Preston University North Nazimabad Campus

Theory of Structures

Q2. (a) Describe the Classification of Arches.

Classification of arches:
Arches are classified on basis of

 Shape
 Number of Centre’s
 Workmanship
 Materials of construction

Types of Arches based on shape:

Based on the shape of construction arches are classified into 10 types and they are discussed below.

Flat Arch
 For flat arch, the intrados is apparently flat and it acts as a base of equilateral triangle which was
formed by the horizontal angle of 600 by skewbacks.
 Even though the intrados is flat but it is given that a slight rise of camber of about 10 to 15 mm per
meter width of opening is allowed for small settlements.

 Extrados is also horizontal and flat. These flat arches are generally used for light loads, and for spans
up to 1.5m.

Segmental Arch
 This is the basic type of arch used for buildings in which Centre of arch lies below the springing line.
 In segmental arch, the thrust Transferred in inclined direction to the abutment.
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Theory of Structures

Semi-Circular Arch
The shape of arch curve looks like semi-circle and the thrust transferred to the abutments is perfectly
vertical direction since skewback is horizontal. In this type of arch, the Centre lies exactly on the springing
line.

Horse Shoe Arch

Horse Shoe Arch is in the shape of horse shoe which curves more than semi-circle. This is generally
considered for architectural provisions.

Pointed Arch
The other name of pointed arch is Gothic arch. In this type of arch two arcs of circles are met at the apex
hence triangle is formed. This may be either isosceles or equilateral.
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Theory of Structures

Venetian Arch
Venetian arch is also pointed arch but its crown is deeper than springing’s. It contains four Centre’s, all
located on the springing line.

Florentine Arch
Intrados of arch is in the shape of semi-circle and rest of the arch is similar to Venetian arch. It has three
Centre’s, all located on the springing line.

Relieving Arch
Relieving arch is constructed above flat arch or on a wooden lintel to provide greater strength. In case of
relieving arch, we can replace the decayed wooden lintel easily without disturbing the stability of structure.
The ends of this arch should be carried sufficiently into the abutments.
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Theory of Structures

Stilted Arch
Stilted Arch consists of a semi-circular arch with two vertical portions at the springing’s. The Centre of
arch lies on the horizontal line through the tops of vertical portions.

Semi-Elliptical Arch
This is a type of arch of semi-ellipse shape and having three or five Centers.
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Types of Arches based on number of Centers

Based on number of centers the arches are classified as:

One-centered Arches
Segmental, semi-circular, flat, horse-shoe arches and stilted arches are one centered arches. In some cases,
perfectly circular arch is provided for circular windows which is called as bull’s eye arch is also come
under these category.

Two Centered Arches

Pointed or gothic or lancet arches are generally come under this type.

Three Centered Arches

Semi elliptical and Florentine arches are generally having three number of centers
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Theory of Structures

Four Centered Arches

Venetian arch is a typical example for four-centered arch. Tudor arch is also having four centers.

Five centered arches

A good semi-elliptical shape arch contains five centers.

Types of Arches based on Workmanship and Construction Materials

Based on material used for construction and workmanship, arches may be classified as:

1. Stone Arches
Based on workmanship, these are sub divided into two types. They are,

Rubble arches
Rubble arches are very weak and used only for inferior work. These are used up to spans of 1m. These are
made of rubble stones which are hammer dressed, roughly to shape and size and fixed in cement mortar.
Sometimes these are also used as relieving arches up to a depth of 37.5cm, but these are constructed in
one ring. If the depth is more, we can go for two rings in alternate course of headers and stretchers.
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Ashlar Arches
In this type, the stones are cut to proper shape of voussoirs (a wedge-shaped or tapered stone used to
construct an arch) and fully dressed, joined with cement mortar. Ashlar stones are also used to make flat
arches.

2. Brick Arches
Brick arches are also subdivided into:

Rough brick arches

These are constructed with ordinary bricks without cutting to the shape voussoirs. The arch curve is
provided by forming wedge shaped joints with greater thickness at extrados and smaller thickness at
intrados. So, it looks unattractive. That’s why it is not recommended for exposed brick works.

Axed brick arches

The bricks are cut into wedge shape with the help of brick axe. So, these are roughly dressed in shape and
size. Hence, Arch formed by these axed bricks is not very pleasant.
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Gauged brick arches

In this type arch, bricks are cut to exact shape and size of required voussoir with the help of wire saw. The
bricks are finely dressed and these bricks are joined by lime putty. But, for gauged brick arches only soft
bricks are used.

Purpose made brick arches

The bricks are manufactured, matching with the exact shape and size of voussoirs, to get a very fine
workmanship.

3. Concrete Arches
Concrete arches are of two types:

Precast concrete block arches

In Precast concrete block arches the blocks are cast in molds to the exact shape and size of voussoirs. For
key stone and skewbacks special molds are prepared. These will give good appearance because of exact
shape and size. Cement concrete of 1:2:4 is used.
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Monolithic concrete block arches

Monolithic concrete block arches are suitable for larger span. These are constructed form cast-in-situ
concrete. These may be either plain or reinforced, depending upon the span and magnitude of loading.
Form work is used for casting the arch. The curing is done for 2 to 4 weeks.
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Theory of Structures

Q6. Describe the Computational Procedure for the analysis of a plane truss?

Ans. Computational Procedure for the analysis of a plane truss.

The analytical and computational method of the roof structures are presented. At the beginning, the
analytical method is used for determination of values of external supports, axial forces and principal
stresses in truss. Then the computational method is used for the solution of the same problems. The
roof structure is modeled by the finite element method, where the bar members are represented by the
truss elements. The finite element model loaded by external forces, without and with self-weight of
structure is computed. At the end, the analytical and computational buckling analysis for the trusses
with maximal compressive axial force is performed. The comparison of results of analytical and
computational method shows that all methods are accurate enough, but of course computational
method is faster and more adaptive for any subsequent changes.
The methods of solutions of trusses are divided into three basic groups:

a. Analytical,
b. Graphical,
c. Computational.

Computational Solution of Trusses

The roof construction is computed using finite element method. The model is created from bar
elements and from the boundary conditions and forces applied on the model. The stresses,
deformations, axial forces in truss members and reaction forces in supports are obtained from
computation. In this solution we do not consider the self- weight of the roof construction. The reaction
forces Ax = 0 kN and Ay = B = 15 kN are computed by the finite element method and they are the
same as value of reactions computed by analytical method.

The maximal principal stress is 32.21 MPa in the bar number 2. The maximal nodal displacement in
vertical Direction is equal 8.65 mm. Now, we perform the same computation considering the self-
weight of the roof construction. The reaction forces in supports are Ax = 0 kN and Ay = B =18.03 kN.
The computed principal stresses of the loaded roof construction and with the self-weight. The maximal
deformation in vertical direction for loaded model and with its self-weight is equal 10.33 mm.
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Q8 Describe the procedure for approximate analysis of building frame under

lateral loading?
Ans. Approximate analysis of building frame under lateral loading
A building frame usually carries horizontal or lateral load due to wind or earth quake and deforms due
to such loads from this exaggerated shape of deformed frame, we can assume that point of contra
flexure lies approximately at centres of column and centres of beam.
There are two methods,
1. Portal method
2. Cantilever method,
Which are generally employed for the approximate analysis of frames subjected to horizontal loading.
1. Portal Method
The following assumptions are made to simplify the given framed structure to a statically determinate
one:
a) Point of centra flexure is located at mid height of each column,
b) Point of centra flexure is located at centre of each beam, and
c) The horizontal shear is divided among all the columns on the basis that each interior column takes
twice the shear carried by the exterior column.
In the third assumption, exterior column corresponds to single portal leg and interior column
corresponds to two portal legs. Hence, it is reasonable to assume interior column to carry twice the
shear of exterior column.
Steps for Analysis
a) The shear in columns of a particular storey is found out by equating to storey shear, i.e lateral load
on the frame above that section.
b) Moments at the end of a column are determined by multiplying the column shear with half the
length of the column.
c) The moments at the ends of beams is computed by considering the equilibrium of each joint
separately. The column moments obtained from Step (b) is known and the beam moment which is
unknown can be determined.
d) Since the moment in beam is known from Step (c) the reactions and hence, shear in beam is
determined.
e) Axial force in column is the algebraic sum of reactions from the beams.
f) Finally, carry out the check of Σ Fx= 0 and Σ Fy = 0 at the supports.
Limitations
a) This method is useful for low rise building.
b) This method is unsuitable for building frames having different number of bays at different floors.
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Cantilever Method
Topics this method is based on the assumption that the frame is acting like a cantilever beam with the
column cross sectional areas as the fibers in a beam. The assumptions made in the analysis are as
follows,
a) Point of centra flexure (i.e., zero bending moment) is located at the mid height of the column in
each storey.
b) Point of centre flexure is located at the midpoint of each beam, and
c) The axial force in each column is proportional to its distance from the centre of gravity of the areas
of column group at that level.
The third assumption includes the effects of columns having different cross sectional areas. The stress
intensities can be obtained by method analogous to that used for determining the distribution of normal
stress intensities on a transverse section of a cantilever beam.
Steps for the Analysis
a) Determine centre of gravity of column groups from areas of columns (column area may be
assumed unity).
b) Consider the equilibrium of the particular storey at the section of point of centra flexure in
columns. Other column axial forces are expressed in terms of one unknown column axial force as
they are assumed proportional to the distance from centre of gravity. Taking moment of external
loads and axial forces in columns about any point at the section, the unknown forces in the columns
are evaluated.
c) The beam shear is calculated by using condition, Σ Fy, = 0 at each joint separately. The column
axial force is known from Step (b).
d) The moment at the end of the beam is beam shear multiplied by half the length of beam. Since the
point of centra flexure is assumed at the centre of the beam.
e) The column moments are determined by considering condition Σ M = 0 at each joint separately.
The moment at the ends of the beams is known from Step (d).
f) Finally, carry out check of Σ Fx = 0 and Σ Fy = 0 at the supports.
Limitations
a) This method is useful for tall narrow buildings.
b) The method is not applicable to frames having different cross sectional areas of the same column
at different floors.
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Theory of Structures

Q10. Write Short Note on Two of the Followings:-

1. Collapse mechanisms:-
When a system of loads is applied to an elastic body, it will deform and will show a resistance against
deformation. Such a body is known as a structure. On the other hand if no resistance is set up against
deformation in the body, then it is known as a mechanism.
Or
By inserting a plastic hinge at a plastic limit load into a statically determinate structural component, a
kinematic mechanism permitting an unbounded displacement of the system can be formed. For each
degree of static indeterminacy of the element, an additional plastic hinge must be added to form
a collapse mechanism. It is used in structural analysis and design. The formation of a single plastic
hinge gives a collapse mechanism for a simply supported beam. Collapse occurs when there is no
more remaining stable element that can carry the additional load.

2. Influence Line:-

An influence line for a given function, such as a reaction, axial force, shear force, or bending moment,
is a graph that shows the variation of that function at any given point on a structure due to the
application of a unit load at any point on the structure.

3. Kani’s Method:-

This method was developed by “Gasper Kani” of Germany. This method is an excellent extension of
the slope deflection method. Kani’s method is also known as “Rotation contribution method”. Rotation
contribution method is used to analysis of statically indeterminate structures, like continuous beams,
Portal frames etc .