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Chemistry Project On Natural Polymers
Chemistry Project On Natural Polymers
A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits.[5] Due to their broad range of
properties,[6] both synthetic and natural polymers play essential and ubiquitous roles in everyday life.[7] Polymers range
from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental
to biological structure and function. Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small
molecules, known as monomers. Their consequently large molecular mass relative to small
molecule compounds produces unique physical properties, including toughness, viscoelasticity, and a tendency to
form glasses and semicrystalline structures rather than crystals. The terms polymer and resin are often synonymous
with plastic.
The term "polymer" derives from the Greek word polus and meros, and refers to a molecule whose structure is composed
of multiple repeating units, from which originates a characteristic of high relative molecular mass and attendant
properties.[2] The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular
mass.[2] The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a definition distinct from the
modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was
proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger,[10] who spent the next decade finding experimental evidence for this
hypothesis.[11]
Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science (which
includes polymer chemistry and polymer physics).
The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains.
Types of Polymers
Natural polymers
The easiest way to classify polymers is their source of origin. Natural polymers are polymers which occur in nature and are
existing in natural sources like plants and animals. Some common examples are Proteins (which are found in humans and
animals alike), Cellulose and Starch (which are found in plants) or Rubber (which we harvest from the latex of a tropical
plant ).
Synthetic polymers
Synthetic polymers are polymers which humans can artificially create/synthesize in a lab. These are commercially
produced by industries for human necessities. Some commonly produced polymers which we use day to day are
Polyethylene (a mass-produced plastic which we use in packaging) or Nylon Fibers (commonly used in our clothes, fishing
nets etc.)
Semi-Synthetic polymers
Semi-Synthetic polymers are polymers obtained by making modification in natural polymers artificially in a lab. These
polymers formed by chemical reaction (in a controlled environment) and are of commercial importance. Example:
Vulcanized Rubber ( Sulphur is used in cross bonding the polymer chains found in natural rubber) Cellulose acetate (rayon)
etc.
A polymer is basically synthesized by joining small molecules or substances into a single giant molecule by a chemical
process. The small molecules which are used in synthesizing a polymer is called as monomer. Natural Polymers are
those substances which are obtained naturally. These polymers are formed either by the process of addition
polymerization or condensation polymerization.
Polymers are extensively found in nature. Our body too is made up of many natural polymers like nucleic acids, proteins,
etc. The Cellulose is another natural polymer which is a main structural component of the plants. Most of the natural
polymers are formed from the condensation polymers and this formation from the monomers, water is obtained as a by-
product.
Some of the Natural polymers also include DNA and RNA, these polymers are very much important in all the life
processes of all the living organisms. This messenger RNA is the one that makes possible peptides, proteins, and
enzymes in a living body. Enzymes inside the living organisms help the reactions to happen and the peptides makes up
the structural components of hair, skin, and also the horns of a rhino. The other natural polymers are polysaccharides or
called as sugar polymers and polypeptides such as keratin, silk, and the hair. Natural rubber is also a natural polymer
which is made of hydrogen and carbon.
Classification
Polysaccharides from Plant Origin
Cellulose
Composition
It is an organic polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4) linked
Dglucose units having the formula (C6H10O5)n. The plant cell wall mainly consist of cellulose, hemicelluloses and
pectin.
Applications:
Microcrystalline cellulose is mainly used in thepharmaceutical industry as a diluent/binder in tablets for both the
granulation and direct compression processes.
Carboxylated methyl cellulose is used in drug formulations, as binder for drugs, film-coating agent for drugs,
ointment base etc.
Cellulose acetate fibers are used in Wound dressings.
Agar
Source
Agar or agar-agar consists of dried gelatinous substance obtained from Gelidium amansii (Gelidaceae) and it is also
obtained from several other species of red algae like, gracilaria (Gracilariaceae) and Pterocladia (Gelidaceae).
Composition
Agar consists of a mixture of agarose and agaropectin. The agarose is a linear polymer which is made up of the
repeating monomeric unit of agarobiose. Whereas, Agarobiose is a disaccharide made up of D-galactose and -
anhydro-L-galactopyranose. Agaropectin is a heterogeneous mixture of smaller acidic molecules that gel poorly.
Applicatons:
Agar is used as Suspending agent, emulsifying agent, gelling agent in suppositories, surgical lubricant, tablet
disintegrants, medium for bacterial culture, laxative.
It is also used for the preparation of jellies, confectionary items, tissue culture studies, and in microbiology study.
Starches
Source
Starch is the principal carbohydrate reserved material in green plants and it is mainly present in seeds and
underground organs. Starch occurs in the form of granules (starch grains). A number of starches are recognized for
pharmaceutical use and these include maize (Zea mays), rice (Oryza sativa), wheat (Triticum aestivum), and potato
(Solanum tuberosum).
Composition
Starch or amylum is a carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined together by glycosidic
bonds. It consists of two polymers, namely amylose (a non-branching helical polymer consisting of α-1, 4 linked D-
glucose monomers) and amylopectin (a highly branched polymer consisting of both α-1,4 and α-1,6 linked D-glucose
monomers).
Applications
Thermoplastic starch is used in packaging, containers, mulch films, textile sizing agents, adhesives
Inulin
Source
It is a polysaccharide obtained from the bulbs of Dehlia, Inula Helenium (Compositae), roots of Dendelion,
Taraxacum officinale (Compositae). Burdock root, Saussurea lappa (Compositae) or chicory roots, Cichonium
intybus (Compositae).
Applications
Inulin with a high degree of polymerization was used to prepare biodegradable colon-specific films in combination
with Eudragit RS that could withstand break down by the gastric and intestinal fluids.
Guar Gum
Source
Guar gum is also called guaran, clusterbean, Calcutta lucern, Gum cyamposis, and Cyamopsis gum, Guarina,
Glucotard and Guyarem21. Guar gum is the powder of the endosperm of the seeds of Cyamopsis tetragonolobus
Linn. (Leguminosae).
Composition
Chemically, guar gum is natural polysaccharide composed of the sugars galactose and mannose It is a
galactomannans which is a linear polysaccharide consisting of (1→4)-diequatorially linked β-D- mannose
monomers, some of which are linked to single sugar sidechains of α-D-galactose attached.21 Guar gum has a
backbone composed of β-1,4 linked- D-mannopyranoses to which, on average, every alternate mannose an α-
Dgalactose is linked 1→6.
Applications
Several modifications of guar gum is used for drug delivery system
Carboxymethyl guar film is used for the formulation of transdermal therapeutic system.
Guar gum is particularly useful for colon delivery because it can be degraded by specific enzymes in this region of
the gastrointestinal tract. The gum protects the drug while in the stomach and small intestine environment and
delivers the drug to the colon where it undergoes assimilation by specific microorganisms or degraded by the
enzymes excreted by these microorganisms.
Polysaccharides from Animal Origin
Chitin
Source
Chitin is the polysaccharide derivative containing amino and acetyl groups and are the most abundant organic
constituent in the skeletal material of the invertebrates. It is mainly found in mollusks, annelids, arthropods. It is also
a constituent of the mycelia and spores of many fungi.
Applications
Chitosan and their derivatives (N-trimethyl chitosan, mono-N-carboxymethyl chitosan) are safe and effective
absorption enhancers to improve mucosal, nasal, peroral drug delivery of hydrophilic macromolecules such as
peptide and protein drugs and heparins.
Chitosan nanoparticles and microparticles are also suitable for controlled drug release.
Xanthan Gum
Source
Xanthan gum is a high molecular weight extracellular polysaccharide produced by the fermentation of the gram-negative
bacterium Xanthomonas campestris.
Composition
The primary structure of naturally produced cellulose derivative contains a cellulose backbone ( -D-glucose residues) and a
trisaccharide side chain of -D-mannose- - D gluronic acid – -D-mannose attached with the main chain of alternate glucose
residues.
Applications
Xanthan gum is widely used in oral and topical formulations, cosmetics, and in food industry as a suspending and stabilizing
agent.
It has also been used to prepare sustained release matrix tablets.
Alginate
Source
Alginate is a water-soluble linear polysaccharide extracted from brown seaweed.
Composition
It is composed of 1–4 linked -L-glucuronic and -Dmannuronic acid residues.
Applications
Alginate based mesalazine tablets are used for intestinal drug delivery system.
Alginate is also as encapsulation materials for controlled drug delivery to mucosal tissue.
It is also used to prepare mucoadhesive drug delivery systems.
Psyllium
Source
Psyllium mucilage is obtained from the seed coat of Plantago ovata by milling the outer layer of the seeds.
Applications
It has tablet binding properties.
Psyllium husk was used in combination with other excipients such as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose to prepare a novel
sustained release, swellable and bioadhesive gastro retentive drug delivery systems for ofloxacin.