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com
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

ScienceDirect
ScienceDirect
Procedia
Available
Available Manufacturing
online 00 (2017) 000–000
atatwww.sciencedirect.com
online www.sciencedirect.com
Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000 www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
ScienceDirect
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Procedia Manufacturing 21 (2018) 76–83
Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
15th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing
15th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing
Laser
Laser Beam
Beam Forming:
Forming: A
A Sustainable
Sustainable Manufacturing
Manufacturing Process
Process
Manufacturing Engineering Society
Stephen International
Akinlabi a Conference 2017,bMESIC 2017, 28-30 June
a* and Esther Akinlabib
Stephen Akinlabi
2017, Vigo * and EstherSpain
(Pontevedra), Akinlabi
a
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Technology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, 2006 South Africa.
a
Department
b of Mechanical
Department and Industrial
of Mechanical Engineering
Enginering Technology,
Science, UniversityUniversity of Johannesburg,
of Johannesburg, Johannesburg,
Johannesburg, 2006 South2006 South Africa.
Africa.
Costing models for capacity optimization in Industry 4.0: Trade-off
b
Department of Mechanical Enginering Science, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, 2006 South Africa.

between used capacity and operational efficiency

Abstract
Abstract
Manufacturing Industries occupyA. Santana , P. Afonso
a
a unique position
a,*
in the society, A.
for Zanin
b
, R. Wernke
the production
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of both basic home utilities and modern
Manufacturing Industries occupy a unique
appliances. Different manufacturing processes position in the society for the production of both basic home utilities and modern
a
University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugalengineering commodities. Some of the
are employed for the fabrication of
appliances. Different manufacturing processes
conventional manufacturing processes include b are employed
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forging, machining, Someforming.
casting, of the
conventional manufacturing processes include milling, moulding, welding, grinding, forging, machining,
Wastages of resources, man-hour and capital often characterised most of the conventional manufacturing process. However, the casting, forming.
Wastages of resources,
technological improvementman-hour andyears
over the capital often characterised
brought most of theofconventional
about the sustainability most of the manufacturing
manufacturing process. However,
processes. the
This study
technological improvement over the years brought about the sustainability of most of the manufacturing
presents Laser Beam Forming (LBF) as a sustainable manufacturing technique. LBF is one of the modern technology approaches processes. This study
Abstract
presents Lasersome
BeamofForming (LBF) as
of addressing the challenges in athe
sustainable manufacturingsystems
modern manufacturing technique.andLBF is one ofassociated
complexity the modern technology
with approaches
the industrial sector.
There are overwhelming advantages of LBF when compared to the traditional forming and bending technique, some of sector.
of addressing some of the challenges in the modern manufacturing systems and complexity associated with the industrial which
Under theoverwhelming
There are concept of "Industry of4.0", production processes will be pushed to
andbe increasingly interconnected,
includes minimum springadvantages
back effect, LBF when compared
non-contact to the traditional
method developed forming
for shaping metallic, bending
plastic technique, some materials.
and composite of which
information
includes is based on a real
minimum time basis and, necessarily, much more efficient.metallic,
In this context, capacity optimization
Forming achievedspring
withoutback effect,
forces, non-contact
presses method
and shaping developed
dies providing a for
moreshaping
friendly environment.plastic and composite materials.
goes beyond the traditional aim of capacity maximization, contributing also for
Forming is achieved without forces, presses and shaping dies providing a more friendly environment. organization’s profitability and value.
Indeed, lean management and continuous improvement approaches suggest capacity optimization instead of
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
© 2017
© 2018 The
The Authors.
maximization. The
Authors. Published
study
Published by
by Elsevier
of capacity
Elsevier B.V.
optimization
B.V. committeeandofcosting models is an important researchManufacturing.
topic that deserves
Peer-review under
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thescientific
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committee of thethe 15th
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Conference on Sustainable
on Sustainable Manufacturing (GCSM).
contributions
Peer-review underfrom both the practical
responsibility and theoretical
of the scientific committeeperspectives. This
of the 15th Global paper presents
Conference and discusses
on Sustainable a mathematical
Manufacturing.
model forLaser
Keywords: capacity management
beam forming, basedprocesses,
manufacturing on different costing
Springback models
effect (ABC and TDABC). A generic model has been
and Susutainability
Keywords: Laser
developed andbeamit was used to
forming, analyze idle
manufacturing capacity
processes, and to design
Springback strategies
effect and towards the maximization of organization’s
Susutainability
value. The trade-off capacity maximization vs operational efficiency is highlighted and it is shown that capacity
1. Introduction
optimization might hide operational inefficiency.
© Introduction
1. 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Peer-review
The questunder
for aresponsibility
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scientific committee
systemof demand
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modern systems thatSociety International
can meet Conference
the societal needs and
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flexible, novel of
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Keywords: CostOne of ABC;
Models; such TDABC;
systemsCapacity
considered in thisIdle
Management; study is theOperational
Capacity; Laser Beam Forming
(LBF). The introduction of a
Efficiency

1. Introduction
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +27783160281;
* E-mail
Corresponding
address:author. Tel.: +27783160281;
stephenakinlabi@gmail.com
The cost
E-mail of idle
address: capacity is a fundamental information for companies and their management of extreme importance
stephenakinlabi@gmail.com
in modern©production
2351-9789 systems.
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by Elsevier defined as unused capacity or production potential and can be measured
in several©under
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of available
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Sustainable of the idle capacity
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Peer-review underTel.:
* Paulo Afonso. responsibility
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fax: +351 253 604of741
the 15th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing.
E-mail address: psafonso@dps.uminho.pt

2351-9789 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference 2017.
2351-9789 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 15th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing (GCSM).
10.1016/j.promfg.2018.02.097
 Stephen Akinlabi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 21 (2018) 76–83 77
2 Dr Stephen Akinlabi/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000

laser as a tool in the manufacturing industry was dated to 1917 and the first laser was invented in 1960. Consequently,
the activity on LBF effectively commenced in the mid 80’s with its origin from the oxy-acetylene flame bending of
ship plates in the ship construction [1,2]. The viability and flexibility of the laser have made it unique for different
manufacturing processes like welding, material processing, surface modification, and biomedical engineering.
The modern manufacturing techniques and processes does not only focus on meeting the societal needs and
technical challenges but also more on the sustainability of the process because it will be a colossal waste if a process
sustainability is in question. One of the definitions of sustainable manufacturing in the literature is the “creation of
manufactured products through economic-sound processes that minimise negative environmental impacts while
conserving energy and natural resources” [3]. Forming and bending have been part-manufacturing process whereby
the shapes of materials are changed by the application of loads through punches and presses. This process of applying
force to the material induces stress greater than the yield stress of the material but this controlled to avoid damage as
a result of the applied force. The most traditional approach of forming are often characterised with spring back, which
has been a setback in the manufacturing process for decades, although compensation theory has been developed to
manage spring back.

2. Sustainability of the Manufacturing Industry

There are a lot of discussion on sustainability and sustainable development to date, this is for more efficiency and
effectiveness and more importantly to preserve our environment. Sustainability is the preservation of valuable
resources so that it is not destroyed. The process of preservation further ensures that all economic, environmental, and
social costs and benefits of set out activity are considered because a sustainable society includes a healthy
environment, social equity and a strong economy [4]. Haapala et al. presented that the concept of sustainability
emerged from different management and documented reports as dated back as in the 70’s and 80’s, which was greatly
motivated by the impacts on the environment, the damaging events, the uncertainty about environmental pollution and
the run-out of the resources. They further contributed that global development and growth are some of the significant
impact of manufacturing on the society. This is expected to increase from a growing economy as the demand for basic
consumer goods increases, thus gradually improving the quality of life [5].
Furthermore, they reported that manufacturing has had a significant influence on global development and growth
and they believe that the trend would likely continue because if the increased demand for consumer goods from the
growing world with the quest to improve the quality of life. They also came to a conclusion that sustainable
manufacturing is a philosophy that cannot be viewed independent of broader environmental and socioeconomic
systems and shown in Fig. 1. is the flow diagram of the role of the manufacturing industry in a sustainable system.
A simple photo of mechanical forming of sheet is shown in Fig. 2. The process of actualizing sustainability in the
manufacturing industries demands mainly that the processes, the bye products and products does not impact the people
and the environment negatively and minimize waste. Most traditional manufacturing processes are often characterised
with at lease one of these.

Fig.1. The role of the manufacturing industry in a sustainable system [4] Figure 2. Mechanical forming of sheet

Conventional metal forming and bending causes deformation along one axis whereby other manufacturing
operations can be performed in the formed part. Sheet metals are characterised by their high ratio of surface area to
its thickness. Usually, thin materials with the thickness less than 6 mm have often involved in metal forming operations
78 Stephen Akinlabi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 21 (2018) 76–83
Dr Stephen Akinlabi/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000 3

particularly the conventional approach. The act of forming a sheet metal is the combination of both tensile forces in
the plane of the transverse direction of the sheet forming the part. The applied load consequently generate stresses in
the finished part causing changes in the thickness of the material through stretching, drawing and bending of the sheet,
which can lead to localised necking in part [6]-[8].

3. The Laser Beam Forming Process (LBF)

One of the determined criteria in the choice of a suitable manufacturing process is the sustainability of the influence
on the cost, its effect on the environment and operators, and its flexibility with other modern systems and applications
to engineering need.

3.1. Laser beam forming

Traditionally, metal forming being a press working and manufacturing process achieved through the deformation
process by the application of load to the workpiece, which is usually sheet or plate metal. The applied load generates
stresses and displacement causing distortion in the shape of the material. The distortions in the shape in the material
are often a permanent deformation. However, mechanical forming of sheets are characterised with spring back, which
is the ability of the metallic material to return to its original shape. This phenomenon in metals is often known as
elastic recovery [9, 10].
Laser beam forming is a unique manufacturing technique of bending and forming of sheets and plates materials.
The process is achieved by introducing thermal stresses on the surface of the sheet or plate through the controlled
irradiation of the defocused laser beam. The thermal stresses are generated from the laser line energy. Schematic set-
up and the LBF process with the laser irradiation pattern are shown in Fig. 3. The irradiation patterns illustrated in Fig.
3. is the alternating methods employed to achieve a uniform deformation. The numbering system here is
1,2,5,6,9,10,11,12,7,8,3,4. On the other hand, sequential irradiating method results in a non-uniform and cantilevered
type deformation. The numbering in this instance is 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12.

Fig. 3. Schematic of a laser beam forming process with the irradiation pattern Figure 4. Photo of an experimental LBF

LBF has been a possible technique for the shaping of metallic, plastic and composite materials and currently
employed in rapid prototype and alignment. Samples produced during experimental LBF are shown in Fig. 4. The
processing parameters metrics employed in LBF processing are presented in Table 1. All these parameters are
effectively controlled by a desired shape or curvature are achieved. One of the experiments conducted using the LBF
process employ a 3 mm mild steel sheet, the process parameters presented in Table 2.
LBF being a complex process that involves elastic-plastic mechanics, the operating mechanisms are determined by
the operating temperature of the system. There are several operating mechanisms in LBF, but the most widely applied
mechanism the Temperature Gradient Mechanism (TGM) and Bulk Mechanism (BM), which are always a function of
the process setup. The different mechanism in LBF provided the opportunity for the combination of the sample
geometry and LBF process parameters [1].
4 Dr Stephen Akinlabi/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000
Stephen Akinlabi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 21 (2018) 76–83 79

Table 1. Processing Parameters for LBF Samples at different levels Table 2. LBF Experimental Process Parameters
Parameter
Factors Parameters Units Levels Factors Units Levels
s
1 2 3 4 5 n 1 2 3
Laser Laser
P Watt P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 Pn P Watt 1800 2400 3000
Power (P) Power (P)
Beam Beam
B diameter mm B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 Bn B diameter mm 12 15 18
(B) (B)
Scan Speed m/mi V V Scan m/mi
V V3 V4 V5 Vn V 0,05 0,08 0,11
(V) n 1 2 Speed (V) n
Number
Number of N N
N N3 N4 N5 Nn N of Scans 1 3 5
Scans (N) 1 2
(N)
Coolant Coolant
C flow rate l/min C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 Cn C flow rate l/min C1 C2 C3
(C) (C)

The temperature gradient mechanism develops from the processing conditions, one of which is the rapid heating
of the workpiece surface, to generate high-temperature gradients in the workpiece. The thermal expansion of the
heated surface brings about the initial bending of the sheet away from the heat source, or towards the cold side of the
workpiece during the heating process [11. The buckling mechanism, on the other hand, occurs in relatively thin sheets,
where the ratio of the diameter of the heated area to the sheet thickness is relatively high.
Several materials [12]-[14] have been subjected to the LBF process, and studies are still being conducted. It
involves the scanning of the defocused laser beam over the surface of the sheet metal to be formed. Different laser
beam pattern can be generated with the view of forming different configuration. Its potential applications are found
in most industries that rely heavily on traditional approach using punches, stamping dies and presses in the
manufacturing process, this includes aerospace, microelectronics, automotive and shipbuilding. Some of the benefits
of the LBF technique over the conventional methods include the autonomous capability with robots and flexibility
with other manufacturing techniques such as laser cutting, marking, hardening, cladding, welding, etc. [15]-[17].

3.2. Forming mechanism

Conventional metal forming and bending causes deformation along one axis whereby other manufacturing
operations can be performed in the formed part. Sheet metals are characterised by their high ratio of surface area to
its thickness. Usually, thin materials with the thickness less than 6 mm have often involved in metal forming operations
particularly the conventional approach. The act of forming a sheet metal is the combination of both tensile forces in
the plane of the transverse direction of the sheet forming the part. The applied load consequently generate stresses in
the finished part causing changes in the thickness of the material through stretching, drawing and bending of the sheet,
which can lead to localised necking in part [6]-[8].
LBF being a complex process that involves elastic-plastic mechanics, the operating temperature of the system
determines the operating mechanisms. There are several operating mechanisms in LBF, but the most widely applied
mechanism the Temperature Gradient Mechanism (TGM) and Bulk Mechanism (BM), which are always a function
of the process setup. The different mechanism in LBF provided the opportunity for the combination of the sample
geometry and LBF process parameters [1]. The temperature gradient mechanism develops from the processing
conditions, one of which is the rapid heating of the workpiece surface, to generate high-temperature gradients in the
workpiece. The thermal expansion of the heated surface brings about the initial bending of the sheet away from the
heat source, or towards the cold side of the workpiece during the heating process [18]. The buckling mechanism, on
the other hand, occurs in relatively thin sheets, where the ratio of the diameter of the heated area to the sheet thickness
is relatively high.
80 Stephen Akinlabi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 21 (2018) 76–83
Dr Stephen Akinlabi/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000 5

4. Sustainability of the LBF process

Sustainable manufacturing has been widely acceptable globally because the outputs from the manufacturing
operational processes and activities of converting input materials and energy to finished marketable products often
have adverse impacts socially, environmentally and economically. One of the contributors to this subject was the
Brundtland Commission who defined sustainable development as a non-operational entity for business and
engineering decision makers in manufacturing. On the other hand, Mihelcic et al. [19] defined it as the design of
human and industrial systems to ensure that humankind’s use of natural resources and cycles does not adversely impact
the quality of life through the losses of economic opportunities, social conditions, human health and environment.
Furthermore, the United States Department of Commerce [20] describes sustainable manufacturing as “the creation
of manufactured products that employ processes that minimise negative environmental impacts, conserve energy and
natural resources, are safe for employees, communities and consumers and are economically sound”.
LBF may be considered as a modern manufacturing system for bending and forming of sheet and plates metals
because of some of its unique advantages over the conventional bending and forming techniques. These benefits have
contributed immensely to the viability and potential applications in shipbuilding, train coaches construction,
automotive, aerospace, pipelines and in research and innovations. The description according to the United State
Department of Commerce shows that sustainable manufacturing focuses on ensuring that the environment is not
compromised, energy efficiency, and maximising natural resources. Also, modern manufacturing systems would also
be sustainable when wastages are minimised, man-hour maximised, easy to operate, flexibility and autonomous
capability. Unfortunately, most conventional manufacturing processes and systems no longer meet the demands of the
modern societal needs. Some manufacturing processes emit fumes, smokes and gases that are not friendly to the
environment, consequently affecting the health of the operators primarily.

4.1. Results and Discussion

Through the LBF process different curved components were produced with enhanced mechanical properties. LBF,
being a process that employs defocused laser beam for the irradiation, consequently generates a high surface
temperature and large thermal gradients whereby bringing about the deformation of the material. The line energy (LE)
is the source of heat energy, which is laser power divided by the laser scanning speed. It is important to highlight that
a permanent deformation is attained under the temperature gradient mechanism when the line energy reached a
threshold. It was observed from Table 3 that the average bending angle increases as the line energy increases. This
implies that there is a direct relationship between the bend angle and the laser line energy.
Similarly, it was observed from Table 3 that the resulted high bend angle of about 12 degrees resulted from a high
laser power (3kW), medium beam diameter (15mm), low scan speed (0.05m/min), high number of scans (5) and low
cooling rate (5 l/min). Considering this therefore, the high bend angles are attributed to these dominating parameters
– High number of scans, medium laser beam, low scan speed, and low cooling rate.

 Chemical Composition of LBF samples

After checking the elemental composition through emission spectroscopy, an improvement was observed in the
LBF samples formed at the three parameters. The improvement is an indication of enhancement in the mechanical
properties of the LBF instead of damaging effect. The increase observed in the carbon by weight in the formed samples
is an indication of formation of more carbon content, whereby increasing the hardness and mechanical strength. In
addition, the presence and percentage increase of Silicon, Manganese, Chromium, Molybdenum and Nickel all
together further confirmed the improved strength and hardenability of the formed samples at elevated temperature.

 Microhardness
Appreciable increase was observed in the LBF samples when compared to the parent material and convectional-
formed samples. The average micro Vickers hardness value for the parent material and the conventional formed
samples are 94HV and 116HV respectively. While the micro Vickers hardness values for the three LBF samples at
1.8kW, 2.4kW and 3kW are 138HV, 148HV and 156HV respectively. These changes can be attributed to the effect
 Stephen Akinlabi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 21 (2018) 76–83 81
6 Dr Stephen Akinlabi/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000

of the laser material processing during which the rapid heating and cooling alters the material properties. This finding
is in agreement with other published literature [21]-[22].

 Tensile Properties
The tensile test for the parent material was conducted to determine the Yield Strength (YS) 284.33 (upper) and
277.7 (lower). It is observed that the rapid heating and cooling of the laser beam affect the mechanical properties of
the LBF samples because the heat does not only brings about the permanent deformation but it also alters the material
properties of the LBF samples. The Yield Strength (YS) of the LBF samples were estimated from the mathematical
model developed by Knupfer and Moore [23]. The model is the relationship between Vickers hardness and the Yield
Strength of the material and given by Equation 1. Also presented in Table 4 are the estimated Yield Strength, Vickers
hardness, line energy and average bend angles.

𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 = 9.81[𝐻𝐻⁄3][0.1𝑛𝑛 ] (1)

Where YS is the Yield Strength, H is the micro Vickers Hardness and n is the strain-hardening index.

Equation 1 shows that there is a direct relationship between the Micro Vickers hardness and the Yield Strength.
The results of the microhardness measurements and the tensile tests showed that the magnitude of hardness, and yield
strength are dependent on the mutually interactive influences of the resistance offered to the motion of dislocations,
and the plastic deformation capability of the steel sheet. The trend of the estimated YS values of the LBF samples
showed a significant percentage increase with about 8 % and 13% for sample 2 and 3 respectively. The increase may
be attributed to the cold work of the material induced by the bending strains due to the laser forming process. The
enhanced yield strength in the LBF samples 2 and 3 are in agreement with other published literatures [24]-[26].

Table 3. LBF Experimental Process Parameters Table 4. LBF Experimental Process Parameters
Line
Average
Energy Average Line Estimated %
P B V N C Bend
(J/m) Samples Bending Energy HV YS Change
Angle
x103 Angles (J/m) x103 in YS
MPa
1 1 3 3 1 2.9 16
2 3 1 2 2 7.8 48 1 1 3 3 1 2.9
3 3 1 3 1 11.8 60 2 3 1 2 2 7.8
3 3 1 3 1 11.8

5. Advantages and Disadvantages of the LBF Process

A closer look at the Laser Beam Forming process, the benefits that have made LBF as a sustainable manufacturing
process may be summarised under these categories:
82 Stephen Akinlabi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 21 (2018) 76–83
Dr Stephen Akinlabi/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000 7

5.1. Process flexibility and autonomous capability

 Easy to operate
 Can manufacture complex configurations at an optimum time, using CAD systems.
 The method can be implemented with other manufacturing processes such as cutting, cladding, engraving,
surface treatment, hardening, ablating, making the process versatile, durable and saves time.
 Controllably managed developed residual stresses and deformation, consequently making LBF suitable for
wide range of applications, whereby improving the structural integrity of the manufactured component.
 The system can be easily automated using robots simplifying the requirement for especially skilled operators
and saves associated cost.

5.2. Environmental benefits

 No fumes, or smokes that are injurious to health;

 Non-contact process, no presses and dies required and no machining operation required, saves associated
cost;
 All necessary protective gear are available, to eliminate associated health risks;

5.3. Energy benefits

 Laser being a clean source of energy is free from toxic gas that may be injurious to health, eliminate associated
health challenges and saves cost;
 Process uses moderately controlled energy;
 Almost all materials can be tested;

5.4. Metallurgical benefits

 Post-process treatment is often not a requirement, saves associated cost and time for treatment.
 No loss of alloying elements, leading to an improved structural integrity.
 Enhances mechanical properties of the processed material
 No Melted pool in the process, therefore eliminates associated problems to solidification-induced problems
such as inclusions and voids. This consequently saves time on post-process treatment and repeating
experiments.

However, it is important to strike a balance by highlighting some of its limitations even though there are
overwhelming benefits of laser beam forming as a manufacturing technique. Some of the identified limitations of
LBF are:
 The high cost of the laser system has made the accessibility to a laser system tough, and this consequently
impacts on its applications when compared to other conventional manufacturing systems. However, there is
high awareness of the potential of the laser to manufacturing through research and innovations at tertiary
institutions and research institutes.
 Addition health risk assessment before and during the operations of lasers because if its associated possible
danger in the event of non-compliance.
 Initial training may be rigorous and may required expert when compared to conventional systems.

6. Conclusion

Laser beam forming being a non-contact manufacturing system with immense benefits when compared to
traditional techniques has contributed greatly to the modernisation of the manufacturing processes, though more
research is being conducted to improve the process further and explore its applications in the modern society. Through
 Stephen Akinlabi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 21 (2018) 76–83 83
8 Dr Stephen Akinlabi/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000

laser beam forming technique complex configurations can be made, the system can be automated reducing men
interface with the system, and the flexibility of the system has made it compatible and integrated with other
manufacturing systems. LBF is not associated with toxic fumes or smokes, hence, environmentally friendly and safe
for all manufacturing applications. Following all these unique benefits, Laser Beam Forming can, therefore, is grouped
as a sustainable manufacturing process, with the view of continuous making the environment safe during all
manufacturing activities.

7. References

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[3] Sustainable Manufacturing. Online https://archive.epa.gov/sustainablemanufacturing/web/html/ Accessed April 2017
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[16] M. Sistaninia, M. Sistaninia and H. Moeanodini. “Laser forming of plates using rotating and dithering beams,” Computational Material
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