O PENING UP OF COAL SEAMS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The term opening up of a coal seam means establishing access to a coal seam and necessary
development work for its exploitation. A seam can be worked by open pit mining or by underground mining
methods. Seams which are worked by underground mining methods can be approached by shafts and or
inclines or surface drifts or adits depending on the geology and topography of the mine area. The most
common means of approach are by surface drifts or shafts or a combination of both and in a few situations
the seam is reached by an adit. Figure 4.1 illustrates the various means of access.

Figure 4.1: Various means of access

In the case of deposits worked by open pit mining method, opening up of a coal would comprise
driving of haul roads to the coal seam and forming benches for the removal of overburden and coal. This
has been discussed in detail in Chapter 15.

4.1.1 Legal Requirements

For working coal seams by underground methods provision of two outlets are mandatory. Regulation
66 of Coal Mines Regulations 1957 lays down that —
"(1) No person shall be employed or be permitted to enter or remain for the purposes of
employment, in any working below ground, unless the working is provided with at least two shafts, inclines
or other outlets to the surface.
(a) with which every seam or section for the time being at work has a communication so as to afford
separate means of ingress and egress to the persons employed therein;
(b) which do not have their surface openings in the same building; and
(c) which are under the sole control of the manager."
Further sub-regulation (3) of Regulation 66 of Coal Mines Regulations 1957 requires that—
"Such shafts, inclines or outlets shall not be less than 13.5 metres distant from one another at any
point and each shall be connected with the other by means of a walkable passage, not less than 1.8 metres
high and 1.5 metres wide, through the workings below ground that are being served by such shafts, inclines
or outlets."

4.2 VERTICAL SHAFTS VS. SURFACE DRIFTS/INCLINES

Whether a coal seam should be accessed by a shaft or an incline or drift must be carefully studied as
the success of a new mine depends to a great deal upon the surface entries and their locations. The planned
production costs could be influenced immensely by poor choice of mine entry. The comparative advantages
and disadvantages of drifts and shafts are given below (Nelson, 1958; Bennet, 1958; Singh, 1961; Simpson,
1978; Blelloch, 1980. Bornemann, 1982):
1. The time required for reaching full production is very much less when the mine is opened out by
drifts. It may be less than 50 % of that required for vertical shaft sinking and bringing it to full production.
2. The capital cost of driving and equipping a drift may be 50 % less than that for sinking and
equipping a vertical shaft. It is estimated that the cost of sinking a 7.8 m diameter shaft would be almost
equivalent to driving two 6.23 X 4.6 m drifts (Jeremic. 1980).
3. With drift entries it is possible to design continuous conveyor transport directly from the coal
face to the surface plant. In shafts the flow of coal to the preparation plant is intermittent. Also by
continuous conveyor transport in drifts, there is no need of filling coal in tubs or mine cars as in shaft
winding and hence coal degradation is reduced.
4. Power costs are low in drift transport. Power consumption tests on electric winding and drift
conveying from comparable depths have shown that the cost of former is about 30 % greater than the latter
(Bennett, 1958).
5. The capacity of drift is very large compared to the capacity of shafts; up to 12 million tonnes of
coal per annum is achievable with drifts whereas a shaft can wind only up to 2.2 to 4.4 million tonnes of
coal per annum (Blelloch. 1980).
 As for winding men, shafts have high capacity and shortest time between surface and pit bottom.
The drifts can have capacity similar to shafts but the time for transport of men between the pit top and the
seam level is greater.
6. The operational cost of drifts is low.
7. The transport of material to the pit bottom is steadier in shafts but slower in drifts. In the case of
drifts, however, the transfer of material from the drift haulage to the pit bottom haulage is simpler than from
shafts. In shafts larger equipment can be lowered, whereas in drifts the size of equipment is limited by the
size of drifts though commensurate to the size of underground roadways.
8. The resistance offered to the passage of ventilating air is less in shafts. Hence, the power costs
for ventilating a mine are less with vertical shafts than with drifts. Shafts also allow better arrangement of
electric cables, water and compressed air pipes, etc
9. There is greater possibility of a drift passing through unfavourable geological conditions because
the drifts have longer length.
10. The loss of coal in protective pillars is much greater for inclined drifts than for shafts. This loss
can, however, be minimised if the drifts can be located in the areas with unminable coal.
11. Drifts present less environmental problem than shafts because of their lower profile on the
surface and also screening of the site by bunds and trees is much easier in the case of drifts.

4.2.1 Choice between Surface Drifts and Vertical Shafts

The choice between drifts and shafts should be made after making a detailed analysis of both capital
and operating costs over the estimated life of the project. Historically, surface drifts as a means of accessing
a coal seam have been limited in their length or depth of application due to the limitations of transport.
However, the present day technological development in belt conveying and high speed material haulage and
man riding has enabled the scope of application of drifts (o much greater depths; for example, see Table 4.1
(Simpson, 1978). Provided they have not to pass through longer lengths of water bearing horizons with
weak rocks of low stability, particularly at depth the drifts are the popular choice up to a depth of 600 m in
the U.K., beyond which traditional vertical shaft continues to be the choice (Rees, 1977). In India, majority
of die access entries in the Godavari Valley coalfield are by surface drifts and in this coalfield it is felt that
the limiting depth to which mining can be done by surface drifts is around 250 m beyond which vertical
shafts must be sunk for ventilation reasons and also to facilitate travelling of men and transport of material
inbye.
Table 4.1: Some examples of surface drifts to open up mines in the UK (After Simpson, 1978)

(Drift Size Slope Length m

Blaenant 5.30 m x 3.50 m 1 in 3.7 626
Littleton 4.90 m diameter 1 in 4 1,965
Prince of Wales
Intake 6.10m x 4.50 m 1 in 5 1,965
Return 5.50 m x 3.60 m 1 in 5 1, 965
Alerton bywater 5.50 m x 3.60 m 1 in 4 1,035
Woolley 4.27 m x 3.05 m 1 in 4 893
Daw Mill 5.18m x 3.66 m 1 in 4 2,330
Rawdon/Donisthorpe 4.42 m x 3.05 m 1 in 7 1,590
1 in 4.8 774
Treeton 4.90 m x 3.60 m 1 in 5.5 2,760
Treforgan Intake 5.18m x 3.66 m 1 in 4,5 1,610
5.18m x 3.66 m 1 in 5 1,719
Longannet 4.88 m x 3.66 m 1 in 4 8,850
Selby No. 1 4.9 m diameter 1 in 4 936
Selby No. 2 4.9 m diameter
Royston No. 1 4.2 m x 3.05 m 1 in 4 404
Royston No. 2 4.27 m x 3.05 m 1 in 4 387
Kiveton Park 4.90 m x 3.60 m 1 in 5.8 1,362
Betws Intake 4.90 m x 3.60 m 1 in 7 2,131
Betws Return 4.90 m x 3.90 m 1 in 7 2,092
Trentham 5.48 m x 3.66 m
or 4.9 m diameter 1 in 4 2.632
Silverdale No. 1 4.90 m x 3.60 m 1 in 4 2,926
Selverdale No. 2 4.90 m x 3.60 m 1 in 4 3,657
Selverdale No.3 5.0 m diameter 1 in 4 3,750
Shireb rook 4.90 m x 3.60 m 1 in 4 1,341
4.3 ACCESS BY ADITS
 Adits are level or nearly level drifts driven from the surface to access the seam. The following
conditions favour the opening up of a coal seam by adits:
1. The coal seam should occur in a hilly terrain and the topography should be such that a level drift
driven from the foot of the hill can cut the seam, (Figure 4.2).
2. The coal outcrop should be above the level of the loading point; and
3. Sufficient space should be available at the mouth of the adit to facilitate the construction of coal
preparation and handling plant, etc.

Figure 4.2: Access by adit

Adits may be driven parallel to or at right angles or at any angle to the strike of the coal seam.
Adits are the cheapest means of access to the coal seam. They can be equipped with locomotive
haulage or conveyors and large outputs can be transported through them.
Adits are not common in India, some seams have been opened out by adits in Assam, Kurasia and at
West Bokaro in Bihar. In the USA, some 60 % of the coal seams have been opened up by adits.
In summary, the main means of access to the coal seams are surface inclines or drifts or shafts or a
combination of inclines and shafts. Adits are rarely used unless very special topographical and geological
conditions favour them.

4.4 OPENING UP BY SURFACE DRIFTS OR INCLINES

Inclines are one of the simplest methods of opening up coal seams in the early stage of development.
Inclines are driven from the surface at an angle of normally not exceeding 1 in 4. If the coal seam is
outcropping, the incline may be driven after the outcrop coal has been worked out by opencast mining but in
that case excavated area unless filled by overburden, forms a large water reservoir and may cause
inundation of underground workings unless substantial barrier of coal has been left against the possible
water standage. In many cases, therefore, inclines are driven right from the outcrop and the outcrop coal is
mined out by opencast method after the underground mine is exhausted. When the seam occurs at depth, the
alluvium or soft rocks are removed at the mouth of the incline to reach the firm ground; a portal is
constructed at the mouth of the incline and thereafter the drift is driven in the ordinary way to touch the
seam.
At least two inclines have to be driven to the seam to provide separate means of ingress and egress
and also to provide separate roads for intake and return. In some situations a third incline is also driven to
provide for travelling roads. An example of opening up a 12.4-m thick seam by three inclines is illustrated
in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: An example of access roads to open up a coal seam, 12-m thick, Gidi A mine,
Karanpura, coalfield
After the incline touches the seam and it has been further driven along the dip or apparent dip of the
seam for some distance, level roads are driven on its either side and development work starts. Sufficient
thickness of barrier or coal is left against the outcrop so that the roadways are not driven under incompetent
rock. The main dip is continued down the dip and from it levels are driven right and left at suitable intervals
to form panels.
Fresh air is taken down the dip through one incline and return air is brought out of the mine through
the other incline. In some cases an air shaft is also sunk to facilitate ventilation. It has been experienced that
as the depth of workings below the surface increases beyond certain depth, an air shaft at a dip point
becomes essential. For example, in the Godavari Valley coalfield where majority of mines have been opened
out by surface inclines, sinking of a vertical shaft has been considered essential for ventilation and for man
winding when the depth of workings has gone beyond a depth of 250 m or so.
Figure 4.4 illustrates the layout of main haulage roads in a coal seam opened up by surface inclines.

Figure 4.4: An example of layout of main haulage roads in an incline mine

4.4.1 Location of Inclines
In deciding the site of an incline it is necessary to select several variants and choose one that will
best suit the surface and underground factors and will offer optimum economy. The main factors to be
considered are:
1. Surface Factors : The mouth of the incline should be located above the high flood level and the
design of the incline should he such that will ensure environmental and technical acceptance The site should
be level, well-drained and should require little or no cutting and filling.
Sufficient area should be available for surface plant and building, etc. The site must be within
reasonable distance of ground on which refuse can be tipped.
2. Geological Factors: ft is necessary to avoid driving of inclines through unstable and water
bearing ground. Drifts intersecting or driven in the seam should be of minimum length consistent with
efficient transport.
3. Mining Factors: Drifts should preferably divide the property in two equal halves. The bottom of
the drift should touch the coal seam at the centre of gravity of the deposit, especially for mining thick coal
seams and for large production.
4. Operational Factors: Road and rail access should be available nearby. Also public utility services
should be available and preferably nearby and may be closer to an existing workshop to save surface area
and building cost.
4.4.2 Planning Considerations
For opening out a mine by surface drifts the following information are required:
(i) Extent of reserve: A life of at least 5-15 years is considered economic.
(ii) Whether the seam outcrops in the take and if it does not, the depth of cover and
contour of the seam floor and surface contour,
(iii) The presence of alluvium and other deposits which may flow when wet and the general
geological structure of the area,
(iv) The thickness and quality of the seam and whether the thickness of the seam varies in the take.
If the seam is too thin (less than 60 cm), mechanisation becomes difficult.
(v) The nature of roof and floor of the seam or seams and of the strata between the seams and the
surface. A diamond-drilling programme could ascertain the ground conditions likely to be encountered.
From the drill cores the physico-mechanical properties, i.e., compressive strength, abrasivity, hardness,
porosity, and permeability of the rock types may be determined. The borehole data may also help in
deciding upon the type of strata reinforcement which may be needed for the drivage and stability of the
drift.
4.4.3 Construction of Inclines
At the mouth of the incline, the alluvium and soft rocks are excavated and when the firm ground has
been reached, the portal is constructed and thereafter the drivage of the drift is begun. The area, wherefrom
alluvium has been removed, can be kept open with suitable drinage system to catch rain water (Figure 4.5)
or alternatively, the excavated area is filled after the brick lined arched incline has been constructed (Figure
4.6). The latter construction is advantageous in that the quantity of rain water entering the underground
workings is very much reduced.

Figure 4.6: Diagrammatic illustration to show arched cover at the mouth of an incline

In Godavari Valley coalfield, most of the mines have been opened up by inclines driven from the
surface- In this coalfield for driving inclines the common practice is first to remove the overburden soil and
then to construct brick walls on either side over which steel joists are placed and a concrete roof is laid.
Thereafter, the excavated ground is filled with overburden soil and the incline is carried forward in the
normal way. The cross-section of the inclines is generally 3.8-4.2 m wide x 2.4 high and they are fitted
either with rope haulages or conveyors. Figure 4.7 illustrates the method of construction of such inclines.
Drivage in sedimentary strata is like development in soft rock strata that is not self supporting. The
type of support used will depend on the strata and the type of machine used. In Indian coalfields, the
common support system consists of brick walls with concreted roofs on joists. In weaker rocks with
possible water percolation support must be placed immediately following rock excavation.
 For British carboniferous strata it has been found (Whittaker and Pye, 1977) that when the drift is
within 100 m of the surface, surface subsidence due to a single narrow drivage becomes discernible. The
other conclusions are:
(i) The first 9 m section of the drift behind the face is a critical zone requiring immediate and
effective support.
(ii) Early temporary or permanent support of high quality and strength as close to the face as
possible is necessary; early shotcreting can provide effective supporting resistance in the critical zone.
(iii) Powered circular shields provide effective support in weak ground: even when shotfiring is
necessary in harder ground appropriate strong temporary or permanent supports are just as necessary.
(iv) Standing supports such as arched girders require a time lapse before they generate supporting
resistance.

Figure 4.7: Diagram showing the constructional features of a surface incline

While driving the inclines through alluvium extreme care must be taken in securing the sides and the
roof. There are many cases where inclines through alluvium driven in the dry seasons have collapsed during
the monsoons because of water soaking into the ground and exerting a building pressure.
In river valleys, particularly on account of the meanderings of the river along these valleys in
conjunction with the thick and rolling superficial deposits, the lining of drifts will require careful
consideration. The deposits may include rock, clay, gravel and running sand, heaped haphazardly, and may
change abruptly within a short distance and at sharply contrasting depths. In general, such terrains demand
reinforced concrete piles to support the surface structures and also a good drainage scheme (Nelson, 1958).
Simpson (1978) from a study of 39 drifts from the surface as well as discussions on some proposals
in the UK, has concluded that the work on surface drift may be divided into four operations:
1. Drilling Programme: The drilling programme is intended to study the strength and characteristics
of strata (to be passed through), eg., porosity, make of water, its quality, movement and pressure. The above
information is vital to decide on the design of tunnel, its profile and support, the method of driving and
precautions.
2. Construction of Portal: Usually an open cut should be made and then the portal be constructed
unless strong stratified beds lie close to the surface. The portal should be a complete box or circular or oval
structure with strong floor to resist penetration of soft beds, especially in watery strata or in rainy season.
3. The Intermediate or Soft Ground Tunnel From the portal to the point where solid stratified beds
are encountered which are self supporting, it is essential that as soon as the ground is excavated, immediate
strong support is provided. In very bad ground hydraulically propelled shield closely followed by tubings of
cast iron or (reinforced concrete) may be advisable. The tubbing should be grouted and caulked to seal out
water and it should be joined and sealed to the portal and to the next length of the tunnel below. It will be
advantageous to pre-treat the soft and week and watery strata to seal off water. Pre-treatment can be done by
drilling holes from the surface and injecting them with chemicals or cement or with both provided the depth
of holes is not more than 45.72 m. Pre-treatment could also be done by drilling holes in the strata from
within the tunnel itself. But this increases the cost by 4-6 times the normal and reduces the speed of drivage
to one-quarter of normal dry ground.
 4. Drivage in Normal Dry Strata or Coal Measures: The drivage methods are normal colliery
underground tunnelling methods. The tunnel is supported by splay-legged steel arches covered by steel
mesh or corrugated steel sheets. The corrugated sheets are protected by spraying with shotcrete or fibrous
concrete. Near the surface special care is necessary because the beds may be weakened by weathering or
percolation of water which may necessitate close spacing of arches or double layer of them. Bolted tubular
strata between the arches give greater rigidity and prevent arches slewing down the slope.
Full face boring of the drift may also be considered.

4.5 OPENING UP BY VERTICAL SHAFTS

When the depth of the coal seam is more than the depth up to which mining can be done by surface
drifts economically, the seam is approached by shafts. In India, in the past shafts were considered to be a
desirable means of access even though the depth of the seam was hardly 30 m or so. But nowadays surface
drifts or inclines are preferred up to a depth of 250-300 m and in the UK, up to a depth of even 600 m
beyond which depth the mode of entry continues to be by vertical shafts (Rees. '1977). At least two shafts
must be sunk to provide separate means of egress and ingress and in some situations more than two shafts
are considered desirable and necessary, e.g., in stowing pits at some mines a third shaft has been sunk at the
rise boundary through which sand/water slurry is brought in the mine.
4.5.1 Location of Shafts
The following considerations will affect the choice of the site of shafts:
1. Geological, Hydrological and Topographical Considerations: The site should be free from
geological disturbances such as faults, dykes, washouts, etc., and the rock should be competent. There
should not be high make of water and the topography should be as far as possible level.
2. High Flood Level; The mouth of the shaft must be above the high flood level.
3. Bearing Strength of the Ground: The ground should have adequate bearing strength so as to
support the structure and buildings.
4. Loss of Coal in Shaft Pillars: The shaft should be so sited that it may not be necessary to leave
large coal area as shaft pillar. Shafts sunk in the footwall to work the highly pitching seams do not require
any coal shaft pillar.
5. Landslide in Hilly Terrain: In hilly terrain there may be the real risk of landslides. This must be
foreseen when locating the site of the shaft.

Apart from the geological, hydrological and topographical consideration discussed earlier, the
location of main and ventilating and auxiliary shafts is influenced by economic considerations and the
efficiency with which the auxiliary or ventilating shaft can perform in their respective locations.
Considering these latter aspects there could be four models (Figure 4.8).
(i) Two shafts sunk in the centre of the property;
(ii) One shaft in the centre of the take and the other on the rise-most boundary,
(iii) Two shafts in the centre of the take and one shaft at the rise-most boundary in the centre, and
(iv) One shaft in the centre of the take, and two shafts one each at the corners of the rise-most
boundary.
Model I (Figure 4.8-a) offers the following advantages:
1. After the completion of the sinking, it is easy to connect the two shafts with a short connection
to provide normal ventilation to the development face.
2. It is possible to make the surface layout more compact and also to reduce the total volume of
the pit bottom excavations.
 3. The total area of shaft pillar left is comparatively less.
4. In an emergency the man winding shaft can be used for coal winding also while the main shaft
is stopped for repairs.
Model II (Figure 4.8-b) has the following advantages:
1. Ventilation shaft is shallower.
2. Accessional ventilation is possible during the whole life of the pit.
But in this scheme establishing of connections between the shafts is delayed
Model III (Figure 4.8-c) is similar to model I except that the third shaft on the rise-most boundary
can be used for transporting slurry down the mine and also, it can be used for ventilation. The disadvantage
of the system is that it entails sinking of an additional shaft which could be quite costly.
Model IV (Figure 4.8-d) has diagonal disposition of ventilation shafts. In this case there are equal
lengths of ventilation circuits along the levels and water gauge is equal. But this scheme suffers from the
following disadvantages:
1. While working to the dip, there may be difficulty in ventilation.
2. Surface arrangements are spread over a long distance.
In consideration of the above advantage and disadvantages, the scheme with two shafts in the centre
is much widely used. In India, the newer deep mines have been opened up by two shafts sunk in the centre
of the take but in some older mines a third shaft on the rise side boundary was sunk for the purpose of
taking down stowing pipe lines and ventilation. After the nationalisation of coal mines, smaller collieries
have been amalgamated to form bigger units and in these units advantage has been taken to use the shafts
already in existence for ventilation purpose and in some cases diagonal ventilation as depicted in Figure 4.8-
d may be possible.
On the dip and rise centre line of the take there could be three possible positions of the shaft. They
are: (i) at the extreme rise; (ii) at the extreme dip, or (iii) in the centre (Figure 4.9).
Position I is advantageous in that the depth of the shaft is minimum and. therefore, cost and time of
sinking to the seam are also minimum. But to develop the property a long incline will have to be driven. In
position II the, cost and time of sinking are maximum and also the cost of pumping water and hoisting are
maximum. Taking all aspects into consideration shafts sunk at position III will offer advantages.

Figure 4.9: Location of the main shaft in the dip-rise direction.

4.5.2 Optimum Location of the Main Shaft

As stated earlier shafts sunks in the centre of the take give maximum operational advantages. The
problem, however, becomes complicated when the shaft has to work a number of coal seams or the seams
are irregular. One has then to look for the optimum location of the shaft. Two methods are used to find out
the optimum location of shafts. They are:
i) analytical method, and
ii) graphical method (Shevyakov, 1958),
(i) Analytical method
In the analysis only transport loads, ton-m, are taken into consideration since the other factors do not
exert any significant influence. The optimal point where the shaft should be located is defined by a simple
rule started below:
The optimal point lies at a spot where the sum total of loads hauled to it from each direction is less
than half of the aggregate loads; if in any section of the route the loads to be trammed come to half the sum
of all the loads carried, the optimal point may lie any where in this section of the route (Shevyakov 1958).
The position of optimal point is not affected by the haulage distance but depends only on the relative
tonnages and its distribution along the route.
If the reserves are unevenly distributed, the optimal point should satisfy the condition ∑ q left = ∑ q
right, where ∑ q left is the sum total of the loads lying on the left of the optimal point and ∑ q right is the
sum total of loads lying on the right of the optimal points.
(ii) Graphical method
If a number of seams have to be worked and the loads from all the seams are transported through
one crosscut and then through the shaft, then the haulage loads (ton-in) are plotted on the y-axis assuming
that the loads are transported to the extreme right from all the seams and an integrated line is obtained, the
ordinate of which gives the value of haulage work done to bring all the loads to the extreme right. Likewise
ton-m are plotted assuming that the loads from all the seams are transported to the extreme left and another
integrated line is obtained, the ordinate of which gives the value of haulage work done to bring all the loads
to the extreme left. Finally, a generalised line can be plotted, the ordinate of which will represent the ton-m
needed to haul all the loads to any given point on the x-axis. The lowest point on this line gives the location
of optimal point at which the shaft may be located.
 In practice the location of shaft may not be a rational proposition strictly in accordance with the
above rules and considerable variations may be necessary depending -on geological, topographical and
operational considerations.

4.6 OPENING UP OF MORE THAN ONE SEAM

Often, as is the case in India, there are more than one workable coal seams in a mining take. In such
situations vertical shafts and drifts driven from one seam to the other may be used for opening up the seams.
For instance, in a mine take with two seams 1 and 2 (Figure 4.10) separated by a parting of about 40 m and
occurring at a depth of 300 m, one shaft to each seam may be sunk and additionally seams 1 and 2 may be
connected by an inclined drift. In this case each shaft can wind both coal and men and in the case of
emergency men from one seam could be brought to the other seam by the drift. In case there are three or
more seams in the take, they can be opened up by a combination of vertical shafts, underground drifts, cross
cuts or staple pits.

Figure 4.10: Diagram showing Figure 4.11: Diagram showing the

opening up of two coal seams opening up of three coal seams

Figure 4.11 illustrates the method of opening up three seams 1, 2 and 3 in a coal mine. Seam I occurs
at a depth of 128 m. seam 2 at 244 m and seam 3 at 274 m and they have been accessed by shafts 1, 2 and 3
respectively. Further a drift connects seams 2 and 3 and a midset landing has been provided in shaft 2 at the
level of seam 1. All the shafts are used for coal and main winding and the provision of the drift between 2
and 3 and midset landing in shaft 2 at the level of seam 1 caters to the emergency requirements. When the
coal from different coal seams has to be wound separately, the opening up of the seams may be done by
sinking a winding shaft to each of the seams, provided the depth of sinking is not high. But in deeper seams,
this may not be an economical proposition.
Figure 4.12 shows how 7 coal seams occurring at depths from 325.5 to 748 m were opened up at
Hughton Main Colliery, UK (Machin, 1955). Shafts 2 and 3 were sunk to the bottom-most seam
(Thorncliffe seam) and shaft 1 to Barnsley Bed seam. A staple shaft connects the Barnsley Bed seam to the
bottom-most seam, i.e. Thorncliffe seam. An inclined drift connects the Fenton seam to Thorncliffe seam.
All the coal was wound up by skips from No. 3 shaft, the direction of coal flow is indicated by thick arrows.

Figure 4.12: An example showing the opening up of seven coal seams (After Machin, 1955)

4.7 OPENING UP OF STEEPLY INCLINED SEAMS

Coal seams with gentle dips may be opened out by vertical shafts and inclines driven in the seam.
Highly dipping seams with gradients more than 45° are invariably opened out by vertical shafts and
crosscuts. The shaft is placed in the foot wall. At this position the shaft or the shaft stations are not affected
by subsidence of the hanging wall. In certain situations, however, the movement of footwall also cannot be
ruled out as a result of coal extraction. Obviously, it will be safer to sink the shaft sufficiently farther from
the floor of the seam despite the fact that it will increase the aggregate length of crosscuts. If the shaft has
been sunk in the footwall to open out a steep seam, the necessity of leaving out protective pillars below
surface buildings and plants will not arise-To open-up the highly inclined seams the crosscuts are driven at
shorter intervals. This helps in roof control, supply of material and movement of men. Whereas in less
inclined seam, the vertical distance could be large. A large interval results in reduced capital expenditure on
account of shaft station and drivage of crosscuts. Generally a level interval of 80-100 m in steep seams and
100-130 m in gently dipping seams is common. For example, at a colliery in the Jharia Coalfield to open up
XIV seam inclined at 38° crosscuts have been driven from the shaft at intervals of 122 m and at another
colliery to open out ten seams with dips varying from 26- 44° crosscuts have been driven at intervals of 100
m. In the Asturia Province of Spain to open up thin and steeply inclined seams with dips varying from 60-
80° crosscuts have been driven at intervals of 80 m.

4.8 OPENING-UP OF COAL SEAMS IN GEOLOGICALLY DISTURBED AREAS

Opening-up of coal seams in geologically disturbed areas is done by drifts, shafts, crosscuts or
various combinations of these depending on the type and intensity of these geological disturbances. The
following examples will illustrate some of the schemes:
Example 1: In Figure 4.13, a dip fault of 91.4 m throw occurs in the west side of the colliery take
which has thrown down two coal seams, Koithee and Poniati 3.6 m and 5.48 m thick respectively. The coal
seams on the up throw side have been accessed by two shafts and developed by slopes driven in the seam.
To access the coal seams on the down throw side of the fault, drifts have been driven through the fault.

SECTION A-B
Figure 4.13: Diagram illustrating the opening up of coal seams cut by a dip fault

Example 2: In Figure 4.14 an oblique fault of 57.9 m throw cuts the two coal seams. Koithee and
Poniati occurring 45.72 m apart. The seams have been accessed by two shafts sunk to the lower seam at the
rise end of the property. To work Poniati seam on the downthrow side of the fault another shaft has been
sunk on the downthrow side of the fault and a sloping drift driven on the strike connects upthrow and
downthrow sides of Poniati seam which is used for return air way and as second outlet.
 Figure 4.14: An example of opening up coal seams cut by an oblique fault, Charanpur Colliery,
Raniganj coalfields
Example 3: In Figure 4.15, a coal seam has gentle dip on the right hand side and due to a thrust the
dip has become very steep on the left hand side. To open up seam of such structure sublevels are driven on
the steep side of the seam.
Example 4: In Figure 4.16, the coal seams present a dome structure. To open up seams in this
structure vertical shafts and crosscuts have been used.

Figure 4.15: Diagram showing the opening up of a coal seam with steep dip on one side of the take

Figure 4.16: Diagram showing the opening up of a coal seam with domed structure
 4.9 CONSTRUCTION OF PIT BOTTOM
After access to the seam has been established, the connections between the shafts are made and the
pit bottom is constructed.
The term pit bottom is generally understood as meaning that portion of the main haulage road which
extends in each direction from the bottom of the shaft. In a broader sense, however, the term pit bottom may
be used to apply to all the area at the bottom of the shaft devoted to the arrangements required for the
continuous operation of the mine. This would include, generally, the shaft pillar, the inset, the pump room
and portions of the air course and haulage road. Figure 4.17 shows the main features of a pit bottom.
The following factors affect the design of the pit bottom:
1. Depth of the seam from the surface
2. Thickness of the seam and its inclination
3. The nature of the roof
4. The quantity of water to be dealt with
5. The shape of the colliery take and its area
6. The system of haulages
7. The method of winding

Factors 1, 2, and 3 govern the size of the shaft pillar, and therefore, as to how far from the pit bottom
the first cross galleries will be made, also as to how shaft levels will be supported. If the seam is thick, coal
will be left at the roof. If the seam is thin and floor weak, the floor should be ripped to got the extra height
and on the other hand if the seam is thin and the roof weak, the roof should be ripped down for the entire
length of the shaft level which should be lined or supported by arches or steel joists placed on concrete or
brick walls.

Figure 4.17: Diagram showing the main features of a pit bottom.

Factor 4 governs the area of the water lodgement needed and factors 5 and 6 determine as to how
coal is transported to the pit bottom and the direction from which the coal flows. Factor 7, the type of
winding, cages or skips will determine the amount of excavation that has to be done around the shah.
The main features of the pit bottom are;
(i) the inset and landing ;
(ii) the shaft pillar;
(iii) the pit bottom haulage roadways and the water lodgement. Also essential facilities 'such as
underground switch room, transformer house, first aid room and underground office are built.
4.9.1 Construction of Shaft Insets and Landings
Alter the shafts have been sunk to the seam they are continued and are terminated some meters
below the seam and landings are constructed generally at the seam level in the "in-the-scam mining"
method. But in horizon system of mining, the landings are constructed in the rock. In either case the rock at
the landing must be firm and stable.
 Factors affecting the size of the inset
1. Duty and Purpose of the Inset: If the inset is for ventilation purpose only, then no useful
purpose is served by making excavations below rail level. If, on the other hand, the inset is used for coal and
or material winding, excavations below rail levels are normally required to accommodate decking gear
rams, tilting platforms, etc. Sub-rail excavation is also required when the inset is used for simultaneous
decking for coal, stone and material.
2. Type of Winding: The excavations required for single deck winding and multi deck winding
will be different. Skip winding will require further modifications.
3. Quantity of Air Passing through the Pit Bottom Roadway: The size of the inset has to be so
made which will permit velocity of air within the acceptable limits.
4. Extent of Mechanisation: A mechanised pit bottom will require large excavation below rail
level.
Shape of the inset
The shape of the inset is decided mainly on two considerations:
1. Strata stresses
2. Aerodynamic resistance
Strata Stresses: The insets may be rectangular, semi-elliptical or elliptical. Rectangular shapes are
common in the area where the vertical and horizontal pressure of the strata is low. When the strata pressures
are high, elliptical shape is preferred as in Dutch mines. Assuming that the major axis of the ellipse is on the
vertical plane, it can be shown that for no tensile stresses to occur at the key-stones, the ratio of semi-major
axis to semi-minor axis should be equal to
(m – 2) / 2 where m, is the Poisson's number. Thus knowing the Poisson's number of the rock in
which the inset is to be constructed, its optimum dimensions can be estimated which will be naturally stable.
Having thus obtained the dimensions of the proposed ellipse, an agreement should be made as to where the
rail level coincides with the ellipse and the ellipse may be terminated at that horizon. Further, reinforcement
is done to accommodate the various stresses. Generally, the reinforcement is designed in two layers; one
layer being at the front and one at the back of the concrete. To accommodate stress concentrations at abrupt
changes of the shape the reinforcement is arranged to form beams and the whole is tied together by a
cruciform arrangement. Generally, the reinforcement consists of bars of 25 mm round mild steel.
Aerodynamical Considerations
With large quantities of airflow through shafts and insets, pressure losses due to sudden changes of
direction can be considerable. With the change in the direction of air, there is the contraction in the fluid
cross-sectional area known as the vena contracta. The remaining area between the vena contracta section
and the walls of the excavation is normally filled with eddies, the friction of which causes pressure losses.
The square section insets cause eddies at their four corners and the loss of pressure is considerable, whereas
with elliptical shape it is very much reduced as the formation of eddies in the latter case is very much
reduced because elliptical insets do not have corners. In addition, with square shaped insets, there is the
abrupt change in shape from circular in the shaft to square in the inset which also leads to severe pressure
losses. The slow transition from a circular shaft to an elliptical inset lends itself to streamlining since the
shaft side wall friction forces are transmitted to the side wall forces piecemeal as the flow ascends or
descends.
In the UK, the standard dimensions of insets adopted gave a mouthing area of approximately 52.02
m with a ventilating area above rail level of 32.5 m2. The quantity of air required in any horizon may reach
2

8495 m3/min which would give an air velocity through the inset of about 262.13 m per minute (Wilcox,
1961).
With cage winding, which is used in majority of mines in India, the construction of inset and landing
should conform to the requirement of clause (5) of Regulation 75 of Coal Mines Regulations 1975, which
stipulates that "protective roofing, sufficient to prevent danger from any thing falling in the shaft, shall be
provided and maintained at the bottom of the shaft. The gap, both vertical and horizontal, between the
protective roofing and the top of the cage, when the cage is at the bottom of the shaft, shall not exceed 15
centimetres". This obviously restricts the passage to the flow of air and additional passage preferably at a
level higher than the inset may be constructed to conduct the ventilating air with minimum loss of
ventilating pressure (Dalrymple, 1958).
4.9.2 Shaft Pillar
A shaft pillar is the block of solid coal left around the shaft for its protection. Excepting for the
essential excavation for ventilation, haulage and drainage no other excavation is done in the shaft pillar- The
dimensions of the shaft pillar depend on the depth of the seam, the thickness of the seam; the angle of draw;
and the area to be protected on the surface. The deeper the seam, the larger will be the shaft pillar. Similarly,
the thicker the seam, the larger will be the shaft pillar. Various empirical formulae were used to estimate the
size of the shaft pillars in the past but they do not stand to scientific analysis. All the formulae suffer from
the fact that they are too generalised and do not take into account the characteristic of rock types at a
particular site.
A scientific method for determining the size of the shaft pillar is to project from the edge of the area
to be protected at the surface the angle of draw outward from the vertical and to demarcate the area where it
cuts the seam (Figure 4.18). This will form the shaft pillar. No extraction should be done within this area to
protect the surface and the shaft. The number of seams involved is also of importance, as smaller pillar may
suffice if only one or two seams are to be extracted since the resulting subsidence and its effects will then be
less (Sinclair, 1963).
The amount of coal locked in the shaft pillar will be considerable when the seams lie at depth. It is
for this reason that in some countries especially in the Ruhr coalfield (West Germany) techniques have been
developed to extract shaft pillars without seriously damaging the shaft.

Qs = ANGLE OF DRAW ON THE STRIKE

Qr = ANGLE OF DRAW ON THE RISE SIDE OF WORKING
Qd = ANGLE OF DRAW ON THE DIP SIDE OF WORKING
A-B = LENGTH OF SHAFT PILLAR ON THE STRIKE
A'-B' = LENGTH OF SHAFT PILLAR ALONG THE DIP-RISE
C-D = LENGTH OF THE AREA TO BE PROTECTED ON THE STRIKE
C’-D' = LENGTH OF THE AREA TO BE PROTECTED ON THE DIP-RISE
Figure 4.18: Diagram showing the method of determining the size of a shaft pillar
4.9.3 Pit Bottom Roadways
The dimensions of the pit bottom roadways, i.e., height, width and length depend on the following
consideration: The height of roadway should be such as will permit longest length of the material to be
transferred from the shaft to the pit bottom roadways. If 1 is the length of the material to he handled, d is the
diameter of the shaft and h is the height of the pit bottom roadway, then 1 = (d⅔ + h⅔ )3/2
From this expression, the height of the pit bottom roadway can be calculated. In practice the height
of the pit bottom roadway is kept between 2.4 and 3 m.
The width of the roadway is determined by the following factors:
1. The number of sidings required not only to accommodate an adequate stock of tubs/mine cars
but also to provide a separate track for each class of traffic, e.g., empties, dirt cars, materials, etc., and
2. Overall width of the mine cars.
Regulation 99 of Coal Mines Regulations 1957 restricts the width of the galleries to 4.8 m; and
hence to make wider roadways generally required at the pit bottom permission for exemption from the
operation of this regulation will be required.
The length of the pit bottom roadways will be governed by:
1. requisite storage capacity of the pit bottom circuits which in European practice could be about
11.1% of the total tubs in circulation for full and 7.7 % for empties (Van Praag and Jackson. 1950), and
2. length of the tub or mine are which is to be adopted.
The location of the roadways will depend on the thickness of the seam and on the nature of the roof
and floor. If the coal seam is thick, coal may be left at the roof. If the seam is thin and roof weak, roof may
be ripped or alternatively, if the seam is thin and floor weak, the floor may be cut and the entire length of
roadway supported by girders placed on concrete or brick walls or by steel arches suitably lagged.
4.9.4 Water Lodgement
Another important element at the pit bottom is the water lodgement. The size of the water lodgement
should be sufficient to hold the entire mine water for at least 24-48 hours. Provision should also be made to
clean the water lodgement without stopping pumping operations and in the case of breakdowns of pumps
for longer period, there should be exit of water to the dip side or the pump room should be located at a
higher level than the pit bottom, so that in the case of sudden influx of water or breakdowns for longer
periods the pump room is not drowned. Also, there should be an additional passage from the higher level to
the pump room to provide approach to the pump room in emergency. The service room, the pump room and
the sump should be located in stable ground.
The sumps are usually constructed in coal with minimum amount of stone work. A common practice
in Indian coal mines is to form some eight to ten pillars below the shaft level in two levels and use the lower
level and connecting galleries for the lodgement. The level is divided in two compartments so that one
compartment can be cleaned while the other is used for storage of water and its pumping. At the first level a
connection is made to the main dip gallery so that in the case of breakdowns over longer periods the water
runs to the dip without drowning the pumps and pump room which are located in the first level (Figure
4.19).
 Figure 4.19: Diagram snowing the location of main sump at the pit bottom

Figure 4.20 (Mishra, 1975) shows a shaft bottom sump and pump house for an Indian coal mine
designed to produce one million tonnes of coal per annum with hydraulic sand stowing of the goaf. In this
layout, the power substation, main pump room, sump, settling tank and cleaning arrangement are all
centralised and located near the service shaft. Besides normal roadway to the pump room and substation,
there is an additional roadway to the pump room from a higher landing of the service shaft which provides
for an emergency exit.
The elevation of the pump room and substation is 0.50 m above the level of the shaft level. Thus in
the event of any heavy inrush of water or failure of power for a long time, the pump room and substation
will remain safe till the water rises more than 0.5 m above the shaft level. The pumping units are provided
with separate drain pits sunk up to a depth of about one m below the floor level of the sump and all drain
pits are connected with the main sump. The pumping units in this case work with a maximum suction of
five m, which is well within the maximum possible limit. The arrangement is provided with a settling tank.
The water from the loco-road drains comes to the settling tank, sand gets deposited and the clear water runs
to the main sump. The settling tank is regularly cleaned by scrapers.
4.10 DIVISION OF THE MINE INTO BLOCKS
The mine take should be divided into blocks which will give minimum operating cost and highest
technical efficiency for a given annual output in a particular geological set up. In India, with rope haulage in
the main dips and manual tramming in levels, main haulage roads were kept about 300 m apart.
Nowadays with conveyor transport, the panels are being projected up to 1,000 m. In other words,
from the main haulage slope a block can be worked with ease up to 1,000 m on either side of the main
transport road. The optimum size of the block which will give minimum cost per ton will, however, be a
function of the strike length of the block, S and the number of levels to be worked, n. When the dimensions
of the mine area are optimum the functions ƒ (S, n) should have the minimum value.
Taking into consideration the operational efficiency, the mine is divided into blocks and the locations
of main haulage roads are marked; and the main haulages are installed. Thereafter the development is
preceded further and now the mine is opened out to a stage when production can start. Further development,
exploration and exploitation are continuous processes and end with the life of the mine.

Figure 4.20: Diagram showing the main sump in relation to other features of the pit bottom of a
stowing pit (After Misra, 1975)
4.11 IN-THE-SEAM MINING OR HORIZON MINING
 So far it has been presumed that the seam has been developed on the principle of 'in-the-seam
mining', i.e., all the roads, haulage or ventilation, have been driven in the seam itself. This is normally the
case in Indian mines and also in the USA, the UK, South Africa and Australia. This type of development is
suited to the following conditions (Fritzsche, 1962):
(i) When the coal measures are flat, i.e., they have very low dip.
(ii) They are free of faults or have very few faults,
(iii) The seams have medium or high thickness,
(iv) The distance between the seams are large, i.e., the seam density is low.
(v) The seam can be worked with caving,
(vi) The seams occur at shallow or medium depths.
(vii) The size of colliery take is small.
This system does not involve costly development in stone and the seams in the take could be worked
in any order though ordinarily descending order is desirable. But when the coal measures are irregular,
though flat, have higher number of faults, the seam thicknesses are not large and stowing dirt has to be
transported, the depths are large and large outputs are economic necessity, or the seams are highly inclined
and have complex geological structure, development on the principle of 'in-the-seam mining' becomes
costly and transportation and working costs high and the working efficiency low. In such situations, the
seams are accessed by level roads driven in stone in different horizons or levels. This method of opening of
deposits is known as multi-level mining or 'horizon mining'. In this case the main haulage roads and
ventilation roads are driven in the solid rock. This method is common in Germany, France, Belgium,
Netherlands and partly in former USSR, CIS.

4.12 HORIZON MINING

Horizon mining is a system of mining in which coal seams are opened up by level roads driven in
the rock. The system consists of more than one level. Here level means all main and secondary roads driven
at the same depth or in the same horizon. The system incorporates the following features:
(i) The main roads are driven on a level gradient, independent of the dip of the seams or the variation
of their dip.
(ii) These roads are almost exclusively driven in the rock, running perpendicular or parallel (or in
some cases in a direction between these extremes) to the strike of the seams. The roads driven at right
angles to the strike are called crosscuts and those parallel to the strike are called laterals.
(iii) The main horizontal roads do not handle the complete output from one seam only, but from all
the seams intersected or lying between a pair of cross-measure drifts which have been driven at two
different depths or horizons one above the other.
(iv) The ventilation may be exhausting or forcing. The intake air and the return air travel at different
horizons.
(v) Generally, roadways driven in the seam are secondary roads such as gate roads.
(vi) The system lends itself well for the application of locomotive haulage. In fact, in a wider sense
'horizon mining' system can be described as a system of development which allows locomotive transport to
be adopted as a means of main haulage.

4.12.1 Conditions Suited for the Application of Horizon Mining

Horizon mining system is normally applied to the mining of the steeply inclined seams with
gradients in excess of 15°, but when the gradient is between 5° and 10° it may or may not be applied and in
case the gradient is up to 5°, the system need not be applied (Statham, 1962). However, in flat measures
when a number of seams occur, they may be mined by horizon mining system as in the Ruhr Coalfield
(Fritzsche. 1962)- In India. Chasnalla and Sudamdih Collieries have been opened up on horizon-mining
system. The measures are steeply inclined in these mines. But at Monidih mine where the dip is between 5°
and 10C, the mine has been developed on horizon mining system to open-up six seams which occur in quick
succession.

4.12.2 Planning Considerations

The main elements of horizon mining system are: horizons, crosscuts and laterals. Their locations
and distances between them must receive careful analysis to ensure efficiency of mining operations.
Distance between horizons
Correct distance between horizons is a major decision of fundamental importance. The capital outlay
on a horizon including the necessary staple shafts, must be redeemed by the extent of the reserve and the
tonnage which will be produced from this horizon and transported through its roads to the main winding
shaft. The factors affecting the distance between horizons are as follows:
(i) Coal reserves: Seam density or the proportion of total thickness of coal to strata plays a major
part in deciding on the most appropriate distance to be adopted. If the seam density is high, the distance
between horizons is reduced.
(ii) Seam distribution: If the seams occur in groups irregularly in depth, it is advisable to locate the
main haulage horizon at such a depth that it is possible to work the lowest seam of any group from that
horizon,
 (iii) Character of strata: It is advisable to have the main roads driven in the solid strata such as
sandstone so that maintenance cost is low.
(iv) Length of face: In semi-sleep or steep seams length of face which can be worked has
considerable effect. In steep measures a horizon interval which is at least twice and very often is three or
four times the vertical height of the coal face has proved to be the most suitable distance.
The factors which influence the decision are coal reserve and length of face. If there is a variation in
seam inclination from flat to semi-steep and steep, the choice of horizon interval must be a compromise.
In the past years the tendency has been to increase the distance between horizons mainly due to the
improvements in staple-shaft winding technique, and roadway supports with a consequent reduction in cost.
Life of horizon has been kept at 15-25 years so that the capital can be redeemed. In India, at the Sudamdih
Colliery {with steep measures 26-44°). the horizon interval has been kept at 100 m with a life of 22 years
and at Moonidih Colliery (with flat measure 5-10°) it is between 65-100 m with life of 30-32 years.
In order to have sufficient reserve between-the horizon for the redemption of the capital spent on the
construction of the horizons, it is necessary to have the horizons at longer distances in steep measures than
in the flat measures. A common figure for semi-steep measures is 91-114 m and in steep measure it may be
137-220 m (Fritzsche and Potts, 1954).
Distance between crosscuts and Laterals
The distance between crosscuts is influenced by economic and technical considerations. If the
distance is large, road drivages will be less and maintenance cost of roads will be reduced. But points
available for coal extraction will be less; length of gate roads will be increased; length of auxiliary haulages
will be more; and ventilation cost will be more and temperature rise will be high. If the number of crosscuts
is increased, length of gate roads will be reduced but the cost of drivage in stone and maintenance cost will
be increased.
The important considerations are maintenance cost of gate roads and cost of gate road conveying.
Distance between crosscuts will be further affected by the position and direction of major faults. With steep
gradients, the distance is less because the advance of the face is slow and hence life and maintenance cost of
crosscuts will be high. The direction of cleat may influence the rate of advance and hence the distance
between crosscuts. In current practice generally the distance between crosscuts is kept between 600-1200 m.
Optimum distance between horizons and crosscuts
The cost of mining per tonnes of coal will be influenced by the distance between the horizons (x)
and the distance between the crosscuts (c). That is, the cost per tonne of coal will be influenced by/(jc, z).
The value of x and z which will give minimum cost per tonns will be the optimum distance between
horizons and crosscuts respectively.
The following items of cost are influenced by vertical distance between horizons (x) or distances
between crosscuts (z) or both:
(A) Capital Cost:
1. Main shaft Depreciation Average interest
2. Pit Bottom " "
3. Mam crosscut and lateral " "
4. X-cuts " "
5. Staple shafts " "
(B) Running cost
6. Maintenance -Shaft
main crosscut and laterals
Staple shafts
Gate roads
7. Gate road and preparation of face
8. Transport: Shaft
Roads in rock
Staple shaft
Gate road
Transport of stone and material
(C) Miscellaneous
9. Ventilation
10. Pumping
11. Transport of men

The cost on account of above items may be computed in terms of x-distances between horizon and
z-distances between crosscuts. Thus with two unknowns x and z, if we assume one say z then for different
values of x, we get a series of cost figures and the best value of x can be determined. Now assuming this
best value of x, we find the best value of z. In two or three successive steps the optimum value of x and z can
be determined.
Distance between staple shafts
The distance between staple shafts is influenced by the following considerations:
 (i) The most convenient length of the section into which the reserves can be divided. This length is
identical with the length of coal face won out in each section. The lengths of faces vary between 150-300 m
in European practices (Fritzsche, 1962).
(ii) Position of faults which divide the seam in zones and the gradient of the seams which affect the
length of longwall faces.

4.12.3 Development and Layout of the Coal Face between Horizons

The purpose of development is to divide the colliery unit into districts which are available for the
final extraction of the reserves. This would entail driving of 2 network of roadways, staple shafts, etc,
commencing from the shaft. Then individual faces are opened out for which roadways are driven in the
seam itself, their layout depending on the system of working to be adopted.
4.12.4 Opening up by Several Level Mining or Horizon Mining
After the vertical shafts have been sunk two sets of roadways are driven in stone in each horizon or
level:
i) Laterals parallel to the strike, and
ii) crosscuts at right angles to the strike. The main lateral drift connects the crosscuts with each
other and the shafts. In most of the mines laid out on horizon system of mining there is only
one lateral but circumstances may necessitate more than one lateral road. Figure 4.21
illustrates the layouts with two lateral roads (Fritzsche, 1962).

Figure 4.21: Diagram illustrating the layout of a horizon with two laterals (After Fritzsche, 1962)

The crosscuts divide the take into working panels and are placed some 600 - 1200 m apart. The
position of the crosscuts is much influenced by the geological disturbances. The seam is accessed by
crosscuts and from the point they touch the seam gate roads are driven in the seam. If the distance between
them is too large, the length of the gate road will be more which will cause difficulties in ventilation and
maintenance.
The network of roadways in the ventilation level and in the haulage levels are generally identical. If
the distances are different between crosscuts in different horizons, then measures must be taken to establish
connections between corresponding crosscuts.
In flat measures, the seam is divided into suitable panels by blind shafts, the distance between them
offers as the length of the face which varies from 150 - 300 m. Blind shafts are used for the vertical
transport of coal by spiral chutes to the haulage level, whilst transport in the coal face and in the gate roads
is done by conveyors.
In the inclined or steep measures it is impossible to extend the face between haulage 'level and the
ventilation level and it becomes necessary to drive intermediate levels for the subdivision of coal faces.
These intermediate levels are known as district crosscuts and are not connected with the shaft or with each
other. The number of blind shafts serving steep seams are very much less than in flat measures. Under
favourable conditions one blind shaft may suffice.

Example
Figure 4.22 shows a layout on the principle of horizon mining for a single seam, the practice being
to work the top seam first and remaining seams afterwards in descending order. It will be appreciated that
similar areas in any of the lower seams which are intercepted by the main intake and mam return roadways
can be worked likewise*.
 The main intake and main return drifts are set out level from their respective shafts to intercept the
seam at point E. and F, thus forming the extent to the dip of the first area of coal to be worked, A B C D.
The vertical interval between the two drifts in this case is 137 m, and the full dip of the seam 1 in 4½.
Roadways are driven in the seam to form return airways (giving ascensional ventilation) and to
open-out faces, and conveyor roadways, successively, E D, E C, G Z, and H Z; the latter dividing the area
into three strips, each 210 in wide, on either side of the main intake roadway, suitable for longwall
advancing single-unit working.
Coal Mining: Report of the Technical Advisory Committee" H.M.S.O., London, Cmd. 6610, 1945, pp. 20-21.

Figure 4.22: An example of a horizon mining layout (Source: Report of the Technical Advisory
Committee. The Reid Report, H.M.S.O, CMD 6610, 1945)
Two 210 m wide faces (Strip 1) are worked simultaneously to predetermined distances E D, E C-
which limit the extent to the first area to he worked, the coal being conveyed down the faces, along the
bottom roadways and loaded into tubs at Point E.
When strip 1 has been exhausted, the strip 2 is worked in a similar manner with the exception that
the coal is delivered from the roadways conveyor onto a spiral conveyor situated in the staple pit at Point
G., then loaded into tubs in the main intake drift. The strip 2 is replaced by strip 3, the coal being loaded by
way of the staple pit at Point H, into tubs in the main intake roadway.
If stowing material is required, it is sent down the upcast shaft, hauled via the main return airway to
Point R, and then transported by conveyors along the return airway to the rise end of the faces.
When the area A B C D is exhausted, another main intake-airway drift is set out from the downcast
shaft at a lower level to intercept the seam at Point J, in order to work out the area D C K L, the intake
roadway for the area A B C D becoming the return airway for the working area D C K L, and so on,
progressively.
Man riding is provided from the shafts to the inbye ends of either the main intake or main return
airways, points E and F, according to local circumstances.
In India, coal seams have been commonly developed on the principle of 'in-the-seam' mining but
some coal mines have been opened out on the principle of horizon mining also. For example, Table 4.2
gives the particulars of coal seams opened out on horizon mining system in a mine in the Jharia Coalfield.
The seams in this take are steeply inclined (22°- 60°) and are very much disturbed by faults of varying
thickness and mica peridotite sills. At this mine the seams up to 150 m depth are accessed by a surface
incline and leaving a barrier of 50 m (vertical height) have been accessed by a pair of vertical shafts and
have been opened out on the principle of horizon mining both in the "Incline mine" and in the shaft mine.
Table 4.3 gives the technical details of the placement of various horizons (Chowdhary, 1972).

Table 4.2 : Particular of workable seams in Sudamdih take, Jharia Coalfield

Name of the Seam Thickness of the seams, m Dip of the seams degrees
X VIII Top 1.8-2.6 4
X VIII Bottom 2.3-2.9 34
XVII 4.1-5.0 42
Local II 1.7-4.5 40
XVI Bottom 1 .2- 3.2 55
 XV 7.6-16.4 50-60
XIV A 1 .7-3.2 52-55
XIV 0.6-14.9 22
XI/XH 5.11-3.1 28-40
IX/X 12.1-24.4 28-30
VIII A 4.5-5.0 27-30
Local 2.5-3.0 25-30
VIII 4.0-5.0 26-30
Source:. Sen, S.K. and Chowdhary, S.K., (1982). "Pros and Cons, of Extraction of Coal Seams
Underneath Surface Features and Structures at Sudamdih Project" in Mine Subsidence, Dr. B. Singh {Ed.},
Parijat Mudranalaya Publications, pp. 38 • 46.

Table 4.1; Placement of horizons at Sudamdih Colliery. Jharia Coalfield

Level, absolute Relative depth, Function Of level Industrial reserve, Output, Life-time
depth, m m thousand tonnes tonnes/day years
-50 200 Ventilation — — 22
-150 300 Intermediate
-250 400 1 drawing 27979 6000 22
-350 500 Intermediate
-500 650 11 drawing 28791 6000 22
-700 850 III drawing 19935 3500 22
-850 1000 IV drawing 14133 2500 22
Source: Chowdhary, S.K., "Reconstruction of Sudamdih Area, Proceedings of Seminar on
"Reconstruction of Jharia Coalfiled", 12-13 Nov. 1972, The New Sketch Supplement, pp. 181-191.

4.12.5 Advantages of Horizon Mining

Apart from the fact that for opening out steep measures and geologically disturbed seams, horizon
mining system is the only method which can be successful, this system of mining has some distinct
advantages over the "in-the-seam mining" method in respect of
i. main haulage, and
ii. Ventilation and
iii. facilities of simultaneous working of several seams.
1. Haulage: As the main levels in the horizon mining system are driven at very low gradient they
lend themselves well for the use of locomotive haulage which is flexible and can handle high tonnages with
efficiency. Locomotives can further be used for the transport of men and materials; arches, props, stores and
stowing materials. For man riding the locomotive haulage system in the conventional mining will be very
complicated whereas in horizon mining system it is much safer. In fact the principal advantage of the
horizon mining system is the possibility to provide easily adaptable and very efficient main road haulage
system. The tonnages hauled per haulage person may be 5-6 times that obtained with rope haulages
(Fritzsche and Potts, 1954).
2. Ventilation: Horizon mining system provides improved ventilation and higher volumetric
efficiency. The volumetric efficiency of ventilation in horizon mining is 70 % against 50% in single level
mining.
As the main intake and main return pass through horizons at different levels, the leakage is very
much reduced. It is, therefore, possible to use high pressure difference and pass large quantity of air through
the horizons to the workings. The modern longwall faces with powered supports give outputs of 2.000
tonnes of coal or even more and they require high quantities of air which it is easier to provide in the
horizon mining system.
Also as the main ventilating air passes through the roadways driven in stone, the pick-up of heat
from the strata is very much reduced which means better climatic conditions in the face. Besides, as the
methane emission in drift driven in rock is generally less, so the ventilating air is kept free of methane
contamination.
3. Facility to work simultaneously more seams: It is much easier to work a number of seams
simultaneously in horizon mining system and thus produce coal of required blend.
The other advantages are:
1. Maintenance cost of roadways is low. Of course, this will depend on the type of strata through
which the roadway has been driven.
2. It is easier to provide drainage system. The water from the face can be drained out through
drains cut in stone.
3. Layout of electric cables and compressed air pipe lines is simpler. It is convenient to construct
underground substations and transmit power at higher voltage.
4. Seams with bad roof conditions can also be worked by horizon mining with main roads driven
in stone below the seam.
 4.12.6 Disadvantages of Horizon Mining
The horizon mining system suffers from the following disadvantages:
1. High capital expenditure for the development work.
2. Much longer time before a colliery developed by the horizon mining system reaches its target
production.
3. Seams not worked will be definitely lost with the horizon mining system after the upper levels
and the appertaining blind shafts have been abandoned. With 'in-the-seam' mining system, an upper seam
can usually still be worked at any time without much difficulty.