J| Nonlinear Systems Perspective on Nonlinear Systems All systems are nonlinear, especially if large signals are considered. On the other hand, almost all physical systems can be well approximated by linear models if the signals are small. For example, if @ is small, then sin(@) ~ @ and cos(#) ~ 1. Similarly, in analog electronic devices such as amplifiers, the operation will be nearly linear ifthe signals are small with respect to the supply voltage. Finally, as we will consider later in this chapter in an optional section, Lyapunov showed that if the linear approximation of a system is stable near an equilibrium point, then the truly nonlinear system will be stable for some neighborhood of the equilibrium point, For all these reasons, the analysis and design methods presented thus far in this book have considered only the enormously powerful techniques available for linear models. However, if the signals cause a device to saturate or if the system includes nonlinearities that are active for small signals, such as some kinds of friction, then the nonlinear effects must be taken into account to explain the behavior of the system. In this chapter, a few of the tools available for this purpose will be described.300 Chapter 9 Nonlinear Systems Chapter Overview Because every nonlinear system is in many ways unique, a vast number of | approaches are used in nonlinear control design. The approaches to analysis j and design of nontinear systems that we will describe may be classified under four categories. In Section 9,2 methods of reducing the problem to a linear model are discussed. In most cases, considering the small signal approxima- tion is adequate. In some cases there are nonlinearities for which an inverse can be found, and placing the inverse before the physical nonlinearity results inan overall system that responds linearly. In yet other cases, some nonlinear models can be reduced to an exact linear form by the clever use of feedback, | ina technique called “computed torque” in the field of robotics. The second category is a heuristic approach based on considering the nontinearity to be a varying gain. In Section 9.3 cases are considered for which the nonlinearity has no memory as, for example, with an amplifier whose output saturates when the signal gets large. The idea is to consider the amplifier as if its gain begins to be reduced as the signal gets large. Because the root locus is based on evaluating the system characteristic roots as gain changes, this point of view leads to a heuristic use of the root locus to predict, how such a system will respond to changing input signal sizes. Section 9.4 treats cases in which the nonlinearity has dynamics or memory; then the root locus is not useful. For these cases a technique introduced by Kochenburger in 1950 known as the describing function can be used. To apply this method, a sinusoid is applied to the nonlinear part of the system and the first harmonic of the periodic response is computed. The ratio of the input to the output is taken as if it were a linear but variable frequency response. Thus the Nyquist plot is the natural domain in which to consider the system behavior. While the heuristic approaches may give very useful insight into the sys- tem’s behavior, they cannot be used to decide if the system is guaranteed to be stable. For this, one must turn to the analysis of stability as studied in control theory. The most famous of these theories is that of internal stability developed by Lyapunov. As an introduction to the idea of a system response as a trajectory in space, Section 9.5 describes analysis in the phase plane and then presents the stability theory. Examples are given of using the stability theorem to guide design of a controller so the system is guaranteed to be sta- ble if the initial assumptions about the system hold. With these methods, the control engineer is given a start on the path to the effective understanding and design of real control problems. Finally Section 9.6 provides a historical perspective for the material in this chapter.9.4 Equivalent Gain Analysis Using Frequency Response: Describing Functions The behavior of systems containing any one of the nonlinearities shown in Fig.9.6can be qualitatively described by considering the nontinear element as a varying signal- dependent gain. For example, with the saturation clement (Fig. 9.6a), itis clear that for input signals with magnitudes of less than fh, the nonlinearity is linear with the gain N/A. However, for signals larger than h, the output size is bounded by N, while the input size can get much larger than /, so once the input exceeds hi, the ratio of output to input goes down, ‘Thus, saturation has the gain characteristics shown in Fig. 9.10. Al! actuators saturate at some level. If they did not, their output would increase to infinity, which is physically impossible. An important aspect of control system design is sizing the actuator, which means picking the size, weight, power required, cost, and saturation level of the device. Generally, higher saturation levels require bigger, heavier, and more costly actuators, From the control point of view, the key factor that enters into the sizing is the effect of the saturation on the control system's performance. A nonlinear analysis method known as describing functions, based on the assumption that the input to the nonlinearity is sinusoidal, can be used to predict the behavior of a class of nonlinear systems. A nonlinear element does not have a transfer function. However, fora certain class of nonlinearities, itis possible to replace the nonlinearity by a frequency-dependent equivalent gain for analysis purposes. We can then study the properties of the loop, such as its stability. The describing function method is mostly a heuristic method, and its aim is to try to find something akin t “transfer function” for a nonlinear element. The idea is that in response to a sinusoidal excitation, most nonlinearities will produce a periodic signal (not necessarily sinu- soidal) with frequencies being the harmonics of the input frequency. Hence one may