Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 7 (2018) 45–53

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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tsep

Combustion and emission characteristics of E85 and diesel blend in T

conventional diesel engine operating in PPCI mode
Miqdam T. Chaichan
Energy and Renewable Energies Technology Center, University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: To study the possibility of operating a traditional diesel engine as a partially premixed compression ignition
Partially premixed compression ignition engine engine, E85 created from 85% bioethanol and 15% unleaded Iraqi gasoline blend was used as the main fuel. E85
Bioethanol blend fuel has a low evaporation temperature, large latent heat and low cetane number (CN). Iraqi diesel fuel
EGR was used as a pilot fuel to assure ignition. High rate of cooled exhaust gas recirculation was used. The engine
PM–NOx trade-off
performance and emissions, particularly NOx–smoke trade-off, was also investigated. In order to reduce the
number of experiments to be performed, the tests were conducted at a speed of 1500 rpm, with changes in the
recirculated exhaust gas rate (10%, 30% and 50%) and change in injection timing (20°, 22°, 25°, 28° and 32°
BTDC).
Practical results showed that a significant improvement could be achieved in the NOx–PM trade-off. The
ignition delay period can be increased by using a low-CN fuel accompanied with a low oxygen intake charge.
When using the PPCI system, low levels of NOx and PM can be achieved without affecting the brake thermal
efficiency of the engine. Smoke can be reduced even when the EGR percentage is increased under a mixed
condition. ED10 (90% E85 + 10% diesel) had the largest decline in NOx (84.66%) and smoke (55.8%) compared
to diesel.

1. Introduction
Diesel engines have many advantages in terms of efficiency, power
and durability, but their disadvantages must be surmounted [1]. One
basic challenge to diesel combustion is called the diesel dilemma, which
is the trade-off between NOx and PM that occurs when a designer aims
to reduce NOx by reducing combustion temperature, causing poor
oxidation that increases PM emissions, and vice versa [2]. A consider-
able amount of research has been conducted in the field of new com-
bustion concepts to resolve this problem [3].
The conditions in the diesel engine combustion chamber include
high temperature and oxygen concentration. Diesel combustion with
lean but inhomogeneous air–fuel mixture makes it ideal for NOx gen-
eration. Moreover, local rich air–fuel mixture conditions accompanied
with high temperatures (T > 1800 K) enhance soot formation.
Therefore, NOx and soot formations are inversely linked in conven-
tional diesel combustion. As a result, NOx and PM emissions in diesel
engines [4].
Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) can be con-
sidered a promising technology for reducing NOx and PM concentra-
tions in new diesel engines. The homogeneity for this concept comes
from a conventional principle where the ignition in the combustion
chamber takes place after the fuel and air mixture preparation is
completed. Although the HCCI concept can be considered revolutionary
in the combustion system of gasoline engines, partially premixed
compression ignition (PPCI) phase is similar to HCCI in diesel engines
[5].
The concept of PPCI is new to internal combustion engines, and it is
achieved by adding high levels of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and
adjusting the injection timing to ensure that air and fuel are mixed well
before combustion by increasing the delay period. Researchers have
used two trends in positioning the injection strategies. The first group
[6,7] found that delaying injection timing can provide sufficient igni-
tion delays for PPCI combustion. The second group found that advan-
cing injection timings can achieve PPCI combustion [8,9]. Ref. [10]
used two methods to inject fuel to reduce the soot and nitrogen oxides
emitted from the engine: the first method was to adopt early fuel in-
jection during the compression stroke and the second was adopted late
fuel injection near TDC with heavy EGR. The results showed that early
injection emitted low NOx and soot. While the second injection method
reduced hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. Ref. [11] used a single
cylinder drive with premixed low precal diesel combustion (PLTDC) in
an effort to reduce NOx and soot emissions together while maintaining
fuel efficiency. The results of the study showed the possibility of low

E-mail address: 20185@uotechnology.edu.iq.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2018.04.013
Received 25 January 2018; Received in revised form 31 March 2018; Accepted 22 April 2018
2451-9049/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.T. Chaichan
NOx and soot emissions in each of the operational conditions tested
without sacrificing fuel consumption efficiency. Shimazaki declared
that ignition delay may be extended by using low-cetane-number (CN)
fuels [12], or low compression ratio [13]. The PPCI concept can solve
the so-called diesel dilemma by maintaining low smoke and NOx con-
centrations. This system is characterised by higher control over com-
bustion compared with HCCI [14,15].
The use of gasoline in diesel engines as PPCI was first con-
ceptualised by [16,17]. Gasoline can be considered a suitable fuel for
PPCI because of its high ignition temperatures, as indicated by the
octane number (ON). Kalghatgi’s findings showed that almost zero
smoke emissions can be attained even at high loads. A group at Lund
University showed that gasoline fuel can be burned in light-duty diesel
engines for partially premixed combustion, resulting in similar engine
efficiency but with high reduction in NOx and smoke emissions [18].
The relatively high fuel reactivity makes the process of perceiving
PPCI combustion due to the limited mixing time [19]. Previous studies
clarified that a less reactive behaviour with low-CN fuels appears to be
suitable to achieve PPCI combustion [20]. Ref. [21] performed a
blending process of low-CN fuels in compression ignition engines. Ref.
[22] demonstrated the positive effect of high-octane-number gasoline
on soot and NOx reduction in a light-duty compression ignition engine.
Kalghatgi et al. [23] highlighted the influence of high resistance to
auto-ignition volatile fuel (with CN < 30) on the unburned emissions
in PPCI combustion conditions.
Iraqi diesel fuel is characterised by a high sulphur content of ap-
proximately 10,000 ppm [24]. Moreover, Iraqi gasoline has high sul-
phur and lead contents [25,26]. Oxygenated fuel blends can be suitable
for PPCI combustion mode where the ‘homogeneous’ mixture is par-
tially or fully created by advancing injection timing, allowing more
time for premixed fuel evaporation and air mixing [27,28]. A high ON
allows for precise control of the auto-ignition time, and varying the
premixed ratio ensures a wide range of engine speed and loads [29,30].
Ethanol produced from petrol or a crop is a promising biomass fuel.
Ethanol has high oxygen content and is thus regarded as a good additive
and alternative fuel. Ethanol can be used to increase engine efficiency
due to its high octane rating and heat of vaporization. It can reduce
engine knock, increase volumetric efficiency and lower heat transfer
losses [31,32]. When mixed with unleaded gasoline, ethanol increases
octane levels, decreases exhaust emissions and extends the supply of
gasoline [33]. Valuable studies have revealed that using diesel–ethanol
blends can achieve a reduction in particulate emissions and toxic gas
pollutants [34,35]. Ethanol-blended gasoline is commonly used in
many countries around the world. Australia officially E10 (10%
ethanol + 90% gasoline), and Brazil (up to 25% ethanol), Canada (10%
ethanol), Sweden (5% ethanol) and the USA (up to 10% ethanol) also
use ethanol-blended gasoline [36].
E85 (85% ethanol and 15% gasoline) is commonly used in flexible-
fuel vehicles [37]. Many researchers have performed tests on diesel
engines using various gasoline–ethanol blends in PPCI combustion with
the aim of achieving diesel-like efficiency. Various injector designs and
piston designs have also been developed with significant improvements
[38–40].
Studies have shown that the use of recycled exhaust gas causes a
decrease in NOx pollutants, as well as, the resulting combustion tem-
peratures [41,42]. Ref. [43] added heavy rates of EGR to biofuel and
gaseous hydrogen. Results showed that the resulting increase in NOx
and brake thermal efficiency from hydrogen use was reduced by high
EGR rates. The addition of large amounts of recycled exhaust gas to the
combustion chamber has reduced engine noise.
The objective of this study is to investigate the possibility of oper-
ating traditional multi-cylinder diesel engine in PPCI combustion mode
with minor modifications. Conventional Iraqi diesel fuel has a high
sulphur content, which many researchers have confirmed its major role
in increasing the formation of particulate mattes and smoke [44,45].
The main aim of this study is to evaluate the introduced suitable blend
46
Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 7 (2018) 45–53
Table 1
The technical specifications of the engine used in the study.
Engine type 4cyl., 4-stroke
Engine model TD 313 Diesel engine rig
Combustion type DI, water cooled, natural aspirated
Displacement 3.666 L
Valve per cylinder two
Bore 100 mm
Stroke 110 mm
Compression ratio 17
Fuel injection pump Unit pump
26 mm diameter plunger
Fuel injection nozzle Hole nozzle
10 nozzle holes
Nozzle hole dia. (0.48 mm)
Spray angle = 160°
Nozzle opening pressure = 40 MPa
produced from Iraqi products that can be used as an alternative to Iraqi
diesel fuel. The study of the PPCI engine operation with a fuel that has
high sulfur content has not been addressed by researchers as an ultra-
low sulfur content fuels are available in their countries. For developing
countries that rely on fuels with poor specifications such as Iraq, the
study is very important in finding solutions to reduce sulfur content and
its harmful effects.
2. Experimental setup
The characteristics of premixed combustion mode and the effects of
different premixed ratios were investigated. PPCI operating mode was
realised by adding low-CN fuel (E85) to diesel fuel at various blends,
increasing the EGR systematically until one of the limits on the max-
imum values on fuel consumption, pressure rise and smoke emission is
reached. The engine that was used in these experiments was a Fiat four-
cylinder water-cooled direct-injection (DI) diesel engine, and its spe-
cifications are shown in Table 1. Prodit EGR system was used to control
cooled EGR temperature. The EGR mixed with the intake air when the
intercooler was close to the inlet manifold. The EGR level was manually
controlled by the EGR throttle position. The EGR cooling system was
able to adjust the temperature of the EGR using manicipality water.
The injection system was modified to enable manual control of the
injection system. Experiments were performed using advanced injection
timing to allow the homogenisation of the fuel and air [11]. Experi-
ments were performed by optimum injection timing for the used diesel
(20° BTDC in this case), and then the injection period was advanced
gradually, with the internal level of the engine being adjusted. As the
studied system used high levels of EGR, the throttle hole was left fully
open. Increasing the load of the engine required more fuel. To achieve
this increase, the temperature of the EGR was reduced by increasing the
amount of cooling water passing through the heat exchanger. More-
over, the EGR coolant temperature was reduced to 20 °C.
The use of fuels than diesel in diesel engines involves many issues
that need to be controlled and determined, such as lubrication. In diesel
engines, diesel injection equipment is lubricated by the diesel itself.
When E85 is added to diesel, the lubrication system must be considered.
A lubricant must be supplied with fuel blends to achieve injection
system lubrication. In the current research, 2% volume of castorene was
added to E85 [46,47]. The addition of castorene and CN improver
helped in enhancing the mixing of E85 and diesel, and the resulted
blend was more stable and there was no separation of the two fuels
during the testing period.
A thermocouple of an E-type installed in exhaust manifold was used
to measure the temperature of the exhaust gas. Fuel temperature, air,
cooling water and entering charge were measured using T-type ther-
mocouples. CO2, CO, HC and NOx concentration were measured at
exhaust manifolds using HG-550 gas analyser. In the recent study,
smoke opacity was measured using a ‘MOD.SMOKY’ smoke analyser.
M.T. Chaichan
The major part of smoke opacity measured is PM, so this opacity was
adopted to represent PM concentration. Sound pressure was measured
by using a precision sound pressure level meter equipped with type
4615 microphone. The gas and smoke analysers and sound pressure
level meter devices were calibrated at the Central Organization for
Standardization and Quality Control of Iraq.
2.1. Fuel preparation and approach
Commercial Iraqi diesel fuel, which has a high sulphur content
(10,000 ppm in the tested fuel), was used in this study as the reference
fuel. Commercial Iraqi gasoline has a low ON (82 in this study), high
sulphur content (500 ppm in the tested fuel) and high lead content. This
fuel has been used in previous studies; instead, an unleaded gasoline
with ON = 75 manufactured by Al-Doura Refinery was used. The study
aims to provide cleaner fuel, so the used gasoline with low octane
number was clean from lead. Besides, the lower the fuel's knock re-
sistance (ie., a low octane number), the better it will be for fueling
diesel engines (ie., with higher CN). Bioethanol (99.7% purity) distilled
from an Iraqi brew (Aaraq) produced from dates was used in the tests.
The distillation process was repeated several times to eliminate any
residue. Bioethanol was mixed with gasoline (ON = 77), and the fuel
was mixed with a volumetric fraction of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline.
The E85–diesel fuel mixture was formed by blending the following
components: diesel fuel, E85 and CN improver. The mixing protocol
was the first to blend CN improver in E85 and then mix the resultant
mixture into diesel fuel.
E85 has a low CN. This feature caused many differences in the
physical and chemical properties of fuel in the process of mixing E85
with diesel. The diesel fuel CN ranged between 40 and 50, whereas that
of the E85 did not exceed 20. Refs. [48,49] used various techniques to
ignite and maintain the combustion of low fuels' CN in diesel engines.
The source of the crude from where the diesel fuel originate controls the
CN; many additives can be used in the refining process to improve it.
Any substance can increase the tendency to knock in spark ignition
engines, which is generally an ignition enhancer in diesel engines.
These substances are called ignition-improving additives, which include
organic peroxides, nitrates, and various sulphur compounds [50]. The
most common commercially used substances are alkyl nitrates (iso-
propyl nitrate, primary amyl nitrates, primary hexyl nitrates, octyl ni-
trate). These substances reduce the anti-knock resistance of gasoline
fuel and hence increase engine knock in SIE. HiTEC 4103 is an additive
manufactured with a formal chemical formula (C8H17NO3). This ad-
ditive has the structure of an ethyl hexane molecule with one of the
hydrogen atoms replaced with a nitrate radical (NO3). This improver is
produced by AFTON CHEMICAL LTD and was used because it is
available in local markets. This substance was added to E85 with a
volume fraction of 10% to elevate its CN from 20 to 30, which enabled
the ignition of various E85–diesel blends in the engine.
Three blends were prepared: 90% E85 + 10% diesel fuel (ED10),
70% E85 + 30% diesel fuel (ED30) and 50% E85 + 50% diesel fuel
(ED50). All these blends proportions were prepared on mass basis.
2.2. Error analysis and uncertainty
To ensure that the results were within experimental uncertainty
(95% confidence level), experimental tests were repeated at least three
times for each set of tests, and the mean value was used in the analysis.
This procedure was used for all measurements to restrict the un-
certainty associated with the various measurement sources. Another
uncertainty factor was taken into consideration, that is, the volatility.
The aromatics of the various blends that were used were not equal and
could partially have affected the results. Gasoline in E85 can evaporate
from hot engine surfaces much better than low-volatility fuel like
ethanol. The second uncertainty is related to CN, particularly in low-CN
(< 30) blends like E85-diesel blends, where aromatic content and
47
Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 7 (2018) 45–53
Table 2
the experimental accuracies for the used measuring devices.
Measurements Accuracies in this study
Thermocouples ± 0.19%
Engine speed tachometer ± 1.14%
fuel flow meter ± 0.22%
Air flow meter ± 0.62%
Sound pressure level measurement ± 0.34
dynamometer ± 0.82%
Emitted exhaust gasses concentrations measurement ± 0.042
Smoke opacity meter ± 0.14
volatility play an important role. By contrast, with high CN (> 30)
volatility and aromatics have less influence on the auto-ignition ten-
dency and thus on the ignition delay. Table 2 lists the experimental
accuracies for the measuring devices used in the tests.
2.3. Test procedure
In this study, Iraqi conventional diesel fuel was used as the base
fuel, whereas E85–diesel blends were tested as alternative fuels. The
diesel engine was first run at a constant speed of 1500 rpm and at its
regular injection timing until the warm-up period is reached. In this
condition, the engine performance and emission characteristics were
measured. This condition considered the reference for other cases. Four
cases were tested and studied.
Case 1: The engine was run at a constant speed (1500 rpm), constant
EGR (45%), constant IT (25° BTDC) and variable E85–diesel blends.
This engine speed has been chosen because it represents the usual speed
of vehicles and trucks' engines traveling on the city roads.
Case 2: The engine was run at a constant speed (1500 rpm), constant
blend (ED10), constant IT (25° BTDC) and variable EGR rates (10%,
30% and 50%).
Case 3: The engine was run at constant speed (1500 rpm), constant
blend (ED10), constant EGR rate (45%) and variable IT (20°, 22°, 25°,
28° and 32° BTDC).
Case 4: The engine was run at a constant speed (1500 rpm), constant
blend (ED10), constant EGR rate (45%), constant IT (25° BTDC) and
variable EGR temperatures (25, 50 and 75 °C).
The values of EGR and injection timing have been selected based on
many previous works [35,39]. However, the current study used a diesel
fuel that has high sulfur content and a relatively moderate CN, which
necessitated some changes in these variables values selection. The en-
gine injection timing was advanced manually, as well as the EGR valve,
and a manometer setup was manually controlled to attain the required
EGR rate.
3. Results and discussion
In this study, when load effect was studied and when diesel fuel was
used, the tests were conducted first in a conventional Fiat diesel engine
with 17° BTDC injection timing. When other blends were used, the
timing had to be advanced to achieve partial premixing of the injected
blend with air at a high level of cooled EGR.
Fig. 1 shows the effect of torque on brake-specific fuel consumption
(BSFC) for the used blends compared with Iraqi diesel fuel. BSFC in-
creased with the increase in the E85 rate of the blend. E85 has a lower
heating value than diesel, and when it produced an equal heating value
at a specific torque, thereby causing high fuel consumption. BSFC in-
creased by 11.91%, 4.51% and 3.37% for ED10, ED30 and ED50, re-
spectively, compared with diesel fuel. These results agree with the
findings of studies that applied the PPCI mode but with limited pe-
nalties on BSFC. The use of large amounts of low-heating value fuel
compared to diesel called for the use of larger quantities of these blends
to compensate for this shortage, causing increased fuel consumption.
M.T. Chaichan Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 7 (2018) 45–53

N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, IT=25°BTDC, EGR=45% CR=17:1, IT=25oBTDC, 1500 rpm, EGR=45%
700
0.29

Exhaust gas temperatures (oC)

Diesel 600
0.27
ED10
ED30
500
0.25
BSFC (kg/kW h)

ED50
400
0.23
300
0.21
200
0.19
100
0.17 Diesel ED10 ED30 ED50

0
0.15
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
Torque (Nm)
Torque (Nm)
Fig. 3. Torque variation effect on exhaust gas temperatures for the tested fuels.
Fig. 1. Torque variation effect on BSFC for the tested fuels.

CR=17:1, IT=25oBTDC, 1500 rpm, EGR=45%

N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, IT=25oBTDC, EGR=45%
35 90

34 Diesel
80
brake thermal effiiciency (%)

33 ED10

HC concentrations (ppm)
ED30
32 70
ED50
31
30 60
29
50
28
27
40
26 Diesel ED10 ED30 ED50

25 30
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Torque (Nm) Torque (Nm)
Fig. 2. Torque variation effect on brake thermal efficiency for the tested fuels. Fig. 4. Torque variation effect on the emitted HC concentrations for the tested
fuels.
Operating the engine in PPCI mode increased the brake thermal
efficiency, as shown in Fig. 2. The brake thermal efficiency increased in ethanol increase the total oxygen ratio. The final result declares to
with the addition of E85 by approximately 5.25%, 1.94% and 1.82% for outweigh the impact of the EGR on the effect of ethanol presence. These
ED10, ED30 and ED50, respectively, compared with diesel fuel. The use HC increment rates could be increased more except of the high oxygen
of high compression ratio for E85 with cooled EGR enhanced the pro- content of E85 that eliminated the HC levels increase.
duced thermal efficiency. Although the trend between BSFC and brake Di Blasio [51] reported high HC and CO concentrations when op-
thermal efficiency should be inverse, Fig. 2 indicates an increase in the erating in PPCI mode. Operating with high levels of EGR affected the
as the brake thermal efficiency with BSFC increase when ED10 was delay period as if the injection timing was retarded. Adding E85 with
used. The brake thermal efficiency governing equation is high oxygen content reduced the EGR effects, as shown in Fig. 5. CO
(η bp
)
= Qt × 100% , which reveals that the brake power and the the fuel
bth . concentration with ED10 was lower than that emitted by ED30 or ED50
total heat (Qt) are the main influences parameters, since the drop in bp
relative to the reduction of ED10 total fuel heat (Qt) is limited, this 0.18 CR=17:1, IT=25oBTDC, 1500 rpm, EGR=45%
situation has been appeared. As a result, ED10 has the higher BSFC and
brake thermal efficiency together. 0.16
CO concentrations (% vol.)

Exhaust gas temperatures reduced by increasing E85 rates in the Diesel

blends, as shown in Fig. 3. E85 has low heating values resulting in lower 0.14 ED10
heat released from combustion. In addition, the high rate of cooled EGR ED30

(45%) absorbed an important part of heat released from combustion. 0.12 ED50

Both reasons caused the reduction in exhaust gas temperature. The

0.1
reduction rates were 51.19%, 34.38% and 23% for ED10, ED30 and
ED50, respectively, compared with diesel fuel.
0.08
PPCI mode caused high HC concentration when gasoline was added
to diesel, as indicated in most studies [29,40]. Fig. 4 illustrates that 0.06
operating the engine in PPCI mode increased HC concentration to high
levels compared with the diesel operating mode. HC increased by 0.04
13.38%, 29.36% and 40.89% for ED10, ED30 and ED50, respectively, 0 20 40 60 80 100
compared with diesel fuel. The addition of high-rate of EGR was on the Torque (Nm)
expense of the air entering the engine and reducing the amount of Fig. 5. Torque variation effect on the emitted CO concentrations for the tested
oxygen available in the combustion chamber, while the oxygen content fuels.

48
M.T. Chaichan Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 7 (2018) 45–53

CR=17:1, IT=25oBTDC, 1500 rpm, EGR=45% CR=17:1, IT=25oBTDC, 1500 rpm, EGR=45%
9
0.14
8 Diesel ED10 ED30 ED50
0.12

Smoke opacity (% vol.)

CO2 concentration (% vol.)

7
6 0.1

5 0.08
4 0.06
Diesel
3
ED10 0.04
2 ED30
ED50
0.02
1
0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
Torque (Nm)
Torque (Nm)
Fig. 8. Torque variation effect on the smoke opacity for the tested fuels.
Fig. 6. Torque variation effect on the emitted HC concentrations for the tested
fuels.
0.16 CR=17:1, IT=25oBTDC, 1500 rpm, EGR=45%

although the former blends had high oxygen content. Increasing the 0.14
E85 fraction in the mixture means increasing the material that has less
0.12

Smoke opacity (% vol.)

self-ignition and causes a delay in ignition and result in a poor com-
bustion that emits high CO and HC. CO concentrations increased by 0.1
12.3%, 18% and 35.4% for ED10, ED30 and ED50, respectively, com-
pared with diesel fuel. 0.08
Diesel
Increasing CO and HC concentrations reduced CO2 concentrations, 0.06 ED10
as shown in Fig. 6. The reductions were 13.39%, 14.84% and 30% for
ED10, ED30 and ED50, respectively, compared with diesel fuel. The 0.04 ED30

reduction in the emitted CO2 is offset by a rise in CO and HC pollutants, ED50

0.02
which means there is a deterioration in combustion caused by local rich
zones in the combustion chamber resulted from mixture non homo- 0
geneity. 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Fig. 7 shows the effect of torque on emitted NOx concentrations for NOx concentrations (ppm)
the tested blends. Adding E85 reduced the heating values of the blend,
Fig. 9. Torque variation effect on the emitted NOx concentrations for the tested
and operating the engine with cooled EGR reduced the combustion
fuels.
temperatures. As a result, low NOx concentrations were achieved. NOx
concentrations were reduced by 84.66%, 53.66% and 25.94% for ED10,
ED30 and ED50, respectively, compared with diesel fuel. EGR is one of Fig. 9. These results agreed with the results of other researchers, such as
the main parameters for NOx emission reduction. Thus, to achieve [15,19,21,49]. Therefore, reducing CN (as in this work, where CN was
ultra-low NOx concentrations, high EGR rates are required. reduced from 49 for diesel fuel to 30 for ED10) ensured that the smo-
Fig. 8 presents the effect of torque on smoke opacity for the tested ke–NOx trade-off well below the Euro 5 limits can be improved despite
blends. Smoke opacity reduced by 55.8%, 43.44% and 32% for ED10, an increment in CO and HC concentrations.
ED30 and ED50, respectively, compared with diesel fuel. The premixed Injection of pilot fuel has an effect on controlling the combustion
combustion participated in the reduction of smoke opacity. Low com- stability. Engine noise can be increased due to excessive cylinder
bustion temperatures produced from gathering EGR and partial pre- pressure increase rates in addition to lower lubrication, as illustrated in
mixing successfully reduced NOx and smoke trade-off, as shown in Fig. 10. Engine noise increased by 6.9%, 4% and 1.9% for ED10, ED30
and ED50, respectively, compared with diesel fuel. The burning of
ED10 achieved the highest engine noise because this fuel was burned
CR=17:1, IT=25oBTDC, 1500 rpm, EGR=45%
1000
Diesel CR=17:1, IT=25oBTDC, 1500 rpm, EGR=45%
900 90
ED10
800 88
NOx concentrations (ppm)

ED30 Diesel ED10 ED30 ED50

700 ED50 86
600 84
Sound (dB)

500 82

400 80

300 78

200 76

100 74

0 72
0 20 40 60 80 100 70
Torque (Nm) 0 20 40 60 80 100
Torque (Nm)
Fig. 7. Torque variation effect on the emitted NOx concentrations for the tested
fuels. Fig. 10. Torque variation effect on the engine noise for the tested fuels.

49
M.T. Chaichan Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 7 (2018) 45–53

N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, max. load, EGR=45% N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, max. load, EGR=45%
0.27 70
65
0.25
60

HC concentrations (ppm)
55
BSFC (kg/kW h)

0.23
50
0.21 45
40
0.19
35

0.17 30
Diesel ED10 ED30 ED50
Diesel ED10 ED30 ED50
25
0.15 20
15 20 25 30 35 15 20 25 30
Injection timing (°BTDC) Injection timing (°BTDC)
Fig. 11. IT advance effect on BSFC for the tested fuels. Fig. 13. IT advance effect on HC concentrations for the tested fuels.

retarded from its optimum injection timing unlike the other blends (as N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, max. load, EGR=45%
the next figure indicates). 0.17
In the second set of experiments, injection timing was advanced 0.16
from 17° BTDC to 32° BTDC to evaluate the influence of crank angle
advance on engine performance and emissions. Fig. 11 shows the effect 0.15

CO content (% vol.)
of injection timing on BSFC for the tested fuels at the specified condi- 0.14
tions. Findings indicate that 20° BTDC seemed to have a better timing
0.13
with low BSFC for this fuel due to low CN and high sulphur levels. ED10
at 32° BTDC, ED30 at 28° BTDC and 25° BTDC achieved low BSFC. 0.12
Advancing IT means more time for premixing, but extremely advanced 0.11
timing causes combustion to occur before the piston reaches the top
dead-centre, thereby negatively affecting the piston, which in turn 0.1
Diesel ED10 ED30 ED50
forcibly reduces the engine torque and causes high BSFC. The injection 0.09
timing could be used to reinforce the BSFC trend. The figure shows a
0.08
significant increase in BSFC for diesel after 25° BTDC, as this time is far 15 20 25 30
away from the optimum injection timing for diesel.
Injection timing (°BTDC)
Advancing IT increases the exhaust gas temperatures, as shown in
Fig. 12. ED10 still emitted lower exhaust gas temperatures compared Fig. 14. IT advance effect on CO concentrations for the tested fuels.
with other blends. The high E85 ratio in the ED10 blend (90%) makes
its low heating value the most influential parameter for such a result. N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, max. load, EGR=45%
Figs. 13 and 14 present the effect of IT on the emitted HC and CO 600
Diesel
concentrations for the tested blends. The aggressive IT advancement
(from 25° to 30° BTDC) for diesel caused high HC and CO concentra- 500 ED10
NOx concentrations (ppm)

tions due to its operation near the knock limit zone for this fuel. For the ED30
other blends, these concentrations reduced while approaching optimum 400
ED50
IT and then increased after the limit. ED10 emitted lower HC and CO
than ED30 and ED50. HC concentrations increased because of the 300
overmixing and CO concentrations due to the low combustion flame
temperature. 200

N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, max. load, EGR=45% 100

600
0
550 15 20 25 30 35
Exhaust gas temperatures (°C)

500 Injection timing (°BTDC)

450
Fig. 15. IT advance effect on NOx concentrations for the tested fuels.
400
350 Advancing IT increased NOx concentrations for all blends due to
300 high combustion temperatures achieved, as indicated in Fig. 15. The
250 increment rates differed from one blend to another. Diesel fuel was
200 highly affected by IT advancement, whereas the effect on the other
blends was limited.
150 Diesel ED10 ED30 ED50 Advancing IT increased smoke opacity for diesel fuel due to knock
100 occurrence, as clarified in Fig. 16. For the other blends, smoke opacities
15 20 25 30 35 were reduced due to high levels of premixing for all the tested blends
Injection timing (°BTDC) with respect to the reference fuel (diesel). The best result was obtained
Fig. 12. IT advance effect on exhaust gas temperatures for the tested fuels. for the ED10 blend because of the meeting of two key factors: its high

50
M.T. Chaichan Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 7 (2018) 45–53

N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, max. load, EGR=45% N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, IT=25°BT
0.18 600
0.16

NOx concentrations (ppm)

500
Smoke opacity (% vol.)

0.14
0.12
400
0.1
300 Diesel
0.08
ED10+EGR=15%
0.06 ED10+EGR=30%
200
0.04 ED10+EGR=45%

0.02 Diesel ED10 ED30 ED50 100

0
15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 0
Injection timing (°BTDC) 0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig. 16. IT advance effect on smoke opacity for the tested fuels. Torque (Nm)

Fig. 19. EGR rate effect on NOx concentrations for the tested fuels.
N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, max. load, EGR=45%
0.18
N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, IT=25°BT
0.16
0.16
Smoke opacity (% vol.)

0.14 Diesel
0.12 0.14
ED10+EGR=15%

Smoke opacity (% vol.)

0.1 0.12 ED10+EGR=30%

0.08 ED10+EGR=45%
Diesel 0.1
0.06 ED10
0.08
0.04 ED30

0.02 ED50 0.06

0 0.04
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0.02
NOx concentrations (ppm)
0
Fig. 17. IT advance effect on NOx-smoke trade-off for the tested fuels. 0 20 40 60 80 100
Torque (Nm)
oxygen content, and the availability of time required for premixing, Fig. 20. EGR rate effect on smoke opacity for the tested fuels.
which enabled the reduction of the emitted smoke.
Fig. 17 presents the NOx–smoke trade-off in IT advance tests for the
the opposite sequence, increasing the cooled EGR rate increased smoke
tested fuels. ED10 provided the best trade-off that can meet Euro 5
compared with the low EGR rates, as shown in Fig. 20. Increasing the
limits despite the high HC and CO concentrations required after treat-
EGR rates means reducing oxygen content in the combustion chamber,
ments.
thereby obtaining the previous result.
The addition of EGR to inlet manifold increased BSFC, as shown in
Although EGE = 15% and 30% emitted low smoke opacity, Fig. 21
Fig. 18. Increasing EGR rates reduced BSFC due to improved PPCI
shows that EGR = 45% achieved the best NOx–smoke trade-off. ED10
combustion, thereby indicating that the chosen rate (EGR = 45%) at
with EGR = 45% achieved the lowest trade-off despite high CO and HC
the specified IT = 25° BTDC was correct.
concentrations, which can be reduced by many after-treatment
Fig. 19 shows the effect of EGR rates on emitted NOx concentra-
methods. The high EGR ratio with enough time for pre-mixing in the
tions. Increasing the cooled EGR rate reduces combustion temperature,
case of EGR = 45% and the injection timing of 25° BTDC resulted in a
resulting in low NOx. ED10 emitted the lowest NOx concentrations. In
significant synchronous reduction of NOx and smoke.
N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, IT=25°BTDC
N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, IT=25°BT
0.27 0.14
Diesel ED10+EGR=15% ED10+EGR=30% ED10+EGR=45%

0.25 0.12 Diesel

Smoke opacity (% vol.)

ED10+EGR=15%
0.1
0.23 ED10+EGR=30%
BSFC (kg/kW h)

ED10+EGR=45%
0.08
0.21
0.06
0.19
0.04
0.17 0.02

0.15 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Torque (Nm) NOx concentrations (ppm)

Fig. 18. EGR rate effect on BSFC for the tested fuels. Fig. 21. EGR rate effect on NOx-smoke opacity trade-off for the tested fuels.

51
M.T. Chaichan Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 7 (2018) 45–53

ED10, N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, IT=25°BTDC, EGR=45% ED10, N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, IT=25°BTDC, EGR=45%
0.27 0.16
Diesel
EGR temp.=25°C
0.14
0.25 Diesel

Smoke opacity (% vol.)

EGR temp.=50°C 0.12 EGR temp.=25°C
EGR temp.=75°C EGR temp.=50°C
0.23 0.1
BSFC (kg/kW h)

EGR temp.=75°C
0.08
0.21
0.06
0.19 0.04

0.17 0.02

0
0.15 0 20 40 60 80 100
0 25 50 75 100 Torque (Nm)
Torque (Nm)
Fig. 24. EGR temperature effect on smoke opacity for the tested fuels.
Fig. 22. EGR rate effect on BSFC for the tested fuels.
ED10, N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, IT=25°BTDC, EGR=45%
Fig. 22 presents the effect of torque variation on BSFC for the spe- 0.16
Diesel
cified condition at variable EGR temperatures. Reducing EGR tem-
0.14 EGR temp.=25°C
peratures increased BSFC at low torques and reduced it at high torques.

Smoke opacity (% vol.)

EGR temp.=50°C
Lowering EGR temperatures helped in increasing engine torque. En- 0.12
EGR temp.=75°C
tering cool EGR reduced the combustion chamber temperature and 0.1
consequently increased the fuel delay period. Thus, injection timing 0.08
must be advanced to enhance combustion. At high torques, the tem-
0.06
peratures in the combustion chamber increased, thereby decreasing the
delay period and improving BSFC. 0.04
Ultra-low NOx concentrations can be achieved when EGR tem- 0.02
perature was reduced, as shown in Fig. 23. NOx concentrations were 0
nearly equalised at low torques and diverged at high ones. The differ- 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
ence is limited. However, the engine must be equipped with an addi- NOx concentrations (ppm)
tional EGR super cooler to achieve EGR with 25 °C. By contrast, to
Fig. 25. EGR temperature effect on NOx-smoke trade-off for the tested fuels.
achieve EGR with 75 °C, engine cooling water must be used.
Reducing EGR temperatures increased smoke opacity, as shown in
Fig. 24, despite the use of the PPCI mode, which reduced smoke commercial Iraqi gasoline to bioethanol and blending the resultant fuel
emission. Entering cooled EGR reduced the combustion timing tem- with diesel to produce low-sulphur fuel that can be an alternative to
perature and increased the delay period, consequently causing high high-sulphur-content Iraqi diesel fuel and to achieve low NOx and low
smoke emissions. smoke opacity by using low-CN fuel in conventional and PPCI modes.
Fig. 25 shows the NOx–smoke trade-off for variable EGR tempera- The utilisation of Iraqi bioethanol with unleaded low-ON Iraqi gasoline
tures. ED10 with an EGR temperature of 75 °C is a responsible choice was tested. The main concluding remarks are as follows:
for operating traditional diesel engines with minor modifications to
make it works in PPCI mode. 1) BSFC increased by increasing the E85 fraction in the blend and in-
creased further by increasing the EGR ratio.
4. Conclusions 2) CO and HC concentrations increased by operating the engine in PPCI
mode and when retarding IT.
An experimental investigation was conducted on multi-cylinder 3) Minimum NOx–smoke trade-off can be achieved when ED10 blend
water-cooled Fiat DI diesel engine with 17:1 compression ratio. The fuel was used. Low levels were achieved with relative enhancement
PPCI concept and its implementation in a traditional diesel engine were in thermal efficiency.
examined. The engine was operated in PPCI mode by adding 4) The PPCI combustion mode can improve load range. High loads can
be achieved with reduced EGR temperature.
ED10, N=1500 rpm, CR=17:1, IT=25°BTDC, EGR=45% 5) The cooling of EGR significantly affected the engine performance as
600 the torque range was expanded. However, to maintain low coolant
NOx concentrations (ppm)

temperature for the EGR cooling procedure, a separate cooling

500 system is needed.
6) An accepted operating mode was obtained with ethanol in the
400
Diesel
blends due to its high oxygen content, which enhances volumetric
300 EGR temp.=25°C efficiency. Bioethanol in the blends reduces the negative effects of
EGR temp.=50°C EGR on HC and CO.
200 EGR temp.=75°C 7) The fuel injection system using ethanol did not suffer from any
problems for the entire operation period. The lubrication procedure
100 used in this study was adequate.
8) High premixing levels can be achieved by advancing IT, but com-
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
bustion quality, stability, emissions and efficiency were strongly
Torque (Nm)
affected.
9) Cooled EGR applications reduced NOx but increased BSFC and HC,
Fig. 23. EGR temperature effect on NOx concentrations for the tested fuels. CO and smoke emissions.

52
M.T. Chaichan
In conclusion, a PPCI engine and combustion system can be devel-
oped to provide a simple, cheap and environmentally friendly engine
that can be used in developing countries like Iraq. The significant im-
provement in exhaust emission showed the success of the PPCI com-
bustion mode.
5. Conflict of interests
The author declares that there is no conflict of interests regarding
the publication of this paper.
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