25. Emergency ac system
gency seal oil pump motor. Those portions of the station service load that must
(3) One hour (first hour) running of the backup be operable for a safe shutdown of the unit, or that
turning gear motor, if applicable. are required for protection of the unit during shut-
c. Battery chargers. down, will be fed from a separate 480-volt unit
(1) Two chargers capable of maintaining a 2.17 emergency power bus. A suitable emergency diesel
the proper float and equalizing voltage on the bat- engine driven generator will be installed and ar-
tery will be provided. Each charger will be capable ranged to start automatically and carry these loads
of restoring the station battery to full charge in 12 if the normal source of power to this bus is lost. The
hours after emergency service discharge. Also, each loads fed from this bus might include such things as
unit will be capable of meeting 50 percent of the to- emergency lighting, communication system, bat-
tal dc demand including charging current taken by tery charger, boiler control system, burner control
the discharged battery during normal conditions. system, control boards, annunciator, recorders and
Note: Equalizing voltage application will subject instrumentation. Design of these systems will pro-
coils and indicating lamps to voltages above the vide for them to return to operation after a brief
nominal 125-volt dc system level. These devices, power outage.
however, will accept 20 percent overvoltage continu-
4-23
TM 5-811-6
4-24
TM 5-811-6
(3) Outdoor handsets will be hook switch area configuration but a handset will be readily
mounted in a weatherproof enclosure having a available to any operator performing an operating
hinged door. They will be mounted on the switch- function.
yard structure or other structure five feet above d. Speakers.
final grade. (1) Speakers for general indoor use will be of
(4) Flexible coil spring type cords will be sup- relatively small trumpet type and will be weather-
plied with each handset to permit freedom of move- proof for durability. They will be mounted on build-
ment by the caller. In the control room provide extra ing columns about 10 feet above floor level with
long cords. The spacing depends upon the operating spacing as indicated in Table 4-2.
Table 4-2. Suggested Locations for Intraplant Communication Systems Devices.
For Speakers Handsets
Fuel oil unloading Minimum two speakers on One handset near pump area
area (or coal handl- structures (one inside (one handset inside grade
ing area) crusher house). door or crusher house).
Gate house (if power Speaker on outside of One handset outside fence,
plant area is fenced) gate house. at personnel or vehicle
gate.
4-25
TM 5-811-6
(2) Speakers for outdoor use will be large It is not necessary to have a speaker and a handset
trumpet type, weatherproof. They will be mounted mounted near to one another. Speakers will be posi-
on the switchyard structure or other structure tioned to provide “page” coverage; handsets will be
about 15 feet above final finished grade. placed for convenience of access. For example, a
(3) In the control room, two flush mounted speaker may be mounted outdoors to cover a tank
speakers will be installed in the ceiling. A wall area, while the nearest handset may be conveniently
mounted speaker in wooden enclosure will be pro- located immediately inside the plant or auxiliary
vided for the plant superintendent’s office, training building adjacent to the door giving access to the
room or other similar location. tanks.
e. Power supply. g. Suggested device locations. Table 4-2 shows
(1) Power supply will be 120 Vat, 60 Hz, single suggested locations for the various intraplant com-
phase as supplied from the emergency power sup- munication systems devices.
ply. The single phase conductors will be run in their
own conduit system. It is vital to have the plant 4-34. Telephone communications
communication system operable under all normal At least one normal telephone desk set will be pro-
and emergency conditions. vided in the central control room for contact by the
(2) The manufacturer will be consulted regard- operators with the outside world and for contact
ing type of power supply cable, as well as type, with the utility company in the event of parallel
shielding, and routing of the communication pair operation. For those instances when the power plant
conductors. is connected into a power pool grid, a direct tele-
f. Device locations, general. Proper selection and phone connection between the control room and the
planning for location of components is necessary to pool or connected utility dispatcher will also be pro-
ensure adequate coverage. Alignment of speakers is vided.
important so as to avoid interference and feedback.
TM 5-811-6
CHAPTER 5
5-1. General unit. Coal handling, ash handling and water treating
●
Input adjustments will be designed to be delegated panels will not be located in the central control room
to automatic control systems except during startup, unless the plant is small and the operating crew may
shutdown, and abnormal operating conditions when be reduced by such additional centralizing. If the
the operator. displaces or overrides automatic con- plant has a header system which is not conducive to
✎
trol functions. boiler-turbine panels, group controls and instru-
ments into a boiler panel for all boilers and a turbine
5-2. Control panels generator panel for all turbines whenever practic-
✎ ✎ a. Types and selection. able. Usually, a separate electrical panel with mimic
(1) General types. Control panels used in power bus for the generators and switchgear and switch-
plants may be free standing or mounted on a wall or yard, if applicable, will be provided regardless of
column, as appropriate. whether the mechanical instruments are grouped on
(2) Central control panel selection. Control a unit basis or a header basis.
panels for use in central control rooms will be en- (2) Local panels. These will be mounted as close
closed and of the dual switchboard, duplex switch- to the equipment (or process) they are controlling as
board, dual benchboard, control benchboard, or con- is practical.
trol desk type depending upon the size of the plant c. Instrument selection and arrangement on
and complexity of the instruments and controls to panels. Selection and arrangement of the various
be mounted. When control panels have complex wir- controls, instruments and devices on the panels will
ing (piping and devices mounted in the interior) the be generally in accordance with the guidelines of
vertical panel section will be provided with rear or Tables 5-1,5 -2,5-3 and 5-4, and the following
walk-in access for ease in erection and maintenance. (1) Items. Mechanical items will be grouped by
Frequently the floor of the walk-in space is dropped basic function (i.e., turbine, boiler, condensate, feed-
.2 or 3 feet below the raised control room floor to sim- water, circulating water, service water and like sys-
plify cable and tubing entrance to the panel interior tems), Burner management controls will be obtained
and to increase space for terminals. A dropped floor as an “insert” or subpanel which can be incorporat-
will be provided for proper access to any benchboard ed into the boiler grouping of controls and instru-
section of a panel. The shape of the panel will be se- ments. Such an insert may include remote lightoff
. lected using the following criteria: and startup of burners if desired. Electrical items
(a) Space availability in the control room. will be grouped by generator, voltage regulator,
(b) Number of controls and instruments to be switchgear and like equipment items in a manner
mounted. which is easily incorporated into a mimic bus.
(c) Visibility of the controls and instruments (2) Readability. Instruments which require
by the plant operators. operator observation will be located not higher than
(d) Grouping and interrelationship of the con- 6 1/2 feet nor lower than 3 feet above the floor for
trols and instruments for ease of operation and easy readability.
avoidance of operating error. (3) Controls, switches and devices. Those con-
b. Location of panels. trols, switches and other devices which require
(1) Control room. The various panels located in manipulation by the operators will be easily access-
the central control room will be arranged to mini- ible and will be located on a bench or desk wherever
mize operator wasted motion. In a unitized power practicable.
plant (one without a header system), provide a (4) Indicators versus recorders. Indicators will
boiler-turbine mechanical panel (or section) for each be provided where an instantaneous reading of cycle
‘ unit with separate common panel(s) to accommodate thermodynamic or physical parameters suffices as a
compressed air, circulating water, service water and check of proper system operation. When a perma-
like system which may pertain to more than one nent record of plant parameters is desired for eco-
5-1
TM 5-811-6
Table 5-1. List of Typical Instruments and Devices to be Provided for Boiler Turbine Mechanical Panel
Notes: (1) Including FD fan discharge, air inlet & outlet to air preheater,
windbox, furnace draft, inlet & outlet to economizer, gas inlet
and outlet to air preheater, overfire or primary air pressure,
and ID fan discharge.
(2) Multi-point electronic type to track air and gas temperatures
through the unit.
(3) May be used for combustion controls instead of steam flow-air
flow.
(4) Usually in condensate system, boiler feed system and process
returns.
5-2
TM 5-311-6
Table 5-1. List of Typical Instruments and Devices to be Provided for Boiler Turbine Mechanical Panel. (Continued)
Measurement Primary Element Instrument or
or Device Fluid Location Device on Panel
Courtesy of Pope,
5-3
TM 5-811-6
Table 5-2. List of Typical Instruments and Devices to be Provided for Common Services Mechanical Panel
5-4
TM 5-811-6
Table 6-2, List of Typical Instruments and Devices to be provided for Common Services Mechanical Panel. (Continued)
Measurement Primary Element Instrument or
or Device Fluid Location Device on Panel
5-5
TM 5-811-6
Table 5-3. List of Typical Instruments and Devices to be Provided for Electrical (Generator and Switchgear) Panel
Measurement Instrument or
or Device Device on Panel Notes
5-6
TM 5-811-6
Table 5-3. List of Typical Instruments and Devices to be Provided for Electrical (Generator and Switchgear) Panel. (Continued)
Measurement Instrument or
or Device Device on Panel Notes
For Switchgear
5-7
TM 5-811-6
Table 5-4. List of Typical Instruments and Devices to be Provided for Diesel Mechanical Panel
5-8
TM 5-811-6
c. Feedwater regulation. A three element feed- the deaerator at low loads for protection against
water regulator system will be provided for steam boiler feed pump overheating. A flow signal from
power plant service. Such a system balances feed- the suction of each pump will be used to sense the
water input to steam output subject to correction preset minimum safe pump flow. This low flow sig-
for drum level deviations caused by operating pres- nal will open an automatic recirculation valve lo-
sure variations (drum swell). cated in the piping run from the pump discharge to
d. Attemperator control system. Each power the deaerator. This recirculation line poses mini-
plant steam generator will have superheat (attem- mum flow through a breakdown orifice for pressure
perator) controls to maintain superheat within the reduction to the deaerator. The breakdown orifice
limits required for protection of the turbine metal will be located as closely as possible to the deaerator
parts against thermal stress and for preventing because flashing occurs downstream. When pump
excessive reduction in part load turbine efficiency. suction flow increases to a preselected amount in ex-
Injection of desuperheating water (which must be cess of pump minimum flow, the recirculation valve
high purity water, such as condensate) will be done closes. The operator will be able to open the recir-
between stages of the boiler superheater to reduce culation valve manually with a selector switch on
chances of water carryover to the turbine. An at- the control panel. Designs will be such as to pre-
temperator system having a controller with a fast clude accidental closing of the valve manually. Such
response, derivative feature will be provided. This an operator error could cause flow to drop below the
type of controller anticipates the magnitude of sys- safe level quickly, destroying high pressure pumps.
tem deviations from the control set point in accord- g. Other control systems. Desuperheating, pres-
ance with the rate of change of superheat temperat- sure reducing, fuel oil heating, and other miscellane-
ure. Automatic positive shutoff valve(s) will be pro- ous power plant control systems will be provided as
vided in the desuperheating water supply line up- appropriate. Direct acting valves will not be used.
stream of the desuperheater control valve to prevent Control valves will be equipped with a matching
dribbling of water to the desuperheater when the valve operator for positive opening and closing ac-
controls are not calling for spray water. tion. Deaerator and hotwell level control systems
e. Closed heater drain controls. Although it is are described in Chapter 3, Section VII.
thermodynamically preferable to pump the drains
from each feedwater heater forward into the conden- 5-4. Monitoring instruments
sate or feedwater stream exiting from the heater, a. Types.
the expense and general unreliability of the low (1) Control system components will include
NPSH pumps required for this type of drain service sensing devices for primary fluids plus transmitters,
will normally preclude such a design. Accordingly, transducers, relays, controllers, manual-automatic
the drains from each heater will normally be cas- stations, and various special devices. Table 5-5 lists
caded to the next lower pressure heater through a sensing elements for controls and instruments. In-
level control valve. The valve will be located as struments generally fall into two classifications—di-
closely as possible to the lower pressure heater due rect reading and remote reading.
to the flashing which occurs because of the pressure (2) Direct reading instruments (e.g., thermome-
reduction at the outlet of the level control valve. ters, pressure gages, and manometers) will be
Each heater will be provided with two level control mounted on local panels, or directly on the process
valves. The secondary valve only functions on piping or equipment if at an accessible location.
startup, on malfunction of the normal valve, or Locally mounted thermometers will be of the con-
sometimes during light loads when pressure differ- ventional mercury type or of the more easily read
ential between heaters being cascaded becomes very (but less accurate) dial type. Type selected will de-
small. The secondary valve frequently discharges pend on accuracy required. Pressure gages for steam
directly to the condenser. Such a complexity of con- or water service will be of the Bourdon tube type.
trols for heater drains is necessary to assist in pre- (3) Remote reading instruments (recorders, in-
venting problems and turbine damage caused by tegrators, indicators and electrical meters) will be
turbine water induction. Water induction occurs mounted on panels in the central control room.
when feedwater header tubes or level control valves These instruments will have pneumatic or electronic
fail, causing water to backup into the turbine transmission circuits. Sometimes the same trans-
through the extraction steam piping. Refer to mitters utilized for control system service can be
Chapter 3, Section VII. utilized for the pertinent remote reading instru-
f. Boiler feed recirculation controls. An automatic ment, although for vital services, such as drum
recirculation system will be installed for each pump level, an independent level transmitter will be used
to bypass a minimum amount of feedwater back to for the remote level indicator.
5-9
.
Table 5-5. Sensing Elements for Controls and Instruments. (Continued)
Common Applications
Element Type Control Instrument
Variable electric Pressure transducer Process pressure Potentiom. 100 to 50,000 psi
resistance due to regulator
strain
(4) Panel
mounted receiver gages for pressure, audibly and visually when trouble occurs so that
temperature, level and draft will be of the miniature, proper steps can be taken to correct the problem.
vertical indicating type which can be arranged in b. General. The alarm system will be both audible
convenient lineups lineups on the panel and are easy and visual. The sounding of the alarm will alert the
to read. operators that a problem exists and the visual light
(5) Recorders will be of the miniature type, ex- in the pertinent annunciator window will identify
cept for multi-point electronic dot printing recorders the problem. Annunciator systems shall provide for
which will be full size. the visual display to be distinguishable between
b. Selection. The monitoring instruments for any new alarms and previous alarms already acknowl-
control system will be selected to provide the neces- edged by the operator pushing a button provided for
sary information required for the control room this purpose. New alarms will be signified by a flash-
operator to be informed at all times on how the con- ing light, whereas acknowledged alarms will be sig-
trolled system is functioning, on vital process nified by a steady light. Alarm windows will be ar-
trends, and on other essential information so that ranged and grouped on vertical, upper panel sec-
corrective action can be taken as required. tions with corresponding control stations and
operating switches within easy reach of the operator
5-5. Alarm and annunciator systems at all times. Critical or potentially dangerous alarms
a. Purpose. The annunciator system supplements will be a different color from standard alarms for
the operator’s physical senses and notifies him both rapid operator identification and response.
5-14
TM 5-811-6
(1) Toilets will be exhausted to maintain a nega- of other systems to prevent recirculation of food
tive pressure relative to adjacent areas. All exhaust odors to other spaces.
outlets from a toilet will be a minimum of 15 feet b. Shops and maintenance rooms. All shops and
from any supply inlet to prevent short circuiting of maintenance rooms will be ventilated according to
air. Toilet exhaust will be combined with a locker applicable codes. Welding and painting areas will be
room exhaust but not with any other exhaust. exhausted. Heating will be provided by means of
unit heaters sized to maintain a maximum of 68 “F.
(2) Locker rooms will be exhausted according to on the coldest winter design day.
the applicable codes and supplied by a heated air c. Offices and laboratories. All offices and labora-
supply. tories will be air conditioned for human comfort in
(3) Lunch rooms will be furnished with recircu- accordance with TM 5-810-l/AFM 88-8/1. Ex-
lation heating systems to meet applicable codes; ex- haust will be provided where required for laboratory
haust will be installed. System will be independent hoods or other special purposes.
5-15
I
24-30
TM 5-811-6
Table 5-6. Piping Codes and Standards for Power Plants. (Continued)
5-17
0.64 0.68
-- --
-- --
installation. For large areas or long piping runs, sub- ing outside air into power plants and HVAC sys-
stantial savings may be realized by factory forming, tems.
cutting or covering. Valves and pipe fittings, espe- b. Criteria. In most cases, cold surface insulations
cially large ones, may be economically insulated will be selected to prevent icing or condensation. Ex-
with factory made prefabricated shapes. Equipment tra insulation thickness is not normally economical
requiring periodic servicing will be equipped with re- for heat absorption control.
movable, reusable insulation.
e. Miscellaneous materials. Complete insulation 5-18. Economic thickness
systems include accessory materials such as fasten- a. General. Economic thickness of an insulation
ers, adhesives, reinforcing wire meshes and screens, material (ETI) is a calculated parameter in which
bandings and binder wires, coverings or laggings, the owning costs of greater or lesser thicknesses are
.. and finishes. All insulations will be sealed or closed compared with the relative values of heat energy
at joints and should be arranged to accommodate which might be saved by such various thicknesses.
differential expansions between piping or metal The method is applicable only to systems which are
structures and insulations. installed to save useful heat (or refrigeration) and
f. Cold surface materials. Cold surface insulation does not apply to safety insulation or anti-sweat
materials will be selected primarily for high resis- (condensation) materials.
tance to moisture penetration and damage, and for b. Economic criteria. The general principle of ETI
avoidance of corrosion where wet insulation materi- calculations is that the most economical thickness
als may contact metal surfaces. Foamed plastics or of a group or set of thicknesses is that one for which
rubber and cellular (or foamed) glass materials will the annual sum of owning costs and heat loss costs
be used wherever practicable. is a minimum. Generally, thicker insulations will
represent higher owning costs and lower heat loss
5-15. Control of useful heat losses costs. The range of thicknesses selected for calcula-
a. General. Control of losses of useful heat is the tion will indicate at least one uneconomical thick-
most important function of insulations. Substantial ness on each side of the indicated ETI. Refer to Fig
investments for thermal insulation warrants careful ure 5-1 for a generalized plot of an ETI solution.
selection and design. c. Required data. The calculations of ETI for a
b. Durability and deterioration. Most convention- particular insulation application involves routine
al insulating materials are relatively soft and fragile calculations of costs for a group of different thick-
and are subject to progressive deterioration and loss nesses. While calculations are readily performed by
of effectiveness with the passage of time. Insulation computers, the required input data are relatively
assemblies which must be removed for maintenance complex and will include energy or fuel prices with
or which are subject to frequent contact with tools, allowance for future changes, relative values of par-
operating equipment and personnel, or are subject ticular heat sources or losses, depreciation and
to shock or vibration, will be designed for maximum money cost rates, costs of complete installed insula-
resistance to these forces. tion systems, conductivities, temperatures, air
velocities and operating hours. Standard programs
5-16. Safety insulation are available for routine calculations but must be
,
a. General Insulation for personnel protection or used with care. The most uncertain data will be the
safety purposes will be used to cover dangerously installed costs of alternative insulation systems and
hot surfaces to avoid accidental contact, where heat thicknesses. Assumptions and estimates of such
loss is not itself an important criteria. costs will be as accurate as possible. Refer to the
b. General safety criteria. Safety or burn protec- publications and program systems of the Thermal
tion insulations will be selected to insure that out- Insulation Manufacturers Association (TIMA) and
side insulation surfaces do not exceed a reasonably of leading insulation manufacturers.
safe maximum, such as 140 “F.
c. Other criteria Close fitting or sealing of safety 5-19. Freeze protection
insulation is not required. Metal jacketing will be a. Application. Freeze protection systems are
avoided due to its high conductivity in contact with combinations of insulation and heat source materi-
the human body. als arranged to supply heat to exposed piping or
equipment to prevent freezing in cold weather.
5-17. Cold surface insulation b. Insulaztion materials. Conventional insulation
a. Applications. Insulations for cold surfaces will materials will be used and selected for general heat
be applied to refrigeration equipment, piping and loss control purposes in addition to freeze protec-
ductwork, cold water piping, and to air ducts bring- tion. Insulation will be such as not to be damaged by
5-21
TM 5-811-6
the heat source or by extended exposure to weather erally be used to supply the correct heat flow to the
and moisture. protected surface. Steam and ho water tracing may
c. Design criteria. In general, the insulation for a also be used with provisions to avoid loss of steam
freeze protection system will be selected for maxi- or water. In either case, the required heat supply
mum overall coldest ambient temperatures. Allow- will be sufficient to meet the heat loss of the insula-
ance for wind conditions will be made. tion under the combination of design ambient and
d. Heat sources. Electrical heating tape will gen- pipe line surface temperature.
5-21. Introduction lar type of fire which can occur in the station. This
Fire protection will be provided in order to safe- manual discusses various fire protection systems
guard the equipment and personnel. Various sys- and their general application in power plants. Refer-
tems will be installed as required to suit the particu- ence will be made to TM 5-812-1 for specific re-
5-22
TM 5-811-6
quirements for military installations. Further de- elements have been opened by the heat from a fire.
tails may be found in the National Fire Protection This system will be utilized for the turbine and gen-
Association (NFPA) Codes and Standards. erator bearings and for the above water spray de-
luge sprinkler system areas where more localized
5-22. Design considerations control is desired.
a. Areas and equipment to be protected. The fol- (3) Wet pipe sprinkler systems. This wet pipe
lowing are some of the major areas which will be in- system utilizes a water filled piping system connect-
vestigated to determine the need for installing fire ed to a water supply and is equipped with sprinklers
protection facilities. having fixed temperature elements which each open
(1) Main and auxiliary transformers. individually when exposed to a high temperature
(2) Turbine lubricating oil system including the due to a fire. The areas where wet pipe sprinkler sys-
oil reservoir, oil, cooler, storage tanks, pumps and tems will be used are heated shops, garages, ware-
the turbine and generator bearings. houses, laboratories, offices, record rooms, locker
(3) Generator hydrogen cooling system includ- rooms, lunch rooms and toilets.
ing control panels, seal oil unit, hydrogen bottles (4) Foam extinguishing systems. Foam fire ex-
and the purification unit. tinguishing systems utilize a foam producing solu-
(4) Coal storage bunkers, fuel oil storage tanks tion which is distributed by pipes equipped with
and the burner front of the steam generator. spray nozzles or a fuel tank foam entry chamber for
(5) Emergency diesel generator and its oil stor- discharging the foam and spreading it over the area
age tank. to be protected. It is principally used to form a co-
(6) Office and records rooms. herent floating blanket over flammable and com-
(7) Control room. bustible liquids which extinguish (or prevent) a fire
(8) Relay, computer, switchgear and battery by excluding air and cooling the fuel. The foam is
rooms. usually generated by mixing proportionate amounts
(9) Shops, warehouses, garages and laborato- of 3% double strength, low expansion standard
ries. foam concentrate using either a suitably arranged
(10) Personnel locker rooms, lunch rooms and induction device with (or without) a foam storage-
toilets. proportioning tank to mix the foam concentrate
b. Types of systems. The following is a brief de- with a water stream from a fire water header. A spe-
scription of the various types of systems and their cially designed hand play pipe, tank foam chamber
general application. or open sprinklers aspirate the air to form the foam
(1) Water spray and deluge system. This type of to blanket the area to be protected. The deluge wa-
system consists of open type sprinkler heads at- ter entry valve to the system may be manually or
tached to a network of dry (not water filled) piping automatically opened. Foam systems will be in-
which is automatically controlled by a fully super- stalled in power plants to protect fuel oil areas,
vised fire detection system which also serves as a lubricating oil systems, and hydrogen seal oil sys-
fire alarm system. When a fire is detected, an auto- tems.
matic deluge valve is tripped open, admitting water (5) Carbon dioxide extinguishing systems. This
to the system to discharge through all of the sprink- type of system usually consists of a truck filled low
ler heads. The system may be subdivided into sepa- pressure refrigerated liquid carbon dioxide storage
rately controlled headers, depending on the area to tank with temperature sensing controls to permit
be covered and the number of sprinkler heads re- the automatic injection of permanently pipe carbon
quired. The usual pressure required at the sprinkler dioxide into areas to be protected. The system
heads is about 175 psi and the piping should be usually includes warning alarms to alert personnel
properly sized accordingly. A water spray deluge whenever carbon dioxide is being injected into an ac-
sprinkler system will be provided where required in tuated area. Carbon dioxide extinguishing systems
open areas and areas requiring the protection of the of this total flooding type will be utilized to extin-
piping from freezing, such as the steam generator guish coal bunker fires and for electrical hazard
burner fronts; the generator hydrogen system; the areas such as in battery rooms, electrical relay
main and auxiliary transformers; and unheated rooms, switchgear rooms, computer rooms and with-
shops, garages, warehouses and laboratories. in electrical cabinets.
(2) Water spray pre-action and deluge system. (6) Halogenated fire extinguishing systems.
This type of system is similar to the above water This type of system utilizes specially designed re-
spray deluge system, except that it contains closed movable and rechargeable storage containers con-
type sprinkler heads which only discharges water taining liquid HaIon at ambient temperature which
through those sprinklers whose fixed temperature is superpressurized with dry nitrogen up to 600 psig
5-23
TM 5-811-6
pressure. These manifolded containers are located actuated; however, some special conditions may re-
as closely as possible to the hazards they protect quire manual actuation on an alarm indication. A
and include connecting piping and discharge noz- manual actuation will be included to provide for
zles. There are two types of systems. The total flood- emergencies arising from the malfunction of an au-
ing system is arranged to discharge into, and fill to tomatic system. The primary element of any fire
the proper concentration, an enclosed space or an en- protection system is the fire detection sensing de-
closure about the hazard. The local application sys- vice which is actuated by heat detectors which de-
tem is arranged to discharge directly onto the burn- tect abnormally high temperature or rate-of-tem-
ing material. Either system may be arranged to pro- perature rise, or smoke detectors which are sensitive
tect one or more hazards or groups of hazards by so to the visible or invisible particles of combustion.
arranging the piping and valves and may be manual- The ionization type of smoke detector belongs in
ly or automatically actuated. Halon is a colorless this category.
and odorless gas with a density of approximately
five times that of air, and these systems must in- 5-23. Support facilities
clude warning alarms to alert personnel whenever To support the fire protection water systems, an as-
the gas is being ejected. However, personnel maybe sured supply of water at an appropriate pressure is
exposed to Halon vapors in low concentrations for necessary. This water supply will be provided from
brief periods without serious risk. The principal ap- an underground fire water hydrant system main if
plication of Halon extinguishing systems is where one is available in the area and/or by means of an ele-
an electrically nonconductive medium is essential or vated head storage tank or by fire pumps which take
desired or where the cleanup of other media presents their suction from a low level storage tank. For
a problem, such as in control rooms, computer cases where the water supply pressure is inadequate
rooms, chemical laboratories and within electrical to fill the tank, fill pumps will be provided. Fire
panels. pumps will be electric motor driven, except that at
c. Automatic fire detectors. All fire protection least one should be of the engine driven or of the
systems will normally be automatically alarmed and dual drive type.
5-24
TM5-811-6
CHAPTER 6
6-1
TM 5-811-6
considerable control. Increases in the inlet air fric- sembled into three or more skid mounted modules,
tion cause a significant reduction in power output. each with its own weatherproof housing the sepa-
The total inlet pressure loss will not exceed 2 inches rate modules have wiring splits, piping connections,
of water and will be as close to zero as space limita- and housing flanges arranged so that the modules
tions and economics will permit. Additional duct- may be quickly assembled into a unit on a reinforced
work costs will be quickly amortized by operating concrete pad in the field. Supplementing these main
fuel savings. Dust, rain, sand and snow will be pre- modules are the inlet and exhaust ducts, inlet si-
vented from entering the combustion air inlet of the lencer and filters, exhaust silencer, fuel tanks, unit
engine. Inlet air filter design will preclude entrance fuel skid, and unit auxiliary transformer which are
of these contaminants with minimal pressure loss. connected by piping and cables to the main as-
The air inlet will be located to preclude ingestion of sembly after placing on separate foundation as
combustion products from other turbines or a near- may be required.
by boiler plant, or hot, humid discharge from any (b) The other outdoor sub-type is a similar
cooling towers. package unit except that the weatherproof housing
e. Outlet losses. Outlet friction losses also result is shipped knocked down and is, in effect, a prefabri-
in a decrease of turbine-generator output and will be cated building for quick field assembly into a clo-
accounted for in the unit design. The major factor in sure for the main power plant components.
outlet losses is the requirement to attenuate noise. (c) Outdoor units to be provided with all com-
More effective silencers typically have higher pres- ponents, auxiliaries and controls assembled in all-
sure losses. Exhaust back pressure has a smaller weather metal enclosures and furnished complete
overall effect on performance than inlet losses but for operation will be specified for Class “B” and “C”
will be kept as low as possible, and will be less than power plants having a 5-year anticipated life and re-
6 inches of water. Since increasing exhaust silencer quiring not more than four generating units.
size costs considerably more than ductwork design (2) Indoor. An indoor type unit will have the
improvements, the return on investment for a low compressor-turbine-generator mounted at grade
pressure loss exhaust is significantly longer. floor level of the building on a pad, or possibly
raised above or lowered below grade floor level to
6-3. Fuels provide space for installation of ducts, piping and
Each manufacturer has his own specification on fuel cabling. Inlet and exhaust ducts will be routed to
acceptable for his turbine. The high grade liquid the outside through the side wall or the roof; the side
fuels such as Diesel No. 1 or 2 and JP-4 or JP-5 will wall is usually preferable for this so that the turbine
likely be acceptable to all manufacturers. Use of room crane can have full longitudinal travel in the
heavier oils is possible with a specially designed tur- turbine generator bay. Filters and silencers may be
bine. The heavy oil will have to be cleaned up to re- inside or outside. All heat rejection equipment will
duce corrosive salts of sodium, potassium, vana- be mounted outside while fuel oil skids may be in-
dium, and sulfur–all of which will elevate the cost side or outside. Unit and distribution switchgear
of the fuel. Storage and handling at the site will also and motor control centers will be indoors as in a con-
be more costly, particularly if a heavy oil such as ventional steam power plant. Figure 6-1 shows a
No. 6 was involved because of the heating require- typical indoor unit installation with the prime mov-
ment. No. 4 oil will increase transfer pumping costs er mounted below grade floor level.
a bit but, except in extremely cold regions, would
not require heating. 6-5. Waste heat recovery
Waste heat recovery will be used wherever cost ef-
6-4. Plant arrangement fective. If the turbine unit is to be used only inter-
a. General. Turbine generator units are frequent- mittently, the capital cost of heat recovery must be
ly sold as complete packages which include all com- kept down in order to be considered at all. Add-on or
ponents necessary to operate, ready for connection sidestream coils might provide a temporary hot
to the fuel supply and electrical distribution system. water supply for the period of operation—for one ex-
This presents the advantages of faster lead time, ample. Care must be exercised due to the high ex-
well matched components and single point of perfor- haust gas temperature. It may prove feasible to
mance responsibility y. flash steam through the jacket of a small heat ex-
b. Outdoor vs. indoor. changer. In the event that a long term operation is
(1) Outdoor. Outdoor units can be divided into indicated, the cost trade off for heat recovery equip
two sub-types. ment is enchanced, but still must be considered as
(a) The package power plant unit is supplied an auxiliary system. It will take a sizable yearly
with the principal components of the unit factory as- load to justify an exhaust gas heat recovery boiler.
6-2
, TM 5-811-6
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Turbine efficiency loss due to back pressure is also a gas turbine power plant, including the generator,
factor to be considered. switchgear, switchyard, transformers, relays and
controls. Chapter 2 describes the pertinent civil fa-
6-6. Equipment and auxiliary systems cilities.
a. GeneraL The gas turbine package is a complete c. Scope. The scope of a package gas turbine gen-
power plant requiring only adequate site prepara- erator for purchase from the manufacturer will in-
tion, foundations, and support facilities including clude the following
fuel storage and forwarding system, distribution (1) Compressor and turbine with fuel and com-
switchgear, stepup transformer, and switchyard. If
bustion system, lube oil system, turning gear, gov-
the fuel to be fired is a residual oil, a fuel washing
ernor, and other auxiliaries and accessories.
and treating plant is also required.
‘L b. References. Chapter 4 sets forth guidelines for (2) Reduction gear.
the design of the electrical facilities required for a (3) Generator and excitation system.
6-3
TM 5-811-6
(4) AC auxiliary power system including (9) Unit fuel skid (may be purchased separately
switchgear and motor controls. if desired).
(5) DC power system including battery, charg- (10) Intake and exhaust ducts.
er, and inverter if required. (11) Intake air filters.
(6) External heat rejection equipment if re- (12) Acoustical treatment for intake and ex-
quired. haust ducts and for machinery.
(7) All mechanical and electrical controls. (13) Weatherproof housing option with appro-
(8) Diesel engine or electric motor starting sys- priate lighting, heating, ventilating, air condition-
tem. ing and fire protection systems.
6-4
CHAPTER 7
7-1
TM 5-811-6
7-3. General a waste heat boiler which can be used for space heat-
Balance of plant systems are those which must be ing, absorption refrigeration, or other useful pur-
provided and interfaced with a packaged diesel or pose. This boiler produces steam in parallel with the
diesel-generator set to provide an operational gener- vapor phase cooling system. The exhaust silencer
ating unit. attenuates exhaust gas pulsations (noise), arrests
sparks, and in some cases recovers waste heat. The
7-4. Cooling systems muffler design will provide the required sound at-
a. Water-to-water systems. Jacket water and lube tenuation with minimum pressure loss.
oil cooling heat exchangers are cooled by a sec- 7-6. Fuel storage and handling
ondary circulating water system. Normally, a recir-
a. Storage requirements.
culating system will be used. Heat is dissipated to
the atmosphere through an evaporative, mechan- (1) Aboveground fuel storage tanks with a mini-
ical-draft cooling tower. If the plant is located on or mum capacity for 30 days continuous operation will
near a body of water, once-through circulating water be provided for continuous and standby duty
will be evaluated. Bidders will be informed of the plants. Fuel storage shall be designed to the require-
type and source of secondary water used so heat ex- ments of NFPA 30. A tank with 3 day storage ca-
changers can be designed for their intended service. pacity will be provided for emergency duty plants.
b. Water-to-air systems. Water-to-air systems (2) For continuous duty plants, provide a day
will be restricted to small engines. If an integral tank for each engine. The tank will provide a 4-hour
(skid mounted) radiator is used, sufficient cooling storage capacity at maximum load. The tank will be
air will be provided. Outside air may be ducted to filled by automatic level controls and transfer
the radiator air inlet. Ductwork will be designed for pumps. Standby plants will be provided with day
minimum pressure loss. The cooling fan(s) will be tanks of sufficient capacity to permit manual filling
checked for adequate flow (cfm) and static pressure once per shift (10-hour capacity). No separate day
under the intended service. Air leaving the radiator tank is required for emergency plants.
normally goes to the engine room and is exhausted. b. Fuel handling. Provide unloading pumps if fuel
Cooling air inlets will be equipped with automatic is to be delivered by rail car or barge. Most fuel tank
dampers and bird screens. trucks are equipped with pumps. Provide transfer
pumps capable of filling the day tank in less than 1/2
7-5. Combustion air intake and exhaust hour when the engine is operating at maximum load.
systems Duplex pumps, valved so that one can operate while
the other is on standby, will be provided for reliabil-
a. Purpose. The functions of the intake and ex-
ity. Pipeline strainers and filters will be provided to
haust systems are to deliver clean combustion air to
protect the fuel pumps and engine injectors from
the engine and dispose of the exhaust quietly with
dirt. Strainers and filters will not pass particles larg-
the minimum loss of performance.
er than half the injector nozzle opening.
b. Intake. The air intake system usually consists
of air intake duct or pipe appropriately supported, a 7-7. Engine room ventilation
silencer, an air cleaner, and flexible connections as
About 8 percent of the heating value of the fuel con-
required. This arrangement permits location of area
sumed by the engine is radiated to the surrounding
of air intake beyond the immediate vicinity of the
air. It is essential that provision be made for re-
engine, provides for the reduction of noise from in-
moval of this heat. Engine room temperature rise
take air flow, and protects vital engine parts against
should be limited to 150F. For engines with wall
airborne impurities. The air intake will be designed
mounted or ducted radiators, radiator fans may be
to be short and direct and economically sized for
sufficient if adequate exhaust or air relief is pro-
minimum friction loss. The air filter will be designed
vided. If engines are equipped with water cooled
for the expected dust loading, simple maintenance,
heat exchangers, a separate ventilation system will
and low pressure drop. Oil bath or dry filter element
be provided. The approximate ventilation rate may
air cleaners will be provided. The air filter and si-
be determined by the following formula:
lencer may be combined.
1,000 x HP
c. Exhaust. The exhaust system consists of a
CFM =
muffler and connecting piping to the atmosphere T
with suitable expansion joints, insulation, and sup- where:
ports. In cogeneration plants, it also provides for HP = maximum engine horsepower
utilization of exhaust heat energy by incorporating T = allowable temperature rise, ‘F.
7-2
TM 5-811-6
Provision will be made to allow for reducing the air the engine room; however, jacket water cooling will
flow during the cooler months so as not to over-cool remain within recommended limits at all times.
7-3
TM 5-811-6
and economical. The engine bay will be high enough possible wiring between the switchgear and gener-
for a motorized, overheat traveling crane. The crane, ators. The switchgear may be enclosed in a separate
if economically feasible, will be sized for mainte- room or maybe a part of the main engine bay.
-
nance only. The switchgear will be located at the (4) A typical small two-unit diesel power plant
generator end of each unit, permitting the shortest arrangement is shown in Figure 7-1.
7-4
TM 5-811-6
CHAPTER 8
8-1
TM 5-811-6
usually less complex. Power plant controls must load decreases with load-following between shut-
take into account the simultaneous operation of gas down steps by any or both of the above methods.
turbine, boiler and steam turbine. (d) Installation of gas dampers to bypass
variable amounts of gas from turbine exhaust di-
8-4. Design approach rectly to atmosphere. With this method, gas turbine
exhaust and steam temperatures can be maintained
a. Operating differences. The following items while steam flow to steam turbine generator is de-
should be given consideration: creased as is the load. This has the added advantage
(1) Turndown. Gas turbine mass flows are fairly that if both atmospheric bypass and boiler dampers
constant, but exhaust temperature falls off rapidly are installed, the gas turbine can operate while the
as load is reduced. Therefore, decreasing amounts of steam turbine is down for maintenance. Also, if full
steam are generated in the waste heat boiler. Varia- fuel firing for the boiler is installed along with a
tions in gas turbine generator output affect the out- standby forced draft fan, steam can be produced
put from the steam turbine generator unless supple- from the boiler while the gas turbine is out for main-
mentary fuel is fired to adjust the temperature. Sup- tenance. This plan allows the greatest flexibility
plementary fuel firing, however, decreases combined when there is only one gas turbine-boiler-steam tur-
cycle efficiency because of the increased boiler stack bine train. It does introduce equipment and control
gas losses associated with the constant mass flow of complication and is more costly; and efficiency de-
the turbine. creases as greater quantities of exhaust gas are by
(2) Exhaust gas flows. For the same amount of passed to atmosphere.
steam produced, gas flows through a combined cycle (2) Boiler design.
boiler are always much higher than for a fuel fired (a) Waste heat boilers must be designed for
boiler. the greater gas flows and lower temperature differ-
(3) Feedwater temperatures. With a combined entials inherent in combined cycle operation. If a
cycle plan, no air preheater is needed for the boiler. standby forced draft fan is installed, the fan must be
Hence, the only way to reduce final stack gas exit carefully sized. Gas turbine full load flow rates need
temperature to a sufficiently low (efficient) level is not be maintained,
to absorb the heat in the feedwater with economizer (b) If the fuel to be fired, either in the gas tur-
recovery equipment. Inlet feedwater temperature bine or as supplementary fuel, is residual oil, bare
must be limited (usually to about 2500F) to do this. tubes should be used in the boiler with extended sur-
b. Approaches to specialized problems: face tubes used in the economizer only. This in-
(1) Load following. Methods of varying loads creases the boiler cost substantially but will pre-
for a combined cycle include: clude tube pass blockages. Soot blowers are required
(a) Varying amount of fuel to a gas turbine for heavy oil fired units.
will decrease efficiency quickly as output is reduced (3) Feedwater heating and affect on steam gen-
from full load because of the steep heat rate curve of erator design.
the gas turbine and the multiplying effect on the (a) Because of the requirement for relatively
steam turbine. Also, steam temperature can rapidly low temperature feedwater to the combined cycle
fall below the recommended limit for the steam tur- boiler, usually only one or two stages of feedwater
bine. heating are needed. In some cycles, separate econo-
(b) Some supplementary firing may be used mizer circuits in the steam generator are used to
for a combined cycle power plant full load. Supple- heat and deaerate feewater while reducing boiler
mentary firing is cut back as the load decreases; if exit gas to an efficient low level.
load decreases below combined output when supple- (b) For use in military installations, only co-
mentary firing is zero, fuel to the gas turbine is also generation combined cycles will be installed. A typi-
cut back. This will give somewhat less efficiency at cal cycle diagram is shown in Figure 8-1.
combined cycle full load and a best efficiency point (4) Combined cycle controls. There is a wide
at less than full load; i.e., at 100 percent waste heat variation in the controls required for a combined cy-
operation with full load on the gas turbine. cle unit which, of course, are dependent on the type
(c) Use of a multiple gas turbine coupled with of unit installed. Many manufacturers have de-
a waste heat boiler will give the widest load range veloped their own automated control systems to
with minimum efficiency penalty. Individual gas suit the standardized equipment array which they
turbine-waste heat units can be shut down as the have developed.
8-2
TM 5-811-6
8-3
TM 5-811-6
APPENDIX A
REFERENCES
Government Publications
Code of Federal Register Part 436: Federal Energy Management and Planning Program.
10 CFR 436A Subpart A: Methodology and Procedures for Life Cycle Cost Analysis.
Federal Specifications
VV-F-800 Fuel Oil, Diesel.
●✝ Department of Defense
DOD 4270.1-M Department of Defense Construction Manual Guide.
Army Regulations
AR 11-28 Economic Analysis and Program Evaluation for Resource Management.
Air Force Regulations
AFR 178-1 Economic Analysis and Program Evaluation for Resources Manage-
ment.
Military Specifications
MIL-T-5624L Turbine Fuel, Aviation, Grades JP-4 and JP-5.
MIL-F-16884C Fuel Oil, Diesel, Marine.
MIL-P-17552D Pump Units, Centrifugal, Water, Horizontal; General Service and Boiler
Feed: Electric Motor or Steam Turbine Driven.
Departments of the Army, Air Force and Navy
TM 5-803-5/NAVPAC P-960 Installation Design.
AFM 88-43
TM 5-805-41AFM 88-371 Noise Control for Mechanical Equipment.
NAVFAC DM-3.1O
TM 5-805-91AFM 88-201 Power Plant Acoustics.
NAVFAC DM-3.14
TM 5-815-l/AFR 19-6/ Air Pollution Control Systems for Boilers and Incinerators.
NAVFAC DM-3.15
Departments of the Army and Air Force
TM 5-810-l/AFM 88-8, Mechanical Design - Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning.
Chap. 1
TM 5-811 -l/AFM 88-9, Electrical Power Supply and Distribution.
Chap, 1
TM 5-811-2/AFM 88-9, Electrical Design, Interior Electrical System.
Chap. 2
TM 5-818-2/AFM 88-6, Pavement Design for Frost Conditions.
Chap. 4
TM 5-822-2/AFM 88-7, General Provisions and Geometric Design for Roads, Streets, Walks, and
Chap. 5 Open Storage Areas.
TM 5-822-41AFM 88-7, Soil Stabilization for Roads and Streets.
Chap. 4
TM 5-822-5/AFM 88-7, Flexible Pavements for Roads, Streets, Walks and Open Storage Areas.
Chap, 3
A-1
TM 5-811-6
TM 5-822-6/AFM 88-7, Rigid Pavements for Roads, Streets, Walks and Open Storage Areas.
Chap. 1
TM 5-822-7/AFM 88-7, Standard Practice for Concrete Pavements.
Chap. 8
Department of the Army
TM 5-785 Engineering Weather Data.
TM 5-822-8 Bituminous Pavements - Standard Practice.
Non-Government Publications
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 1430 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10018
B31.1 Code for Pressure Piping - Power Piping.
C5O.1O General Requirements for Synchronous Machines.
C50.13 Requirements for Cylindrical Rotor Synchronous Generators.
C50.14 Requirements for Combustion Gas Turbine Cylindrical Rotor Syn-
chronous Generators.
C57.12.1O Requirements for Transformers, 230,000 Volts and Below, 833/958
Through 8,333/10,417 kVA, Single-Phase, and 750/862 Through
60,000/80,000/100,000 kVA, Three-Phase.
C84.1 Voltage Ratings for Electrical Power Systems and Equipment.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017
ASME Code ASME Boiler and Pressure Code: Section I, Power Boilers; Section II,
Material Specifications; Section VIII, Pressure Vessels; Section
IX, Welding and Brazing Qualifications.
ASME TWDPS-1 Recommended Practices of Water Damage to Steam Turbines Used for
Electric Power Generation (Part 1- Fossil Fueled Plants).
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, (NEMA) IEEE Service Center, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway,
N.J. 08854
100 Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Terms.
112 Test Procedure for Polyphase Indicator Motors and Generators.
114 Test Procedure for Single Phase Induction Motors.
115 Test Procedure for Synchronous Machines.
National Electrical Manufacturer’s Association, 155 East 44th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017
SM 12 Direct-Connected Steam Turbine Synchronous Generator Units, Air
Cooled.
SM 13 Direct-Connected Steam Turbine Synchronous Generator Units, Hydro- -
gen Cooled (20,000 to 30,000 kW, Inclusive).
National Fire Protection Association, Publication Sales Department, 470 Atlantic Avenue, Boston, MA.
02210
30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code.
70 National Electric Code.
General Electric Company, Lynn, MA. 0910
GEK 22504 Standard Design and Operating Recommendations to Minimize Water
Rev. D. Induction in Large Steam Turbines.
Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Lester, PA. 19113
— Recommendation to Minimize Water Damage to Steam Turbines.
A-2
TM 5-811-6
BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Institute of Architecture, Life Cycle Cost Analysis - A Guide for Architects, AIA, 1735 New York
Avenue, Washington, DC 20006
Fink and Beatty, Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, N.Y.
10020
Grant, Ireson and Leavenworth, Principals of Engineering Economy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
N.Y. 10036
Kent, R. T., Kents Mechanical Engineers Handbook Power Volume, John Wiley& Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
10036
Marks Standurd Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, N.Y. 10020
Mason, The Art and Science of Protective Relaying, General Electric Engineering Practice Series, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. 10036
Morse, Frederick T., Power Plant Engineering and Design, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, N.Y.
Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Economic Analysis Handbook, NAVFAC P442, U.S. Naval Publica-
tions and Forms Center, 5801 Tabor Avenue, Philadelphia, PA. 19120.
TM 5-811-6
Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) directly to HQDA (DAEN-ECE-E), WASH DC 20314.