Final Final Report

REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION USING D-STATCOM
CHAPTER- 1
INTRODUCTION
In recent years many power electronics converters utilizing switching devices have been
widely used in industrial as well as in domestic applications. It desires to draw purely
sinusoidal currents from the distribution network, but this is no longer the case with this
new generation of receivers that take advantage of all the recent advances and
improvements in power electronics. These power electronics systems such as high-power
diode/thyristor rectifiers, arc furnaces, cyclo -converters, and variable speed drives offer
highly nonlinear characteristics. Some of the small power domestic electrical appliances
like TV sets and computers, multiple low-power diode rectifier, and microwave ovens
also draw distorted currents. These nonlinear loads lead to generation of current/voltage
harmonics and draw reactive power and are becoming troublesome problems in ac power
lines. The increase in such nonlinearity causes different undesirable features like low
system efficiency and poor power factor. It also causes disturbances to other consumers
and interference in nearby communication networks. The effect of this nonlinearity could
become sizeable over the next few years. Hence it is very important to overcome these
undesirable features Electrical energy is the most efficient and popular form of energy
and the modern society is heavily dependent on the electric supply. The life cannot be
imagined without the supply of electricity. At the same time the quality of the electric
power supplied is also very important for the efficient functioning of the end user
equipment .The term power quality became most prominent in the power sector and both
the electric power supply company and the end users are concerned about it. The quality
of power delivered to the consumers depends on the voltage and frequency ranges of the
power. If there is any deviation in the voltage and frequency of the electric power
delivered from that of the standard values then the quality of power delivered is affected
.Now-a-days with the advancement in technology there is a drastic improvement in the
semi-conductor devices. With this development and advantages, the semi-conductor
devices got a permanent place in the power sector helping to ease the control of overall
system. Moreover, most of the loads are also semi-conductor based equipment. But the
EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 1

semi-conductor devices are non-linear in nature and draws non-linear current from the
source. And also the semi-conductor devices are involved in power conversion, which is
either AC to DC or from DC to AC. This power conversion contains lot of switching
operations which may introduce discontinuity in the current. Due to this discontinuity and
non-linearity, harmonics are present which affect the quality of power delivered to the
end user. In order to maintain the quality of power delivered, the harmonics should be
filtered out. Thus, a device named Filter is used which serves this purpose. Application of
DC electrified railways as a significant metropolitan means of transportation is increasing
greatly.DC Electrified railways play an important role for public transportation because of
high efficiency, heavy ridership and fast transportation. However, they result in great
power quality problems for the power distribution system which feeds the traction
system. In DC electrified railways, the rectifiers of the traction substations are a major
cause of harmonic distortion in the AC supply High THD of the system current,
harmonics and inter harmonics, reactive power consumption, voltage unbalance and
flicker and low power factor problems can suffer the power distribution system feeding
the traction In anticipation of the proliferation of nonlinear load sand to limit the
problems, recommended guidelines like the IEEE Std. 519-1992 specify the allowable
harmonic associated in the currents drawn from the utility system. Different methods are
utilized for improving the power quality issues of the power distribution system such as
dynamic voltage regulators, Statcom and active or hybrid.
The consumption of reactive power in industrial and domestic loads presents also an
important issue in discussion of power quality problems .the reactive power consumed by
non-resistive loads cause higher rms current values in addition to extra heating of power
transmissions and distribution system. The use of batteries of capacitors or synchronous
machines for local reactive Power production has been proposed for a long time .the
accelerated development of power electronics and semiconductor production had
encouraged the use of STATIC VAR compensators for the reactive power compensation.
However, these solutions looks inefficient and can cause extra problems in power system
in the case of high current and voltage harmonic emissions. The fact that these systems
are especially designed to compensate the fundamental based reactive power, in addition

to high possibilities of interaction between these compensation elements and system

harmonics make it unstable solutions in modern technologies.
During the last three decades the researchers were encouraged by the development of
power electronics industry the revolution in digital signal processing production and the
increasing demand for efficient solutions of power quality problems including harmonics
problem .They were encouraged to develop modern flexible, and more efficient solutions
for power quality problems .These modern solutions have been given the name of active
compensators or active power filter .The objective of dissertation of these active power
filter abbreviation mostly APF is to compensate harmonic and reactive power
compensation and DC power generation was proposed .The main advantages of the APFs
are their flexibility to fit load parameters variations and harmonic frequencies in addition
to high compensation performance. Many types of APF has been proposed and used in
harmonic compensation series APF are used for voltage harmonics compensation shunt
APF were proposed for current harmonics and reactive power compensation .the Unified
power quality filter or conditioner combines the two types shunt and series APF in one
device responsible for simultaneous compensation of voltage current harmonics and
reactive power. Although there are different types of APF, the Shunt APF are still the
most famous and used type APF. The main function of shunt active power filter is to
cancel harmonics current occurring in power grids the principle of SAPF is to generate
harmonics current equal in magnitude and opposite in phase to those harmonics that
circulate in the grids. The nonlinear loads absorb non-sinusoidal form .In this dissertation
work from the static power device SAPF is used with PI controller for the power quality
enhancement in distribution system .Here two different loads are considered, nonlinear
load and unbalanced nonlinear load to enhance the power quality in distribution.
1.1. TYPES OF LOAD
Loads can be characterized into many types according to their nature, function etc. The
type of load we are interested in are
1. Linear load
2. Non-linear load

1.1.1. LINEAR LOAD
Electrical loads whose current wave has a linear relation with the voltage wave are termed
as linear loads. These loads do not cause any harmonics in the system.
1.1.2. NON-LINEAR LOAD
The nonlinear loads are referred to as the loads that distort the current waveform shape
due to the switching action and the current and voltage waveforms are not identical in
shape, e.g. fluorescent lamp, PC and TV etc. Figure 1.1 shows how harmonics injected by
non-linear loads distort the current waveform.
Figure 1.1: Distortion in current waveforms due to harmonics

1.2. PROBLEMS CAUSED BY HARMONICS
Following are the problems that are caused by the presence of harmonics in power
system.
1.2.1. EFFECT ON POWER SYSTEM ITSELF
The major effect of power system harmonics is to increase the current in the
system. This is particularly the case for the third harmonic, which causes a sharp
increase in the zero sequence current, and therefore increases the current in the
neutral conductor.
1.2.2. EFFECT ON CONSUMER ITSELF

Non-linear loads also causes harmonics/distortions in utility supplied voltages due
to which even the linear loads draw non -linear current. Harmonics can also cause
thyristor firing errors in converter. The performance of consumer equipment, such
as motor drives and computer power supplies, can be adversely affected by
harmonics.
1.2.3. EFFECT ON COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Harmonic currents flowing on the utility distribution system or within an end-user
facility can create interference in communication circuits sharing a common path.
Voltages included in parallel conductors by the common harmonic currents often
fall within the bandwidth of neutral voice communications. Harmonic currents on
the power system are coupled into communication system by either induction or
direct conduction.
1.2.4. EFFECT OF REVENUE BILLING

Electrical utility companies usually measure energy consumption in two quantities
energy consumed and the maximum power used for given period. Both energy
and demand are measured using the so-called watt -hour and demand meters.
Harmonic currents from non -linear loads can impact the accuracy of watt-hour

and demand meter adversely. Traditional watt -hour meters are based on the
induction motor principle. Conventional magnetic disk watt -hour meters tend to
have a negative error at harmonic frequencies. That is, they register low for power
at harmonic frequencies if they are properly calibrated for fundamental frequency.
This error increases with increasing frequency.
1.3. SCOPE OF WORK
From the literature review, it is observed that power quality is major area of concern for
power engineers now days. Reliability of supply is of utmost importance for the utilities
to achieve global benefits. Different types of custom power devices are proposed and
analyses to improve the power quality. As the major interruptions to customers are caused
by failure in distribution system, so, more attention is given on the removal of voltage
sags, swells and harmonics at the distribution end. In order to improve the quality of
power, a custom power device called DSTATCOM is used and the results are obtained by
using MATLAB/ SIMULINK. The effectiveness of DSTATCOM can be established for
distribution networks with non-linear loads and with active loads like PV cell and wind
turbine system.
1.4. OBJECTIVE OF THESIS
This work proposes the MATLAB SIMULINK model of DSTATCOM which is used for
the improvement of power quality at distribution level. The major objectives of this work
are summarized as follows:
 To study the model of DSTATCOM along with its controller.
 To investigate the performance of DSTATCOM using dqo transformation control
scheme for non-linear load (FOC induction motor drive load).

CHAPTER -2
LITERATURE SURVEY
In this paper ‘Reactive Power Compensation Using D-STATCOM’ by Vinay M.

Awasthi & Mrs. V. A. Huchche discussed ,the modelling of d-statcom for distribution
system in investigated .The FACTS devices provides a fast and reliable control over
transmission parameters, like voltage, line impedance and phase angle between the
sending end and receiving end voltage. On the other hand the custom power device is
used for voltage distribution and improves the power quality due to which the system
becomes reliable. Custom power devices are very similar to the FACTS devices. Most
widely known custom power devices are D-SATCOM, UPQC, DVR among them D-
STATCOM is well known as it can provide cost effective solution for the compensation
of reactive power . A FACTS is a power electronic based device which maintains the
power quality by maintaining better flow of power and controls the dynamic stability of
the system by changing the system parameters like voltage, phase angle, impedance. In
this paper Distributed Static Compensator (D-STATCOM) is used. A D-STATCOM is a
VSI fed power electronic device which is connected in shunt to the network to mitigate
the harmonics and other power quality problems. The performance of the D-STATCOM
depends on different control algorithms which are used for extraction of reference
currents and to provide pulses to the gate terminals of the VSI. A D-STATCOM
(Distribution Static Compensator), which is schematically depicted in Fig.1, consists of a
two-level Voltage Source Converter (VSC), a dc energy storage device, a coupling
transformer connected in shunt to the distribution network through a coupling
transformer. The VSC converts the ac voltage across the storage device into a set of three-
phase ac output voltages. These voltages are in phase and coupled with the ac system
through the reactance of the coupling transformer. Suitable adjustment of the phase and
magnitude of the D-STATCOM output voltages allows effective control of active and
reactive power exchanges between the D-STATCOM and the ac system. Such

configuration allows he device to absorb or generate controllable active and reactive

power .A D-STATCOM (Distribution Static Compensator), which is schematically
depicted in Fig.1, consists of a two-level Voltage Source Converter (VSC), a dc energy
storage device, a Coupling transformer connected in shunt to the distribution network
through a coupling transformer. The VSC converts the dc voltage across the storage
device into a set of three-phase ac output voltages. These voltages are in phase and
coupled with the ac system through the reactance of the coupling transformer. Suitable
adjustment of the phase and magnitude of the D-STATCOM output voltages allows
effective control of reactive and reactive power exchanges between the D-STATCOM
and the ac system. Such configuration allows the device to absorb or generate controllable
active and reactive power. A D-STATCOM (Distribution Static Compensator), which is
schematically depicted in consists of a two-level Voltage Source Converter (VSC), a dc
energy storage device, a coupling transformer connected in shunt to the distribution
network through a coupling transformer. The VSC converts the dc voltage across the
storage device into a set of three-phase ac output voltages. These voltages are in phase
and coupled with the ac system through the reactance of the coupling transformer.
Suitable adjustment of the phase and magnitude of the D-STATCOM output voltages
allows effective control of active and reactive power exchanges between the D-
STATCOM and the ac system. Such configuration allows the device to absorb or generate
controllable active and reactive power.
In this paper ‘Comphersive Study of D-STATCOM Configuration’ by Bhim Singh, P
Jayaprakash, D P Kothari, Ambrish Chandra and Kamal Al Haddad discussed the in
detail configuration of d-statcom.. The DSTATCOM topologies can be classified based
on the number of switching devices, use of transformers for isolation, use of transformers
for neutral current compensation etc .These DSTATCOMs are developed to meet the
requirements of different applications such as three-phase three-wire and three-phase
four-wire distribution systems. Three-phase four-wire DSTATCOMs are used for the
power quality improvement in three-phase four-wire distribution systems. The
classification of topologies for the three-phase four-wire DSTATCOMs and is mainly
divided into with transformers and without transformers based DSTATCOM topologies.
publications are listed in . One of the major problem in three-phase four-wire distribution

systems is excessive neutral current along with other power quality problems such as poor
voltage regulation, high reactive power burden, harmonics current injection and load
unbalancing . The excessive neutral current is of both fundamental and harmonics and the
neutral conductor is overloaded resulting in busting of it. The major reason for excessive
neutral current in the three-phase four-wire distribution systems is the proliferation of
nonlinear loads as well as unbalanced loads. It has been observed that the dc bus voltage
of VSC is regulated under all conditions of varying loads, verifying the self supporting
operation of all DSTATCOMs. The topology shown is advantageous as three-phase three-
wire DSTATCOM, because it has least numbers of semiconductor devices and hence less
cost, but it has a bulky transformer. The three-leg VSC based DSTATCOM is preferred
when a transformer is not preferred. Similarly, when transformer is not preferred for a
three phase four-wire DSTATCOM, a four-leg VSC based topology is advantageous as a
three-phase three-wire DSTATCOM, because it has least number of semiconductor
devices and the zig-zag transformer has lowest kVA rating. VSC The similar topologies
with T connected transformers may be suitable to applications where space occupied by
transformers is a constraint as they require.
In this paper ‘Analysis of the Operation of a D-STATCOM’ in Unbalanced

Distribution Systems Under Voltage Disturbances’ by Gabriel R. F. Q. Mafra, Wadaed
Uturbey and Braz J. Cardoso Filho discussed the operation of a statics synchronous
compensator for distribution systems, DSTATCOM, in relation to its performance in the
presence of events that can affect system´s power quality, is presented. Performance
under short-circuit and load variation is assessed. The D-STATCOM consists mainly of a
three-level inverter with IGBTs and PWM control. Modeling and simulations are
implemented in Matlab/Simulink. This work presented simulation results for a D-
STATCOM operating in a typical unbalanced distribution test system. Simulations were
conducted in order to assess the DSTATCOM performance under balanced and
unbalanced disturbances. A commercially available D-STATCOM topology was chosen.
In addition, a standard control system was used, in order to illustrate that, in general, good
solutions for power quality related problems can be obtained without resorting to more
complex and specific problem-oriented control systems. The DC voltage, although not

shown, was in all cases, stable with low ripple. Controller parameters did not have to be
modified for different situations in order to perform satisfactorily. Finally, it can be
concluded that the D-STATCOM used in this study can contribute significantly to the
improvement of power quality in unbalanced distribution systems.
In this paper ‘Design and Simulation of Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter

Based D-STATCOM for Compensation of Reactive Power and Harmonics’ by J.
Ganesh Prasad Reddy & K. Ramesh Reddy discussed ,investigation of five-Level
Cascaded H - bridge (CHB) Inverter as Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM)
in Power System (PS) for compensation of reactive power and harmonics. The
advantages of CHB inverter are low harmonic distortion, reduced number of switches and
suppression of switching losses. The DST ATCOM helps to improve the power factor and
eliminate the Total Harmonics Distortion (THD) drawn from a Non-Liner Diode Rectifier
Load (NLDRL). The D-Q reference frame theory is used to generate the reference
compensating currents for DSTATCOM while Proportional and Integral (PI)
control is used for capacitor dc voltage regulation. A CHB Inverter is considered for
shunt compensation of a 11 kV distribution system. Finally a level shifted PWM
(LSPWM) and phase shifted PWM (PSPWM) techniques are adopted to investigate the
performance of CHB Inverter. The results are obtained through Matlab/Simulink software
package. A multilevel inverter can reduce the device voltage and the output harmonics by
increasing the number of output voltage levels. There are several types of multilevel
inverters: cascaded R-bridge (CRB), neutral point clamped, flying capacitor In particular,
among these topologies, CRB inverters are being widely used because of their modularity
and simplicity. Various modulation methods can be applied to CRB inverters. CRB
inverters can also increase the number of output voltage levels easily by increasing the
number of R-bridges. This paper presents a DSTATCOM with a proportional integral
controller based CRB multilevel inverter for the harmonics and reactive power mitigation
of the nonlinear loads. This type of arrangements have been widely used for PQ
applications due to increase in the number of voltage levels, low switching losses, low
electromagnetic compatibility for hybrid filters and higher order harmonic elimination.

CHAPTER-3
PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
3.1. POWER QUALITY
There can be completely different definitions for power quality, depending on one’s
frame of reference. For example, a utility may define power quality as reliability and
show statistics demonstrating that its system is 99.98 % reliable. Criteria established by
regulatory agencies are usually in this vein. A manufacturer of load equipment may
define power quality as those characteristics of the power supply that enable the
equipment to work properly. These characteristics can be very different for different
criteria. Power quality is ultimately a consumer-
driven issue, and the end user’s point of reference takes precedence. Therefore, the
following definition of a power quality problem is used in this report Any power problem
manifested in voltage, current, or frequency deviations that result in failure or mal-
operation of customer equipment. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
Standard IEEE1100 defines power quality as “The concept of powering and grounding
sensitive electronic equipment in a manner suitable for the equipment.”
3.2. POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

Both electric utilities and end users of electric power are becoming increasingly
concerned about the quality of electric power. The term power quality has become one
of the most prolific buzzwords in the power industry since the late 1980s. It is an
umbrella concept for a multitude of individual types of power system disturbances. The
issues that fall under this umbrella are not necessarily new. What is new is that engineers
are now attempting to deal with these issues using a system approach rather than handling
them as individual problems.

 There are four major reasons for the increased concern:

 Newer-generation load equipment, with microprocessor-based controls and
power electronic devices, is more sensitive to power quality variations than was
equipment used in the past.
 The increasing emphasis on overall power system efficiency has resulted in
continued growth in the application of devices such as high-efficiency, adjustable-
speed motor drives and shunt capacitors for power factor correction to reduce
losses. This is resulting in increasing harmonic levels on power systems and has
many people concerned about the future impact on system capabilities.
 End users have an increased awareness of power quality issues. Utility customers
are becoming better informed about such issues as interruptions, sags, and
transients and are challenging the utilities to improve the quality of power
delivered.
 Many things are now interconnected in a network. Integrated processes mean that
the failure of any component has much more important consequences.
3.3. PERCEPTION ABOUT POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

Perception about power quality problem is different when it comes to customer and a
utility engineer may think of a surge as the transient resulting from a lightning stroke for
which a surge arrester is used for protection. End users frequently use the word
indiscriminately to describe anything unusual that might be observed on the power supply
ranging from sags to swells to interruptions.

Figure 3.1.Results of a Survey on the Cause of Power Quality Problems
3.4. GENERAL CLASSES OF POWER QUALITY

PROBLEMS
Classification of power quality problems can be made as follows:
3.4.1. TRANSIENTS
The term transient has long been used in the analysis of power system variations to
denote an event that is undesirable and momentary in nature. The notion of a damped
oscillatory transient due to an RLC network is probably what most power engineers
think of when they hear the word transient. Other definitions in common use are
broad in scope and simply state that a transient is “that part of the change in a variable
that disappears during transition from one steady state operating condition to
another.” Unfortunately, this definition could be used to describe just about anything
unusual that happens on the power system. Another word in common usage that is
often considered synonymous with transient is surge. A utility engineer may think of a
surge as the transient resulting from a lightning stroke for which a surge arrester is
used for protection. End users frequently use the word indiscriminately to describe

anything unusual that might be observed on the power supply ranging from sags to
swells to interruptions. Because there are many potential ambiguities with this word
in the power quality field, we will generally avoid using it unless we have specifically
defined what it refers to. Broadly speaking, transients can be classified into two
categories, impulsive and oscillatory. These terms reflect the wave shape of a current
or voltage transient. We will describe these two categories in more detail.
3.4.1.1. IMPULSIVE TRANSIENT
An impulsive transient is a sudden non–power frequency change in the steady-state

condition of voltage, current, or both that is unidirectional in polarity (primarily either
positive or negative). Impulsive transients are normally characterized by their rise and
decay times, which can also be revealed by their spectral content. The most common
cause of impulsive transients is lightning. Fig. 2.2 illustrates a typical current impulsive
transient caused by lightning. Because of the high frequencies involved, the shape of
impulsive transients can be changed quickly by circuit components and may have
significantly different characteristics when viewed from different parts of the power
system. They are generally not conducted far from the source of where they enter the
power system, although they may, in some cases, be conducted for quite some distance
along utility lines. Impulsive transients can excite the natural frequency of power system
circuits and produce oscillatory transients.
Fig. 3.2: Lightning Stroke Current Impulsive Transient

3.4.1.2. OSCILLATORY TRANSIENT:

An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non–power frequency change in the steady-state
condition of voltage, current, or both, that includes both positive and negative polarity
values. An oscillatory transient consists of a voltage or current whose instantaneous
value changes polarity rapidly. It is described by its spectral content (predominate
frequency), duration, and magnitude. The frequency ranges for these classifications
are chosen to coincide with common types of power system oscillatory transient
phenomena. Oscillatory transients with a primary frequency component greater than
500 kHz and a typical duration measured in microseconds (or several cycles of the
principal frequency) are considered high-frequency transients. These transients are
often the result of a local system response to an impulsive transient. A transient with a
primary frequency component between 5 and 500 kHz with duration measured in the
tens of microseconds (or several cycles of the principal frequency) is termed a
medium-frequency transient. Back-to-back capacitor energization results in
oscillatory transient currents in the tens of kilohertz as illustrated in Fig. 2.3 Cable
switching results in oscillatory voltage transients in the same frequency range.
Medium-frequency transients can also be the result of a system response to an
impulsive transient.
Figure 3.3: Oscillatory Transient

3.5. LONG-DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATIONS

Long duration voltage variations are as follows
3.5.1. OVERVOLTAGE
An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110 percent at the power
frequency for duration longer than 1 min. Over voltages are usually the result of load
switching (e.g., switching off a large load or energizing a capacitor bank). The over
voltages result because either the system is too weak for the desired voltage regulation or
voltage control sare inadequate. Incorrect tap settings on transformers can also result in
system overvoltage.
3.5.2. UNDER VOLTAGE

An under voltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than 90 percent at the
power frequency for a duration longer than 1 min. Under voltages are the results of
switching events that are the opposite of the events that cause over voltages. A load
switching on or a capacitor bank switching off can cause an under voltage until
voltage regulation equipment on the system can bring the voltage back to within
tolerances. Overloaded circuits can result in under voltages .The term brownout is
often used to describe sustained periods of under voltage initiated as a specific utility
dispatch strategy to reduce power demand. Because there is no formal definition for
brownout and it is not as clear as the term under-voltage when trying to characterize a
disturbance, the term brownout should be avoided.
3.5.3. SUSTAINED INTERRUPTIONS

When the supply voltage has been zero for a period of time in excess of 1 min, the
long-duration voltage variation is considered a sustained interruption. Voltage
interruptions longer than 1 min are often permanent and require human intervention to
repair the system for restoration. The term sustained interruption refers to specific

power system phenomena and, in general, has no relation to the usage of the term
outage. Utilities use outage or interruption to describe phenomena of similar nature
for reliability reporting purposes. However, this causes confusion for end users who
think of an outage as any interruption of power that shuts down a process. This could
be as little as one-half of a cycle. Outage, as defined in IEEE Standard 1008 does not
refer to a specific phenomenon, but rather to the state of a component in a system that
has failed to function as expected. Also, use of the term interruption in the context of
power quality monitoring has no relation to reliability or other continuity of service
statistics. Thus, this term has been defined to be more specific regarding the absence
of voltage for long periods.
3.5.3.1. SHORT-DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATIONS

Short-duration voltage variations are caused by fault conditions, the energization of
large loads which require high starting currents, or intermittent loose connections in
power wiring. Depending on the fault location and the system conditions, the fault can
cause either temporary voltage drops (sags), voltage rises (swells), or a complete loss
of voltage (interruptions).
3.5.3.2. SAGS (DIPS)
Sag is a decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in rms voltage or current at the power
frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.

Figure 3.4: Three-Phase RMS Voltages for a Momentary Interruption Due to a Fault and
Sub-Sequent Recloser Operation
3.5.3.3. SWELLS
A swell is defined as an increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or current at
the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min. As with sags, swells are
usually associated with system fault conditions, but they are not as common as voltage
sags. One way that a swell can occur is from the temporary voltage rise on the un faulted
phases during an SLG fault.

Figure 3.5: Voltage Swell
3.5.4. INTERRUPTION
An interruption occurs when the supply voltage or load current decreases to less than
0.1 pu for a period of time not exceeding 1 min. Interruptions can be the result of
power system faults, equipment failures, and control malfunctions. The interruptions
are measured by their duration since the voltage magnitude is always less than 10
percent of nominal. The duration of an interruption due to a fault on the utility system
is determined by the operating time of utility protective devices. Instantaneous
reclosing generally will limit the interruption caused by a non-permanent fault to less
than 30 cycles. Delayed reclosing of the protective device may cause a momentary or
temporary interruption. The duration of an interruption due to equipment
malfunctions or loose connections can be irregular.
3.5.5. VOLTAGE IMBALANCE
Voltage imbalance (also called voltage unbalance) is sometimes defined as the maximum
deviation from the average of the three-phase voltages or currents, divided by the average
of the three-phase voltages or currents, expressed in %.

Fig. 3.6: Voltage Imbalance Trend for a Residential Feeder
3.5.6. WAVEFORM DISTORTION
Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of

power frequency principally characterized by the spectral content of the deviation. There
are five primary types of waveform distortion:
 DC offset
 Harmonics
 Inter-harmonics
 Notching
 Noise
3.5.7. HARMONICS
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer
multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (termed the
fundamental frequency; usually 50 or 60 Hz). Periodically distorted waveforms can be
decomposed into a sum of the fundamental frequency and the harmonics. Harmonic
distortion originates in the nonlinear characteristics of devices and loads on the power

system. Harmonic distortion levels are described by the complete harmonic spectrum with
magnitudes and phase angles of each individual harmonic component. It is also common
to use a single quantity, the total harmonic distortion (THD), as a measure of the effective
value of harmonic distortion. IEEE Standard 519-1992 provides guidelines for harmonic
current and voltage distortion levels on distribution and transmission circuits.
Figure 3.7: Harmonic
3.5.8. INTER-HARMONICS
Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of the
frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz) are called
inter-harmonics.
3.5.9. VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION
Voltage fluctuations are systematic variations of the voltage envelope or a series of

random voltage changes, the magnitude of which does not normally exceed the voltage
ranges of 0.9 to 1.1 pu.

Figure 3.8: Voltage Fluctuation
3.6. SOLUTIONS TO PQ PROBLEMS
The solution to the power quality can be done from customer side or from utility side.
Approaches that are used to improve the power quality are as follows:
 Load conditioning: It make certain that the equipment is less responsive to power
disturbances, allowing the operation even under large voltage distortion.
 Line conditioning systems: They overcome or redress the power system
disruptions. To achieve improve power quality is to use passive filters connected
at the sensitive load terminals. The objection is to administer the sensitive load
terminal voltage so that its magnitude remains same and any harmonic distortion
is reduced to an adequate level

3.7. CUSTOM POWER DEVICES
Modern power systems are complex networks where hundreds of generating stations and
thousands of load centers are interconnected through long power transmission and
distribution networks. The main concern of consumers is the quality and reliability of
power supplies at various load canters where they are located at .Even though the power
generation in most well developed countries is fairly reliable. Power distribution systems
ideally, should provide their customers with an uninterrupted flow of energy at smooth
sinusoidal voltage at the constant magnitude level and frequency. However in practice
power systems especially the distribution systems have numerous non linear loads, which
significantly effect the quality of power supplies. As a result of the non linear loads, the
purity of the waveform of supplies is lost. This ends up producing many power quality
problems. Apart from non linear loads some system events both usual (e.g. capacitor
switching, motor starting) and unusual (e.g. faults) could also inflict power quality
problems. The consequence of power quality problems could range from a simple
nuisance flicker in the electrical lamps to loss thousands of dollars due to production
shutdown. A power quality problem is defined as any manifested problem in voltage or
current or leading to frequency deviations that result in failure or mis operation of
customer equipment . Voltage sag is defined as the sudden reduction of supply voltage
down 90% to 10% of nominal, followed by a recovery after a short period of time. A
typical duration of sag is, according to the standard 10 ms to one minute .Voltage sag can
cause loss of production in automated process since voltage sag can trip a motor or cause
its controller to malfunction. Voltage swell, on the other hand, is defined as a sudden
increasing of supply voltage up 110% t0 180% in rms voltage at the network fundamental
frequency duration 10ms to one minute. Switching off a large inductive load or
energizing a large capacitor bank in a typical system event that causes swells. To
compensate the voltage sag or swell in a power distribution system, appropriate devices
need to be installed at suitable location. These devices are typically placed at the point of
common coupling(PCC) which is defined as the point where the ownership of the
network changes.

3.8. CUSTOM POWER TECHNOLOGIES
The concept of custom power was introduced by N.G. Hingorani in1995.Like for
transmission systems, the term custom power pertains to the use of power electronic
controllers in a distribution system, especially, to deal with various power quality
problems. Just as FACTS improves the power transfer capabilities and stability margins,
custom power makes sure customers get pre-specified quality and reliability of supply.
This pre-specified quality may contain a combination of specifications of the following.
1. Low phase unbalance
2. No power interruptions
3. Low flicker at the load voltage
4. Low harmonic distortion in load voltage
5. Magnitude and duration of over voltages or under voltages with in specified limits
6. Acceptance of Fluctuations
7. Nonlinear and poor power factor loads without significant effect on terminal voltage
8. "Tight" voltage regulation including short duration sags or swells
These can be done on the basis of an individual, large customer, industrial or commercial
parts or a supply for a high community on wide area basis. Custom power technology is a
general term for equipment capable of mitigating numerous power quality problems Basic
functions are fast switching and current or voltage injection for correcting anomalies in
supply voltage or load current, by injecting or absorbing reactive and active power
respectively. The concept of Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems
(FACTS) and Custom Power is widely studied by the researcher. FACTS use Power
electronic devices and methods to control the high-voltage side of the network for
improving the power flow. Custom Power is for low-voltage distribution, and improving
the poor power quality and reliability of supply affecting factories, offices and homes.
Power quality and Reliability are becoming important issues for critical and sensitive
loads after introducing the term of Custom Power by Hingorani in early 1980s. Custom
power is formally defined as the employment of power electronic or static controllers in

distribution systems rated up to 38 kV for the purpose of supplying a level of reliability or

PQ that is needed by electric power customers who are sensitive to power variations.
Custom power devices or controllers include static switches, inverters, converters,
injection transformers, master-control modules and energy-storage modules that have the
ability to perform current-interruption and voltage-regulation functions with in a
distribution system. The power electronic controllers that are used in the custom power
solution can be a network reconfiguring type or a compensating type. The network
reconfiguring devices are usually called switchgears which include current limiting,
current breaking and current transferring devices. The solid state or static versions of the
devices are called: solid state current limiter (SSCL), solid state breaker (SSB), and solid
state transfer switch (SSTS). The compensating devices compensate a load, i.e. its power
factor, unbalance conditions or improve the power quality of supplied voltage, etc. These
devices are either connected in shunt or in series or a combination of both. This class of
devices includes the distribution static compensator (D-STATCOM), dynamic voltage
restorer (DVR), and unified power quality conditioner (UPQC). Among compensating
devices, a Dynamic Voltage Restorer can deal with voltage sags and swells which are
considered to have a severe impact on manufacturing places such as semiconductors and
plastic products, food processing places and paper mills. Custom Power Devices is
classified into three categories by their structures such as Dynamic Voltage Restorer
(DVR), Distribution STATCOM
(DSTATCOM) and Solid-State Breaker (SSB). Two of the devices DSTATCOM and the
DVR share a similar architecture. Both are based on the voltage source converter. DVR is
connected in series with the line where as DSTATCOM is in shunt with the line across
the load. Among these devices, the main purpose of DVR that injects voltage in series
with a distribution feeder is reducing the effect of short-term voltage sags, dips, swells
and momentary interruptions. The proposed system has a function of generating and
absorbing voltage by self-charging control technique. This system has three states:
1) normal operation, 2) charging operation and 3) recharging operation.

3.9. FAMILY CUSTOM POWER DEVICES

The family of emerging power electronic devices being offered to achieve these
Custom Power [2-3] objectives includes:
(a) Distribution Static Compensator (D-STATCOM) to protect the
distribution system from the effects of a polluting, e.g. fluctuating, voltage sags,
swells, transients or harmonics non-linear (harmonics producing), and load.
(b) Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) to protect a critical load from
disturbances, e.g. sags, swells, transients or harmonics, originating on the
interconnected transmission or distribution system.
(c) Solid-State Breaker (SSB) to provide power quality improvement
through instantaneous current interruption thereby protecting sensitive loads from
disturbances
that conventional electromechanical breaker cannot eliminate.
(d) Solid-State Transfer Switch (SSTS) to instantaneously transfer
sensitive loads from a disturbance on the normal feed to the undisturbed alternate
feed.
3.10. D-STATCOM
The D-STATCOM is a solid-state dc to ac switching power converter that
consists of a three-phase, voltage-source forced air-cooled inverter. In its basic
form, the D-STATCOM injects a voltage in phase with the system voltage, thus
providing voltage support and regulation of VAR flow. The D-STATCOM can
also be used to reduce the level of harmonics on a line. Because the D-STATCOM
continuously checks the line waveform with respect to a reference AC signal, it
always provides the correct amount of harmonic compensation. By a similar
argument, the D-STATCOM is also suitable for reducing the impact of voltage
transients. The amount of load that can be supported is determined by the MVA
rating of the inverters, and the length of time that the load can be maintained by

the amount of energy storage provided. The D-STATCOM is available in ratings

from 2 to 10 MVA in modular 2-MVA increments. These are similar in
performance to SVC. Using only capacitors or inductors or batteries, these devices
can draw / supply both leading and lagging currents. They have a very good
response time and are more suitable for special industrial loads like arc furnaces.
DSTATCOM is basically a shunt connected solid state device which is installed at
the Distribution level so as to control the load side disturbances. The first
DSTATCOM, a SVC with Voltage Source Converter was employed in 1999. It
has overcome the synchronous condenser because of its lower investment cost,
better dynamics, no inertia, lower operating and maintenance cost. A power VSC
based on high power electronic technologies is the heart of D-STATCOM . D-
STATCOM provides reactive power compensation in ac networks. The voltage
source converter controls the exchange of reactive power between the Dc voltage
storage device and the AC system through the leakage reactance of a transformer.
DSTATCOM constantly verifies the line waveform with respect to the reference
ac signal so as to provide the sufficient quantity of leading or lagging reactive
current compensation to decrease the voltage fluctuations. A DSTATCOM is
similar to STATCOM with the difference that STATCOM is used at the
transmission level to control fundamental reactive power and to offer voltage
support whereas a DSTATCOM is used at the distribution level for voltage
regulation and correcting the power factor. DSTATCOM can also be employed to
eliminate the total harmonic distortions, voltage sags and swells [9]. Moreover, a
DSTATCOM can act as a shunt active filter, to reduce unbalance or distortions in
the source current or the supply voltage.

Figure 3.9. Basic Structure of D-STATCOM
3.11. BASIC CONFIGURATION OF DSTATCOM
The main components of DSTATCOM are:

 Voltage Source Converter
 Energy Storage Device
 L-C Passive Filter
 Coupling Transformer

Figure 3.10. Schematic Representation of the DSTATCOM
3.11.1 VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTER

A VSC converts the DC voltage across storage device into a three phase AC output
voltage wave. This output voltage is controlled in magnitude and phase angle to generate
required leading or lagging reactive power for compensation. A VSC can be a 3-phase,
3- wire or 3- phase, 4-wire. It can be a two level converter or a three level converter. In
this work, a two level VSC is utilized.
3.11.2ENERGY STORAGE DEVICE

DC source is connected in shunt with the DC capacitor. It is the major element that
stores the reactive energy and carries the input ripple current. This storage device is
charged by a battery source or can be recharged by a converter itself. Its main function is
to supply energy to VSC through a dc link to generate the injected voltage.

3.11.3 L-C PASSIVE FILTER
The selection of LC filter is based on the type of system and the presence of
harmonics at the inverter output. To eliminate the harmonics and to match the output
impedance of inverter, LC filter is utilized.
3.11.4 COUPLING TRANSFORMER
The output voltage of voltage source converter is linked with the AC system via
coupling transformer. These voltages are coupled with AC system through the reactance
of coupling transformer.
3.12 CONTROL BLOCK
The main functions of Control block are the detection of fault, voltage sag and voltage
swell in the system, computation of voltage, generation of trigger pulses to the sinusoidal
PWM based DC-AC inverter and closing the trigger pulses when the event has passed.
External devices such as mechanically switched capacitor banks are also controlled by the
control blocks. These control blocks are designed on the basis of various control theories
and algorithms like instantaneous DQO theory, synchronous frame theory etc.
3.13 LOCATION OF DSTATCOM
The DSTATCOM is connected in shunt with distribution system as shown in Figure-3.11.

Here in this figure three distribution feeders are considered. These feeders are feeding
different sensitive loads. DSTATCOM is connected at the point of common coupling to
inject current into the system when any non-linearity occurs due to these loads.

Figure 3.11. Typical Location of DSTATCOM in Distribution System
3.14 PRINCIPLE OF DSTATCOM
A DSTATCOM is a solid state power electronic switching device which includes either
GTO or IGBT, an energy storage device, a coupling transformer and a controller. The
fundamental principle of a DSATCOM is same as that of synchronous machine. The
synchronous machine supplies lagging current when under excited and leading current
when over excited. Similarly, DSTATCOM can produce and absorb reactive power
depending upon the compensation required. The DSTATCOM is linked to the power
networks at a PCC, where the voltage-quality problem occurs. All the necessary voltages
and currents are calculated and are compared with the commands by the controller. The

controller then executes feedback control and generates a set of switching pulses to drive
the power converter. Figure-3.12 shows a single line diagram of a DSTATCOM.
Figure 3.12. Single Line diagram of DSTATCOM
The IGBT based VSC changes the DC voltage into a set of three-phase ac output
voltages. These voltages are in phase and linked with the AC system through the
reactance of the coupling transformer. To efficiently control the active and reactive power
exchange between the DSTATCOM and the ac system, appropriate alteration of phase
and magnitude of DSTATCOM output voltages is done.

3.15 EXCHANGE OF REACTIVE POWER
Variable amplitude of the DSTATCOM output voltage controls the reactive power
exchange of the DSTATCOM with the AC system. The reactive power supplied by the
DSTATCOM is given by
Where,
Q-is the reactive power.
Vi-is the magnitude of DSTATCOM output voltage.
Vs-is the magnitude of system voltage.
X- is the equivalent impedance between DSTATCOM and the system.
Reactive power exchange between DSTATCOM and AC system is explained
through following cases:
Case I: If the amplitudes of the DSTATCOM output voltage which is Vi and the AC
system voltage which is Vs are equal, the reactive current is zero and the DSTATCOM
does not generate/absorb reactive power. It is shown in Figure-3.13.
Figure 3.13. No Load Operation

Case II: If the amplitude of the DSTATCOM output voltage is increased above the
amplitude of the AC system voltage, the lagging current flows through the transformer
reactance from the DSTATCOM to the AC system, resulting in the device generating
capacitive reactive power. It is shown in Figure-3.14.
Figure 3.14.Capacitive Operation
Case III: If the amplitude of the DSTATCOM output voltage is decreased to a level
below hat of the AC system, then the leading current flows from the AC system to the
DSTATCOM and the device produce inductive reactive power. It is shown in Figure-
3.15.
Figure 3.15. Inductive Operation

3.16 EXCHANGE OF ACTIVE POWER
The DC capacitor is required to supply real power to the switches because greater
switching devices are employed. To make the capacitor voltage constant, real power
exchange is required in the case of direct voltage control. Figure-3.16 shows the V-I
characteristic of the DSTATCOM. The voltage from V1 to V2 is smoothly and
continuously controlled by the DSTATCOM.
Figure 3.16. V-I Characteristic of a DSTATCOM

In case of very low voltage in the distribution system or in case of faults, there is a real
power exchange with the AC system if DSTATCOM is provided with an external DC
source to regulate the voltage. If the VSC output voltage leads the system voltage then the
real power from the capacitor or the DC source will be supplied to the AC system to
regulate the system voltage equal to 1 p.u or to make the capacitor voltage constant
3.17 LOAD COMPENSATION USING DSTATCOM
The schematic diagram shown in Figure-3.17 describes a distribution system

compensated by DSTATCOM. Suppose, the DSTATCOM is working in current control
mode and Load-1 is non-linear, reactive and unbalanced. Initially without compensator,
the unbalanced and distorted current Is is flowing through the feeder, which results in
unbalanced voltage of bus-1.

-
Figure3.17. Schematic Diagram of Ideal Load Compensation
To eliminate this problem, DSTATCOM injects Ish current so as to make current Is
fundamental and positive sequence and compel Is to be in phase with the bus-1 voltage.
The method of operating the DSTATCOM to compensate the load current is known as
load compensation. The compensated load will obtain a unity power factor and a
fundamental positive sequence current. The utility customer point of common coupling
(PCC) is the point at which the compensator is linked with the system. Representing the
load current by IL, the KCL at the PCC yields:
Is + Ish = IL ...(3.1)
So, from above equation Ish is written as:
Ish = IL- If ...(3.2)
The main function of the compensator is that it produces a current Ish that cancels the
reactive component, harmonic component and unbalance of the load current.

3.18 APPLICATIONS OF DSTATCOM
A DSTATCOM is similar to STATCOM with the difference that STATCOM is used at

the transmission level to control fundamental reactive power and to offer voltage support
where as a DSTATCOM is used at the distribution level for voltage regulation and
correcting the power factor. Various applications of DSTATCOM are as follow:
 The DSTATCOM provides high speed control over reactive power to compensate
voltage.
 DSTATCOM defend the utility distribution system from voltage sags and flicker
caused due to varying reactive current demand.
 A DSTATCOM supply leading or lagging reactive power to attain system stability
during transient conditions.
 The DSTATCOM can also be utilized for industrial facilities to compensate
voltage sag and flicker that are caused by non-linear dynamic loads.
 The DSTATCOM provides instant reactive power exchange across the
distribution system without using bulky capacitors or reactors.In many
applications, a DSTATCOM can utilize its very important short-term transient
overload capability to decrease the size of the compensation system required to
handle transient incidents. The short-term overload capability is up to 325% for
periods of 1 to 3 seconds. The DSTATCOM controls mechanically switched
capacitors to produce the possible compensation on a both a transient and steady
state basis.
 DSTATCOM can also be employed for the utilities having weak grid knots or
fluctuating reactive loads.
 It can be used for delivering unbalanced loads (like arc furnace load, wood
chippers welding operations, car crushers & shredders etc.).
 DSTATCOM finds various applications in wind farms and industrial mill for the
improvement of power quality.

3.19 CONTROLLING SCHEME
The main objective of any compensation scheme is that it should have a fast response,
flexible and easy to implement. The control algorithms of a DSTATCOM are mainly
implemented in the following steps:
* Measurements of system voltages and current and signal conditioning.
* Calculation of compensating signals.
* Generation of firing angles of switching devices.
Generation of proper PWM firing is the most important part of DSTATCOM control and
has a great impact on the compensation objectives, transient as well as steady state
performance. Since a DSTATCOM shares many concepts to that of a STATCOM at
transmission level, a few control algorithms have been directly implemented to a
DSTATCOM. This paper presents the p-q theory with the hysteresis current controller
scheme of a DSTATCOM for reactive power compensation.
3.20.INTRODUCTION TO P-Q THEORY

In 1983, a new theory for the control of active filters in three-phase power systems was
proposed (Hirofumi Akagi et al. 2007). It is called Generalized Theory of the
Instantaneous Reactive Power in Three-Phase Circuits or p-q Theory. It is initially
developed for three-phase three wire systems and three-phase four-wire systems for
compensation of harmonic pollution in the utility side. The neutral current compensation
is also done by this theory. The compensation in the utility systems is done by the
generation of reference compensation current using the three phase p-q theory (Peterson
and Singh 2009). But in some cases of voltage imbalance in three phase systems due to
harmonic voltages, the sinusoidal reference current for compensation is not generated for
all the phases. This limitation in the three phase systems is over comed by the
introduction of single phase p-q theory. It uses simple calculations for deriving the
reference current in all conditions of imbalances due to the power defects. The designing
by using this theory is also efficient and flexible (Leszek and Czarnecki 2004). It can be
used for compensation of both single phase and three systems.

Figure 3.18. Block Diagram of Control Scheme
3.20 THE CLARKE TRANSFORMATION
The αβ0 transformation or Clarke transformation maps the three phase instantaneous
voltages in the abc phases va, vb and vc into instantaneous voltages on αβ0 axes. The
Clarke transformation and its inverse transformation of three phase generic voltages are
given by

 1 1 1 
 2 2 2 
vo    va 
  2  1 1  v 
 v   3 
1 
2

2   b 
v     v c 
   3 3 
 0  …(3.3)
2 2 
 1 
 10 
 2 
v a  v0 
v   2  1 1 3   
 b      v 
3  2 2 2 
 v  v 
  
3 
c
1 1
   
 2 2 2  …(3.4)
Similarly , three –phase generic instantaneous line currents ia,ib and ic can be transformed
on the αβ0 axes by

 1 1 1 
 2 2 2 
 i0     ia 
  2  1 1  i 
 i   3 
1 
2

2   b 
 i     i c 
   3 3 
 0  
2 2 …(3.5)
And its inverse transformation is-
 1 
 2 10 
 ia     i0 
i   2  1 1 3  
 b     i 
3  2 2 2  i
 ic  
 1   
1 3
   
 2 2 2  …(3.6)
One advantage of applying the αβ0 transformation is to separate zero sequence

components from the abc-phase components. The α and β makes no contribtution to zero-
sequence components. No zero sequence currents exists in a three three phase three wire
system so that i0 can be eliminated from the above equation, thus resulting in
simplification.
If v0 can be eliminated from the transformation matrixes, the Clarke transformation and
its inverse transformation become-

 1 1  v 
1 
 v  2  2 2   a 
v     vb 
   3  3 3 
 0    v c 
2 2  …(3.7)
And
 
1 0 
va   
v   2 

1 3   v 
 b  3  2 2  v 
 v c     
 1  3 
 2 2 
…(3.8)
Calculation of voltages and current vectors when zero sequence components are
excluded-
If v0 can be neglected, an instantaneous voltage vector is defined from the instantaneous α
and β volage components, that is
e  v   j v 
…(3.9)
Similarly , if i0 can be neglected ,the instantaneous current vector is defined as-
i  i  j i 
…(3.10)
The above instantaneous vectors can be represented in a complex plane, where the real
axis is the α axis and the imaginary axis is β axis of the Clarke transformation. It should

be noted that the vectors defined above are functions of time, because they consist of the
Clarke components of the instantaneous phase voltage and line currents in a three phase
system.
Consider the following sinusoidal balanced phase voltages and line currents of a three
phase linear circuit.
 
va (t)  2V cos(t v ) ia (t )  2 I cos( t   I )
 
 2  2
bv (t )  2V cos(t  v  ) b i ( t )  2 I cos(  t   I  )
 3  3
 2  2
vc (t )  2V cos(t  v  )  ic ( t )  2 I cos( t   I  )
3 3 ….(3.11)
The angles φv and φi are the voltages and current phases, respectively, with respect to a
given refereance.
3.21 PWM TECHNIQUE
Pulse Width Modulation method is a fixed dc input voltage is given to the inverters
and a controlled ac output voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and off periods of
the inverter components. This is the most popular method of controlling the output
voltage and in this method is known as pulse width modulation (PWM CONTROL)
3.21.1 TYPES OF PWM TECHNIQUE

Different types of PWM control technique is given as follows:
1) Single pulse width modulation (Single PWM)
2) Multiple pulse width modulation (MPWM)
3) Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM)
4) Modified Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (MSPWM)

3.21.3.1 SINUSOIDAL PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (SPWM)
Figure below explains the generation of a sinusoidal PWM signal, which finds more
applications in industries. The gating signal can be generated by comparing a sinusoidal
reference signal with a triangular carrier wave and the width of each pulse varied
proportionally to the amplitude of a sine wave evaluated at the center of the same pulse.
The output frequency (fo) of the inverter can be found by using the frequency of the
reference signal (fr). The rms output voltage (vo) can be controlled by modulation index
M and in turn modulation index is controlled by peak amplitude (Ar). The voltage can be
calculated byVO Vs S1 S4 The number of pulses per half cycle depends on the carrier
frequency. The gating signal can be produced by using the unidirectional triangular
carrier wave.
Figure.3.19. Generation of PWM Signals

CHAPTER-4
RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. INTRODUCTION
In this project, software program has been developed in Matlab for Reactive power
compensation D-STATCOM on radial distribution system.
This Matlab program is tested for ‘REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION USING
D-STATCOM’ by Vinay M. Awasthi & Mrs. V. A. Huchche IEEE-2016 . The values
taken for testing method are presented in table. Then after installing D-STATCOM, the
proposed method is applied. The results obtained for these systems are briefly
summarized in this section.
4.2. SYSTEM PARAMETERS

S.NO. PARAMETERS VALUE
1 Supply Voltage and 400V and 50Hz
Frequency
2 Source Impedance R=0ohm and L=0H
3 DC Link Capacitor Voltage 800V
4 Coupling Impedance 0.124 ohm
5 Non Linear Balanced 6KVA

Load DC side
6 Non-Linear Unbalanced R=20Ohm
RLC Load DC side L=0.1H C=1.23F

4.3. SIMULATION MODEL OF UNCOMPENSATED LINE
Figure 4.1: SIMULINK MODEL OF UNCOMPENSATED LINE
Figure shows a distribution system containing an unbalanced load. . It is assumed that the
supply voltage is sinusoidal and positive sequence. However, the voltage at PCC (Vt)
becomes unbalanced and contains harmonics due to the system impedance. The voltage at
the point of connection would be sinusoidal and comprise of positive sequence
components because the source voltage assumed is sinusoidal and positive sequence.
Thus, the DSTATCOM should inject negative, zero sequence fundamental frequency
components in addition to harmonic currents of all sequences. As shown in Fig. 2, the
DSTATCOM contains three single phase full bridge converters, connected to a common
DC bus. The DC link capacitor C dc regulates the DC link voltage. So, a DC bus voltage
control loop is required in order to maintain the capacitor voltage near the desired value.
Also, with the variation in load over the time period, charging and discharging of
capacitor takes place, resulting in ripples in voltage, which are to be minimized.

4.4. SIMULINK MODEL OF COMPENSATED LINE WITH

D-STATCOM
Figure 4.2: Simulink Model of Distribution System With D-Statcom
A D-STATCOM is a VSI fed power electronic device which is connected in shunt to the
network to mitigate the harmonics and other power quality problems. The D-STATCOM
basically consists leakage reactance, a three phase GTO/IGBT voltage source inverter
(VSI), and a DC capacitor The Basic Arrangement of D-STATCOM is shown. The AC
voltage difference across the leakage reactance power exchange between the D-
STATCOM and the Power system, such that the AC voltages at the bus bar can be
regulated to improve the voltage profile of the power system, which is primary duty of the
D-STATCOM. The voltage at the point of connection would be sinusoidal and comprise
of positive sequence components because the source voltage assumed is sinusoidal and
positive sequence. Thus, the DSTATCOM should inject negative, zero sequence
fundamental frequency components in addition to harmonic currents of all sequences. As
shown in the DSTATCOM contains three single phase full bridge converters, connected

to a common DC bus. The DC link capacitor Cdc regulates the DC link voltage. So, a DC
bus voltage control loop is required in order to maintain the capacitor voltage near the
desired value. Also, with the variation in load over the time period, charging and
discharging of capacitor takes place, resulting in ripples in voltage, which are to be
minimized.
4.5. SIMULINK MODEL OF CONTROLLER
Figure 4.3: Simulink Model of Controller

The aim of the control scheme is to achieve constant voltage magnitude at the point
where a sensitive load under system disturbances is connected. The control system only
measures the rms voltage at the load point. The VSC switching strategy is based on a
sinusoidal PWM technique which gives simplicity and provides good response. As
custom power is a relatively low-power application, PWM methods offer a more flexible
option than the fundamental frequency switching methods used in FACTS applications.
Apart from this, high switching frequencies can be used to improve on the efficiency of
the converter, without incurring significant switching losses. The controller input is an
error signal obtained from the reference voltage and the rms terminal voltage measured.
Such error is processed by a PI controller; the output is the angle 0, which is provided to
the PWM signal generator. It is important to note that in this case, of indirectly controlled
converter, there is active and reactive power exchange with the network simultaneously.
The PI controller processes the error signal and generates the required angle to drive the
error to zero, i.e. the load rms voltage is brought back to the reference voltage.

4.6. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

4.6.1. Case 1-Without D-STATCOM
The waveform of supply voltage, supply current and load current without D-STATCOM
is shown. In the figure 4.4 for nonlinear balanced load. In this case R=20ohm, L=10Mh
and C= are taken with 3-phase diode rectifier circuit consider as a nonlinear load balanced
load.
Figure 4.4: Waveform of supply voltage, supply current & load current

Figure 4.5: FFT analysis of phase a current without D-STATCOM
The above figure shows three phase source voltage ,three phase source current and load
current respectively without D-STATCOM .It is clear that without D-STATCOM load
current and source currents are same. Both source current and load current are Non-
Sinusoidal in nature. At fundamental frequency of 50 Hz the Total Harmonic Distortion
(THD) without D-STATCOM =17.28% which is not permissible in the Distribution
System.

4.6.2. Case 2- With D-STATCOM
Figure 4.6: Waveform of supply voltage, supply current & load current

Figure 4.7: Inserted D-STATCOM Current
Figure 4.8: DC-Capacitor Voltage

Figure 4.9: FFT analysis of phase a current with D-STATCOM
The above figure shows three phase source voltage ,three phase source current and load
current respectively with D-STATCOM .It is clear that with D-STATCOM source
currents is Sinusoidal in nature but load load current is Non-Sinusoidal in nature. At
fundamental frequency 50 Hz the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) without D-
STATCOM =4.61% which is permissible in the Distribution System.

Figure 4.10: Supply Voltage and Current without D-STATCOM
Figure 4.11: Supply Voltage and Current with D-STATCOM
In the above figure both current and voltage of supply side with or without D-STATCOM
are compared it was found that without D-STATCOM both voltage and current are not in

phase due to harmonics and current waveform is Non Sinusoidal in nature but with D-
STATCOM both voltage and current waveform are in phase and also sinusoidal in nature
and hence reactive power is compensated.
4.7. OVERALL RESULT

In case of nonlinear unbalance load the supply current is not sinusoidal in nature and
unbalanced which is shown in the THD of phase A is 17.28% which is not permissible
according to the IEEE paper ‘Rractive Power Compensation using D-STATCOM’-2016
by Vinay M. Awasthi& Mrs. V. A. Huchche.So a D-STATCOM connected in shunt
provide ‘Reactive Power’to balance current in each phase. THD of phase A with D-
STATCOM is 4.61% which is permissible according to the IEEE standards and D-
STATCOM current makes the supply current balanced and makes it in proper sinusoidal
form in nature.

CHAPTER-5
CONCLUSION
 Custom power devices like DVR, D-STATCOM, and UPQC can enhance power
quality in the distribution system. Based on the power quality problem at the load
or at the distribution system, there is a choice to choose particular custom power
device with specific compensation.
 D-STATCOM which operates on low voltage and how it is useful in

compensation of reactive power as it injects the reactive power in the line. The
device is actually acts as VSC which is been implemented at the load side of the
system so as to improve the voltage profile of system and reduce the power losses.
Hence, D-STATCOM improves the voltage stability of system.
 The D-STATCOM designed is capable to inject the entire reactive power

demanded by the load, keeping the source power factor near to unity. The
simulation done is able to explain the response of D-STATCOM in both,
Inductive as well as Capacitive, modes of operation.
5.1. IMPROVEMENT AND BENEFITS

The following points shows the improvement and benefits
 It provides the quick response to system disturbances.
 Gives the smooth voltage control over a varied range of operating condition.
 Dynamic voltage control is achieved in distribution system.
 Provides the transient stability in the system.
 The has the ability to control both reactive power and also the active power (with a
DC energy source available).

CHAPTER-6
FUTURE SCOPE
In this work, it is clear that DSTATCOM can effectively compensate harmonics from
load current. The work can be extended in the following area:
 Many advanced controllers like fuzzy controller, artificial intelligence based adaptive
fuzzy controller and state space vector technique can be used with DSTATCOM to
improve the effectiveness of DSTATCOM in distribution networks.
 Multipulse converter based DSTATCOM with improved modulation techniques can
be explored.
 The effectiveness of DSTATCOM can be established for distribution networks with
typical non-linear loads like arc furnace.
 Multilevel inverter based DSTATCOM with improved modulation techniques can be

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REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION USING D-STATCOM

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 1

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 2

to high possibilities of interaction between these compensation elements and system

1.1. TYPES OF LOAD

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 3

1.1.1. LINEAR LOAD

1.1.2. NON-LINEAR LOAD

Figure 1.1: Distortion in current waveforms due to harmonics

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 4

1.2. PROBLEMS CAUSED BY HARMONICS

1.2.2. EFFECT ON CONSUMER ITSELF

1.2.3. EFFECT ON COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

1.2.4. EFFECT OF REVENUE BILLING

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 5

1.3. SCOPE OF WORK

1.4. OBJECTIVE OF THESIS

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 6

In this paper ‘Reactive Power Compensation Using D-STATCOM’ by Vinay M.

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 7

configuration allows he device to absorb or generate controllable active and reactive

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 8

In this paper ‘Analysis of the Operation of a D-STATCOM’ in Unbalanced

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 9

In this paper ‘Design and Simulation of Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 10

3.2. POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 11

 There are four major reasons for the increased concern:

3.3. PERCEPTION ABOUT POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 12

Figure 3.1.Results of a Survey on the Cause of Power Quality Problems

3.4. GENERAL CLASSES OF POWER QUALITY

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 13

3.4.1.1. IMPULSIVE TRANSIENT

An impulsive transient is a sudden non–power frequency change in the steady-state

Fig. 3.2: Lightning Stroke Current Impulsive Transient

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 14

3.4.1.2. OSCILLATORY TRANSIENT:

Figure 3.3: Oscillatory Transient

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 15

3.5. LONG-DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATIONS

3.5.2. UNDER VOLTAGE

3.5.3. SUSTAINED INTERRUPTIONS

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 16

3.5.3.1. SHORT-DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATIONS

3.5.3.2. SAGS (DIPS)

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 17

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 18

Figure 3.5: Voltage Swell

3.5.5. VOLTAGE IMBALANCE

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 19

Fig. 3.6: Voltage Imbalance Trend for a Residential Feeder

3.5.6. WAVEFORM DISTORTION

Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of

EE-DEPARTMENT, SRMGPC , Lucknow 20

Figure 3.7: Harmonic

3.5.9. VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION

Voltage fluctuations are systematic variations of the voltage envelope or a series of