Communicating

Introduction
Communicating is a managerial function to which managers spend a major percentage of their time. It is the process by
which the management functions of planning, organizing, leading, controlling, etc. are accomplished. Thus information
must be communicated to managers so that they will have a basis for planning, and the plans must be communicated to
other to be carried out.

Definition of Communication
Merrihue (1960) defines the concept of communication as “any initiated behavior on the part of the sender which
conveys the desired meaning to the receiver and causes desired response behavior from receiver “(pp.15-16)

Davis (1967) defines communication as “the process of passing information and understand from one person to
another” (pp.316-320)

Webster’s Dictionary (1976) defines communication as “a process by which information is exchanged between
individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior.”

The Purpose Communication

Koontz and Weihrich (1990) assert that the purpose of communication in the enterprise is to effect change to influence
action toward the welfare of the enterprise. They state that communication is essential for their internal functions. They
add that communication is especially needed to

1. Establish and disseminate goals of an enterprise.

2. Development plans for their achievement.
3. Organize human and other resource in the most effective and efficient way.
4. Select, develop, and appraise members of the organization.
5. Lead, direct, motivate, a climate in which people want to contribute, and Control performance.

Communication Process
The communication process involves the sender, the transmission of a message through a selected channel, and the
receiver. The specific steps in the communication process are shown in Figure 1.
The Sender of the Message

Communication begin with the sender, who has a through or an idea which is encoded in a way that can be
understood by both the sender and the receiver. One away of encoding is encoding a message into English language. But
there are many other ways of encoding, such as translating the though into computer language.

Use of a Channel to Transmit the Message

The information is transmitted over a channel that links the sender with the receiver. The message may be oral
or written, and it may transmitted through a memorandum, a computer, the telephone, a telegram, or television. At
times, two or more channel are used. For instance, in a telephone conversation, two people may reach a basis
agreement that they later confirm by letter. The proper selection of channel is vital for effective communication.

The Receiver of the Message

The receiver has to be ready for the message so that it can be decoded into though. The next step in the process
is decoding, in which the receiver converts the message into thoughts. Accurate communication can occur only when
both sender and receiver attach the same or at least similar meaning to the symbols that compose the message.

Noise and Feedback in Communication

“Noise” is anything whether in the sender, the transmission, or the receiver that hinders communication.
Example are: a noise or confined environment that may hinder the development of clear thought; faulty encoding
because of the use of ambiguous symbols; interrupted transmission caused by static channel, such as may be
experienced in a poor telephone connection; inaccurate reception caused by inattention; faulty decoding because the
wrong meaning may be attached to words and other symbols; understanding obstructed by prejudices; and fear of
possible consequences of the desired change.

Situational and Organizational Factors in Communication

 The communication process is affected by many situational and organizational factors. Situational factors that
affect communication within the enterprise include organizational structure, managerial and non-managerial process,
and technology. Factors in the external environment may be educational, sociological, legal political, and economic. A
repressive political environment, for example, will inhabit the free flow of communication. Other situation factors are
geographic distance and lack of sufficient time to receiver and sender information accurate.

Communication theory

Generalization I. Communication is purposive. Thayer (1961) list four primary functions of administrative
communication: informing someone, instructing or directing someone, evaluating someone or something, and influencing
another’s thought or behavior. The administrator initiates messages to accomplish one or more of these functions.
Identifying purpose only with the initiator is a common mistake. Both the sender and the receiver have their reason for
interacting with each other. A teacher initiates message in order to instruct students. The student listen to the teacher
only if they see the message as a advantageous to them. Lack of communication is sometimes purposive; that is, people
avoids others when a relationship is unpleasant or competitive, and in these situations the reluctance to communicate is
purposive.

Generalization II. The meanings of messages are in people and not necessarily in the intended content. All of us
have an intuitive grasp of what is meant by certain words or expressions. The so-called semantics problem in
administration arises because the same word means different things to different people. Strictly speaking, an
administrator cannot convey meaning, only words. Yet these same words may suggest quite different meanings to
different people.

Generalization III. Feedback is essential for high levels of understanding. Feedback is essentially a process of
correction. In the broadest sense, it refers to any response from someone who has received a message. Based on the
response (feedback), the communicator can repeat, elaborate, or explain the message. Schmuck and Runkel (1972)
conceptualize feedback as full two-way communication.
Generalization IV. Formal and informal communication channels exist in all organizations. Formal communication
channels traverse the organization through the hierarchy of the authority. Barnard (1938) calls these channels “The
communication system” The system’s purpose is coordinating the organization’s parts. He suggests the that several factors
be considered when developing and using the formal communication system:

1. The channels of communication must be known;

2. The channels must carry to every member of the organization;

3. The line of communication must be as direct and as short as possible;

4. The complete line of communication is typically used;

5. Every communication is authenticated as being from the correct person occupying the position and within his authority
to issue the message.
Informal communication channels, commonly called grapevines, also exist in spite of an elaborate formal system. Facts,
opinions, attitudes, suspicions, gossip, rumors, and even directives flows freely through the grapevines. Informal channels
are built around social relationships among school members. These develop for such simple reasons as common office
areas, similar duties, shared coffee breaks, carpools, and friendship. Social relationship and communication channels arise
at all organization levels of the school.

Generalization V. The formal and informal communication channel are potentially complementary. Etzioni (1961)
distinguishes between the substance (instrumental expressive) and direction (vertical-horizontal) of communication
networks. Instrumental communication distributes information and knowledge that effect cognitive orientations. Typical
example are administrative directives, policies, curricular objective and materials, and attendance data. The purpose of
instrument communication is to develop consencus about methods and procedures. Expressive substance changes or
reinforces attitudes, norms, and values. Appropriate affective orientation toward students, militancy, discipline, and
organizational rewards are typical example.

Generalization VI. The message carried by verbal and non-verbal media must be congruent for effective
understanding. The best-known method of human communication is the sounds that constitute words. Primary oral
communication consist of making sounds that are transmitted directly in face-to-face situations or that are transmitted
indirectly through such electronic devices as telephones and tape recorders. Secondary verbal communication consist of
written words signals transmitted through such devices as letters and memos.

The raised eyebrow, the firm handshake, and the impatient tapping of the fingers are well-known actions that
nonverbally communicate meaning (semantics). Nonverbally communicate is behavior of communicative value done in
the presence of another. Even silence and rigid inactivity may tell the person that you are angry, annoyed, depressed, or
fearful. Although this definition suggests a rather all-inclusive domain, a gray area exists between verbal and nonverbal
communication. This area is technically called paralanguage, which is vocal but not strictly oral. It includes stress,
inflection, and speech, as well as such nonverbal vocalizations as grunts, laughter, sights, and coughs.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Although perfect communication in a school is obviously impossible, two things can improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of administrative communication. One is planning the communication before engaging the transmitter, and
the other using knowledge occur at two distinct levels at the individual level for specific communication acts and at the
organizational level for the overall communication system of the school.

Improving Individual Communication

The Objective. You have an idea that you, as the administrator, wish to disseminate the objective for placing this
information into the communication flow.

Identify the Audience. As we have seen, the characteristics of the receiver of communication influence the meanings they
attach to it.

Tailor the communication. Encode the message to fit the relationship between the sender and the receiver in order to
diminish the amount of distortion by the receiver.

Determine the medium (media and the transmission channel). The message can be sent through different verbal media –
orally, in a face to face meeting, or printed in a memo, letter, or newspaper.
Establish a Mutual Interest. For the communication to be effective, the stimulus must be accepted by the receiver.
Although the administration can probably ensure that the message is received, he cannot guarantee its acceptance.

The Timing. Release the message at a most opportune time to maximize its psychology impact.

The volume. The communication channels are easily overloaded, both verbally and in print.

Measure and Results. Styles and Strauss (1966) Maintain that using feedback is the most important method for improving
communication. In other words, check your own performance and make the necessary corrections.

Ten Commandments of Good Communication

1. Seek to clarify your ideas before communicating. The more systematically we analyze the problem or idea to be
communicated, the clearer it becomes. Good communication planning must also consider the goals and attitudes of those
who will receive the communication and those who will be affected by it.

2. Examine the true purpose of each communication. Before you communicate, ask yourself what you really want to
accomplish with your message - obtain information, initiate action, change another person's attitude? Identify your most
important goal and then adapt your language, tone and total approach to serve that specific objective.

3. Consider the total physical and human setting whenever you communicate. Meaning and intent are conveyed by more
than words alone. Consider, for example, your sense of timing - i.e., the circumstances under which you make an
announcement or render a decision; the physical setting - whether you communicate in private, for example, or otherwise;
the social climate that pervades work relationships within the company or department and sets the tone of its
communications; custom and past practice - the degree to which your communication conforms to, or departs from, the
expectations of your audience.

4. Consult with others, where appropriate, in planning communications. Such consultation often helps to lend additional
insight and objectivity to your message. Moreover, those who have helped you plan your communication will give it their
active support.

5. Be mindful, while you communicate, of the overtones as well as the basic content of your message. Your tone of voice,
your expression, and your apparent receptiveness to the responses of others - all have tremendous impact on those you
wish to reach. Frequently overlooked, these subtleties of communication often affect a listener's reaction to a message
even more than its basic content.

6. Take the opportunity, when it arises, to convey something of help or value to the receiver. Consideration of the other
person's interests and needs - the habit of trying to look at things from his or her point of view - will frequently reveal
opportunities to convey something of immediate benefit or long-range value to her or him.

7. Follow up your communication. This you can do by asking questions, by encouraging the receiver to express his or her
reactions, by follow-up contacts, and by a subsequent review of performance. Make certain that every important
communication has a "feedback" so that complete understanding and appropriate action results.

8. Communicate for tomorrow as well as today. While communications may be aimed primarily at meeting the demands
of an immediate situation, they must be planned with the past in mind if they are to maintain consistency in the receiver's
view; but, most important of all, they must be consistent with long-range interests and goals. For example, it is not easy
to communicate frankly on such matters as poor performance or the shortcomings of a loyal subordinate - but postponing
disagreeable communications makes them more difficult in the long run and is actually unfair to your subordinates and
your company.
9. Be sure your actions support your communications. In the final analysis, the most persuasive kind of communication is
not what you say but what you do. For a manager, this means that good supervisory practices - such as clear assignment
of responsibility and authority, fair rewards for effort, and sound policy enforcement - serve to communicate more than
all the gifts of oratory.

10. Seek not only to be understood but to understand .. Be a good listener. When we start talking we often cease to listen
- in that larger sense of being attuned to the other person's unspoken reactions and attitudes. Listening demands that we
concentrate not only on the explicit meanings another person is expressing, but on the implicit meanings, unspoken words,
and undertones that may be far more significant.

Communication in the Enterprise

The manager of an enterprise needs timely, relevant, accurate, and sufficient information for effective decision making.
Obtaining this information frequently requires getting information from the manager’s superiors and subordinates and
also from departments and people elsewhere in an organization.

The Communication Flow in the Organization

In an effective organization, communication flows in various directions: Downward, Upward, and Crosswise.

Downward Communication

Downward communication flows from people at higher levels to those at lower levels in the organization
hierarchy. This kind of communication exist especially in organization with an authority atmosphere.

Upward Communication

Upward Communication travel from subordinate to superior and continues up the organization hierarchy.
This flow is often hindered by managers in the communication chain who filter the messages and do not transmit all the
information especially unfavorable news to their bosses yet objective transmission of information is essential for
control purpose.

Crosswise Communication

Crosswise communication includes horizontal flow of information, among people on the same or similar
organizational level, and the diagram flow, among person of different levels, and the diagonal flow, among person on
the different levels who have no direct reporting relationships. This kind of communication is used to speed
information flow, to improve understanding, and to coordinate effort for the achievement of organizational
objectives

Guidelines for Improving Communication

Effective communication is the responsibility of all person in the organization, managers as well as non managers. Whether
communication is effective can be evaluated by the intended results. The following guidelines can help overcome the
barriers to communication.

1. Senders of the message must clarify in their minds what they want to communicate. This means that one of the first
steps in communicating is clarifying the purpose of the message and making a plan to achieve the intended end.
2. Effective communication requires that encoding and decoding be with symbol that are familiar to the sender and
receiver of the message. Thus the manager (and especially the staff specialist) should avoid unnecessary technical jargon,
which is intelligible only to the experts in their particular field.

3. The planning of the communication should not be done in a vacuum. Instead, other people should be consulted and
encouraged to participate: to collect the fact, analyze the message, and select the appropriate media. For example, a
manager may ask a colleague to read an important memo before it is distributed throughout the organization. The content
of the message should fit the recipients level of knowledge and the organizational climate.

4. It is important to consider the needs of the receiver of the information. Whenever appropriate, one should
communicate something that is of values to them, in the short run as well as in the more distant future. At times,
unpopular action that affect employees in a short run may be more easily accepted in beneficial to them in a long run.

5. There is a saying that the tone makes the music. Similarly, in communication the tone of the voice, the choose of the
language, and the congruency between what is sad and how it is said influence the reaction of the receiver of the message.

6. Too often information is transmitted without communicating, since communication is complete only when the message
is understood by the receiver. And one never know whether communication is understood unless the sender get feedback.

7. The function of communication is more than transmitting information. It also deals with emotions that are very
important in interpersonal relationship between supervisors, subordinates, and colleagues in an organization. Moreover,
communication is vital for creating an environment in which people are motivated to work toward the goals of the
enterprise while they achieve their personnel aims.

8. Effective communicating is the responsibility not only of the sender but also of the receiver of the information. Thus,
listening is an aspect that needs utmost consider.