1

INTRODUCTION TO WELDING
PROCESSES
6/16/2012
 JOINING OF MATERIALS
AN INTRODUCTION

1. Requirements of a weld
2. Welding processes
3. Metallurgy of materials to be joined
4. Welding symbols
5. Welding instruction
6. Welding economics –Total Welding Management (TWM)
7. Welding standards
8. Welding inspection
9. Health & safety

6/16/2012
 JOINING OF MATERIALS
3

definition
 Welding – A joining process of two materials, metals/non-
metals, that coalesced by the application of pressure
and/or temperature.
 Welding – Local coalescence of two similar or dissimilar
metallic parts at their faying surfaces.
 Weldment – The assemblage of two or more elements
 Sometime a filler material is needed to facilitate
coalescence in Arc/Fusion welding process.
 Autogenous welding – without filler materials

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Classification of welding processes
4 Welding
Soldering and brazing

Solid state welding Fusion welding

Resistance welding Soldering
Cold welding Brazing
Friction welding
Diffusion welding Electrical energy Chemical energy
Flash welding Oxyacetylene welding
Ultrasonic welding Oxyfuel gas welding
Explosion welding
Non
Consumable consumable Other processes
Gas metal arc welding electrode electrode
Shielded metal arc welding
Gas tungsten arc welding Laser beam welding
Submerged arc welding
Atomic hydrogen welding Thermit welding
Flux cored arc welding
Plasma arc welding Electron beam welding
Electrogas welding
Electroslag welding

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Requirements of a weld
5
Butt joint
Weld
Interface
Reinforcement

Fusion zone
HAZ
BM

 Fusion zone: a mixture of filler metal and base metal

melted together homogeneously due to convection as in
casting. Epitaxial grain growth (casting)
 Weld interface – a narrow boundary immediately
solidified after melting.
 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) – below melting but substantial
microstructural changeDr in the base material (heat treating)
G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012
 Requirements of a weld
6
Fillet weld

Mehod of measuring

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Requirements of a weld
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Types of joints

 Butt joint

 Corner joint

 Lap joint

 Tee joint

 Edge joint

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Requirements of a weld
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Types of Welds
 Fillet weld

 Groove weld

 Plug and slot welds

 Spot and Seam welds

 Flange and Surfacing welds

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Metallurgy of materials to be joined
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Physics of welding
 Coalescing Mechanism: Fusion via high-density energy
 More time is needed for a lower power density process, more
so due to the conduction.
 For metallurgical reason, high energy over small area is better.
 Process Choice
 The rate at which welding can be performed
 The size of the area to be melted
 Power Density for Fusion Welding

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Metallurgy of materials to be joined
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Physics of welding
P
 Powder density (PD in W/mm2) PD
A
 In reality, Pre & post-heating are nonuniform
 For metallurgical reason, less energy and high
heat density are desired.
 Heat input = (I x U)/S = VAs/cm = J/cm
• Heat Utilisation:
1. Heat waste between heat source and surface (heat
transfer efficiency, f1) and
2. Conduction (melting efficiency, f2)
Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012
 Modes of Welding
Weld Bead Geometries

Conduction Mode Cond+Penet. Mode Penetration Mode

102 w/cm2 104 w/cm2 105 w/cm2

11 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

 Welding processes
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Arc Welding – Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

 A fusion welding where the coalescence of the metals
(base metals as well as filler) is achieved by the heat
from electric arc.
 Productivity: Arc time AC or DC
power
source

 Technical issues
 Electrodes – consumable and non-consumable electrodes
 Arc Shielding – To shield the arc from the surrounding
gas. Helium and argon are typically used. Flux does a
similar function.
 Power source – dc for all metals or ac for typically steels

 Heat loss due to convection, conduction and radiation

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012
 Welding processes
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Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

 A consumable electrode – a filler
metal rod coated with chemicals for
flux and shielding (230-460mm
long and 2.5-9.4mm in diameter)
 The filler metal must be comparable
with base metals.
 Current: 30-300A and Voltage: 15-
45V
 Cheaper and portable than oxy-
fuel welding
 Less efficient and variation in
current due to the change in length
of consumable electrodes during the
process. Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012
 Welding processes

MIG diagram

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

15 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012
 Welding processes
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Gas Metal Arc Welding

Heat is produced by an electric arc
between the continuously fed metal
electrode and the base metal. Both the
base metal and the filler are melt. The
weld area is protected by inert shield
gases.

Weldable metals:
-steel carbon
- steel low-alloy
- steel stainless
- aluminum
- copper and its alloys
- nickel and its alloys
- magnesium
- reactive metal (titanium,
Characteristics of the weld joint by GMAW zirconium, tantalum)

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes
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Gas Metal Arc Welding

 Use a bare consumable

electrode
 Flooding the arc with a
gas which depends on the
metal
 No slag build-up and
higher deposition rate than
SMAW
 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) or
CO2 welding
Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012
 Welding processes
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Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

 Use a continuous consumable tube with
flux and others such as deoxidizer and
alloying elements

 Two types
 Self-shielded – flux has an
ingredient for shielding
 Gas-shielded – external gas
 Produce high quality weld joint

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes
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Electro-Gas Welding (EGW)

 Flux-cored or bare electrode

with external shield gas and
water-cooled molding shoes
 Longitudinal and circumferential
joints.
 Thickness up to 40mm
 Used in Power plant component
manufacture and shipbuilding
applications

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes
Submerged Arc Welding-SAW
Wire feeding nozzle
Flux recovery Flux delivery

Wire feeding nozzle

Slag layer
Flux shield layer
Flux

Slag layer

Flux
Schematic of SAW

20 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes
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Submerged Arc Welding -SAW

Thickness range:
3mm to any thickness

Power supply:
AC, DC
DC e+: Welding
DC e- : Surfacing

Shielding:Granular flux

Applications:
Large & Heavy structures

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes
Principle - TIG process

In TIG welding an arc is formed between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the
metal being welded. Gas is fed through the torch to shield the electrode and molten
weldpool. If filler wire is used, it is added to the weld pool separately.

22 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes
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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

TIG welding of
titanium pipe with
trailing shield

Trail shielding

With or without a filler metal; Tungsten melts at 3410 C

Shielding gas: argon, helium or a mixture
All metals (commonly Al and Stainless steels) in a wide range of thickness
Slow and costly but high quality weld for thin sections

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes
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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

Limitations
 Requires greater welder dexterity than MIG or
stick welding
 Lower deposition rates
 more costly for welding thick
sections

Benefits
 Superior quality welds
 Welds can be made with or without filler metal
 Precise control of welding variables (heat)
 Free of spatter; Low distortion

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Plasma Arc Welding
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Plasma Arc Welding – a special form of GTAW but with a constricted

plasma gas to attain a higher temperature

Plasma TIG

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes
Plasma Welding Advantages
 Constricted arc
 High power density

• Protected electrode allows for more welds before electrode

contamination
• Arc standoff distance not as critical as in TIG
• Gentle Arc Transfer
• Stable, stiffer arc reduces arc wander
• No high-frequency arc starting noise
• Extremely short duration welds possible for spot welding of wires,
needles, and micro components.
• Higher weld speeds possible in specific applications

26 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes
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Resistance Welding
 RW – heat and pressure to accomplish coalescence.
 Power source: heat generated H I 2 Rt Force
 Resistance Welding Processes + electrode
 Resistance spot welding
Weld nugget
 Electrodes – Cu-based or refractory(Cu+W)
 Rocker-arm spot welders
- electrode
 Resistance seam welding

 Resistance projection welding (RPW)

 Flash welding (FW) – butt joint

Force
 Upset welding – similar to FW but pressed during heating and upsetting.
 Percussion welding – similar to FW but shorter duration
 High-frequency (induction and resistance) welding

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Resistance welding
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process
SPOT Upset

Projection
Flash butt

SEAM
Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012
 Welding processes
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Spot Welding Cycle

(1) (5)
(2) (3) (4)
Force, Current

Force

Current

(1) (2) (3) (5) time

(4)
Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012
 Welding processes
Spot welding machine Seam Welding machine

Bench Mounted
Spot Welder
Capacity: 3-30KVA

Pneumatically actuated with

Matching controls

Machine suitable for small

but
Precision job, more Capacity:
particularly 50 to 200 KVA
Electronic, switch gear
industries
Used for manufacture of drums and barrels,
fuel tanks, Silencer, muffler, shock absorber etc.

30 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes
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Oxy-fuel gas Welding

Outer Envelope (1260 C)

 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) – Use
various fuels mixed with oxygen
 Oxyacetylene welding – A mixture Acetylene feather
of acetylene and oxygen (2090 C)
Inner cone
(3480ºC)

 Total heat: 55x106J/m3

 Acetylene: odorless but commercial acetylene has a garlic order.

 Unstable at 1atm thus dissolved in acetone.

 Other gases : Hydrogen, Propylene, Propane and Natural gas

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes
Oxy-Fuel Welding

32 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes
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Soldering or brazing
In these processes, only the filler metals which join the
two pieces to be welded are melted and not the base
metal. The braze metals have higher melting
temperatures than the solder metals.
Filler metal: brass or solder

Base metal

Characteristics of a brazed or soldered joint

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012
 Other Fusion Welding
34 Electron beam Welding
 High focused high-intensity stream of electrons
 Power density and Multiple degrees of
vacuum

Beam of electrons are generated applying

a very high voltage in the order of kilovolts
in between an anode and a filament. The
beam, i.e, the flow of electrons are
focused using a magnetic focusing coil so
that the energy is constricted in a very
narrow area. Since the welding is carried
out in vacuum at higher speeds, there is
no need of any heat treatment operations
and the stress levels are pretty low

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Electron beam Welding
Applications of EBW
Turbo charger
Precombustion
Wheel
chamber

Cardiac Gas
pacemakers turbine

35 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Other Fusion Welding
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Laser Beam Welding
 Laser beam Welding – no filler metal
 Highquality, and narrow heat affected zone.
 No vacuum chamber but no deep weld (small part)

Laser medium Laser output

Mirror Mirror
(100% reflective) (partially transparent)

Excitation
source
Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012
 Laser beam welding Application

37 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Laser Beam Welding
Applications

2kwatt solid state laser facility at WRI

3mm OD SS tube 0f 0.5mm thick

Temperature
transducer

Dissimilar thickness joint – SS to coated steel

Pressure Transducer

38 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes
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Solid-State Welding
 No filler metals but w/o local melting with either pressure-alone or heat and
pressure.
 Intimate contact is necessary by a through cleaning or other means.
 Solid-state Welding Processes
 Forge welding – Samurai sword

 Cold welding – high pressure

 Roll welding

 Hot-pressure welding

 Diffusion welding at 0.5Tm

 Explosive welding – mechanical locking

 Friction welding – friction to heat

 Ultrasonic welding – oscillatory shear stresses of ultrasonic

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Solid-State Welding

40 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Solid-State Welding

Diffusion bonding

41 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Welding processes
Resistance Welding- Flash butt

Rail Flash butt welder Boiler tubing

Capacity: 650KVA, DC Capacity: 50 to 250KVA

42 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Other Fusion Welding
Magnetically Impelled Arc Welding (MIAB)

Basic Principle

43 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Solid-State Welding

Friction welding

44 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Friction welding
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process stages

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 FRICTION STIR WELDING

Load

ADVANCING LEADING
EDGE OF
END OF WELD TOOL

SHOULDER

SUBMERGED
PIN

PIN REAR WELD

46 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 FRICTION STIR WELDING

Suitable for Aluminium,

copper
Application: Al bus duct

Research towards friction

stir welding of steel

Friction stir welding of aluminium alloy

47 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Explosive welding
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Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Weld Quality
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 Residual Stress and Distortion

 Welding fixtures, Heat sink,Tack welding, control weld condition, Preheating, Stress-
relief heat treatment, Proper design
 Welding Defects
 Cracks, Cavities, Solid Inclusions, Incomplete Fusion
 Imperfect shape, Miscellaneous Defects such as arc strike and excessive spatter.
 Inspection and testing
 Visual Inspection – dimensional, warpage, crack
 Nondestructive – dye- and fluorescent-penetrant, Magnetic particle testing, Ultrasonic
and radiograph
 Destructive – mechanical & metallurgical tests

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 JOINING OF MATERIALS
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Design Considerations
 Design for welding
 Minimum parts
 Arc Welding
 Good fit-up of parts
 Access room for welding
 Flat welding is advised
 Spot welding
 Low carbon steel up to 3.2mm
 For large components: reinforcing part or flanges
 Access room for welding
 Overlap is required

Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012

 Thank you

51 Dr G Buvanashekaran, WRI 6/16/2012