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Comparative Study of Cooking Quality, Microstructure, and Textural and Sensory Properties Between Fresh Wheat Noodles Prepared Using Sodium Chloride and Salt
Comparative Study of Cooking Quality, Microstructure, and Textural and Sensory Properties Between Fresh Wheat Noodles Prepared Using Sodium Chloride and Salt
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The effects of sodium chloride (NaCl) and commercial salt substitutes (SS) on cooking qualities, microstructure,
Sodium chloride textural and sensory properties of fresh wheat noodles were studied. NaCl and four types of SS were added at 1, 4
Salt substitutes and 8% of flour weight. White salted noodles (WSN) had shorter optimum cooking time than zero-salted noodles
Fresh white salted noodles (ZSN). Cooking yield of ZSN, WSN-NaCl-1, WSN-NaCl-8, WSN-SS3-1 and WSN-SS3-4 were significantly
Microstructure
(P < 0.05) higher than other noodles. Increment of salts resulted in significantly increased (P < 0.05) cooking
Sensory properties
loss but did not significantly affect (P > 0.05) springiness of noodles. Addition of salts into noodles, except
WSN-NaCl-1, WSN-NaCl-8, and WSN-SS2-8 were firmer than ZSN. WSN-SS2 and WSN-SS4 exhibited densest
microstructure than ZSN and WSN-NaCl. Ranking test indicated that replacing NaCl with SS2, SS3 and SS4 up to
8% in noodles could retain elasticity of noodles. SS2 and SS4 may be useful to replace NaCl due to better noodles
qualities than ZSN and WSN-NaCl.
1. Introduction being marketed to circumvent the risk of diseases associated with a high
salt intake. Research in the field of SS in food products has intensified
Noodles are a staple food for consumers in most of Southeast Asia recently and has been extensively reviewed. dos Santos et al. (2015)
and China. Since the basic ingredients of wheat flour-based Asian reported that reduction of 50% of NaCl by potassium chloride has re-
noodles are wheat flour, water, and salt or alkaline salt, these noodles duced firmness of dry fermented sausages whereas addition of calcium
are often categorized into the following two types: white salted noodles chloride reduced the degradation of sarcoplasmic proteins in processing
(with added salt) or yellow alkaline noodles (with added alkaline salt) and increased the hardness of the fermented sausages. Meanwhile, from
(Fu, 2008; Li et al., 2018). Charlton, Macgregor, Vorster, Levitt, and Steyn (2007), replacement of
The wheat flour components (i.e. starch and proteins), sodium 32% of sodium with a mixture of magnesium chloride, potassium
chloride (NaCl), and alkaline salt impact quality of dough and noodles. chloride and magnesium sulphate in breads were comparable to taste
NaCl is important in processing, taste, and preservations of food pro- and texture of regular bread.
ducts (Hutton, 2002). NaCl (< 3%) tightens and strengthens gluten To our knowledge, there is no literature dealing with the effects of
structure by promoting aggregation of gliadins and glutenins via in- SS on fresh wheat noodles. Thus, a fundamental study of various types
termolecular hydrogen bonds and/or ionic bonds and allowing more of SS can provide insight into application of SS in fresh wheat noodles.
proteins to cross-link (Morris, Jeffers, & Engle, 2000; Rombouts, The typical amount of NaCl added into WSNs may contain up to 8% on
Jansens, Lagrain, Delcour, & Zhu, 2014; Ukai, Matsumura, & Urade, flour weight basis. NaCl is important in noodle production but high
2008). Thus, NaCl addition produces a more elastic and stable dough levels of NaCl are detrimental to health. Therefore selected SS with
resulting in less sticky and easier handling of dough (Hutton, 2002; Li, certain percentages were added to eliminate NaCl and maintain the
2016). NaCl also enhances the palatability of food by imparting a de- qualities of ZSN and WSNs. SS can be introduced into noodles to replace
sirable salty taste when it dissociates into ions (https://www.ncbi.nlm. NaCl during formulating and mixing. SS which will enhance protein
nih.gov/books/NBK50958/, Bartoshuk, 1980). network in noodles are preferred. The main objective of this study was
SS are gradually getting more attention due to changes in nutri- to compare the effects of NaCl and SS on qualities of noodles.
tional concept of consumers. SS perform the same functions as salt and
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tanhuiling27@gmail.com (H.-L. Tan).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2018.07.031
Received 15 January 2018; Received in revised form 17 June 2018; Accepted 15 July 2018
Available online 17 July 2018
0023-6438/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H.-L. Tan et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 97 (2018) 396–403
2. Materials and methods dimensions of the resultant noodle strands were 1.4 mm in width and
1.1 mm in thickness.
2.1. Materials
Control noodle dough consisted of 100 parts of wheat flour and 35 2.3.2. Cooking yield
parts of distilled water. Next, on a flour weight basis, NaCl, SS1, SS2, Cooking yield and cooking loss were determined as previously de-
SS3 and SS4 were added separately at 1, 4, or 8%. The levels of addition scribed by Zhou et al. (2013) and Tan, Phatthanawiboon, and Easa
were selected based on the typical range of usage levels of NaCl in (2016) with slight modifications. For each measurement, 10 strands of
regular salted noodles which is 1–8% of the flour weight. Salts solutions uncooked noodle was weighed and then boiled in 400 mL of distilled
were prepared by dissolving salts in water prior to addition with wheat water at optimum cooking time of each sample with slight agitation.
flour. Designations of noodles samples are given in Table 1. Ingredients The cooked noodle was rinsed in cold water for 30 s and drained for
were mixed into crumbly dough using a mixer (Spar Quart Planetary, 5 min before weighing. The cooking yield of the cooked noodles was
SP 8, Taichung, Taiwan) at mixing speed 2 for 6 min. After mixing, the calculated as (noodle weight after cooking/weight of uncooked noo-
crumbly dough was rolled and hand kneaded into a stiff mass. Dough dles) x 100 and it represents the ability of noodles to absorb water
was placed in a plastic zip lock bag to rest for 30 min at 23 °C. After during cooking.
resting, the dough was passed through a pasta maker (Marcato Ampia,
Model 150, Campodarsego PD, Italy) with an initial gap setting at width
2.3.3. Cooking loss
0 (2.2 mm) for 5 times. After the first sheeting stage, the dough sheet
Cooking loss was determined by evaporating 100 mL of the cooking
was placed in a polyethylene bag for 30 min at 23 °C (second resting
water in a hot air oven at 105 °C to constant weight. Cooking loss was
stage). It was then successively sheeted through three different roll gaps
determined by measuring the weight of solid substance lost from noodle
which were width 1 (2.0 mm), width 2 (1.8 mm), width 3 (1.6 mm), and
strands into the cooking water. There are 3 measurements were taken
width 4 (1.4 mm). Immediately after the second sheeting stage, the
for each type of noodle, and the values were averaged.
sheet was cut into fresh noodle strands using the same pasta maker. The
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H.-L. Tan et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 97 (2018) 396–403
ciated with the longer optimum cooking time of noodles. Both addition (33.87fg ± 0.54) were lowest whereas cooked WSN-SS3-1
of salts and longer optimum cooking time of noodles allowed extensive (40.22ab ± 0.30) and WSN-SS4-1 (41.27a ± 0.36) were highest. The
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H.-L. Tan et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 97 (2018) 396–403
general tendency of NaCl to reduce water absorption at low con- protein hydrophobic interactions reduced the tendency of the proteins
centrations can be attributed to electrostatic shielding of charged amino to aggregate, as shown previously (Preston, 1981). Hatcher, Symons,
acids on the surface of gluten proteins, reducing thickness of electro- and Kruger (1999) also reported that WSN exhibited significant de-
static repulsions between individual gluten proteins, which in turn in- clines in textural characteristics with increasing water absorption. Their
duces stronger inter-protein hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions result showed that water uptake during cooking was closely related to
resulting in increased aggregation and strong gluten network the texture and cooking qualities of starch noodles. Insufficient water
(Avramenko, Tyler, Scanlon, Hucl, & Nickerson, 2018; Belz, Ryan, & uptake usually results in hard and coarse noodles, but excess water
Arendt, 2012). uptake often results in noodles that are too soft and sticky (Jin, Wu, &
The incorporation of NaCl and SS except 1% NaCl, 8% NaCl and 8% Wu, 1994).
SS2 had significant higher of hardness value (P < 0.05) than ZSN Springiness refers to the ability of noodles to return to their original
(Fig. 1a). Lower levels of NaCl induced less shielding effect to enable a shape after compression. In general, consumers prefer noodles with
greater amount of protein-water interactions and thus a weaker gluten high springiness. Except for WSN-NaCl-8 and WSN-SS1-8, ZSN and
network. Water absorption was reduced as well due to increased com- WSNs had no significant difference (P > 0.05) in springiness of noo-
petition for binding sites. Meanwhile, ZSN (31.21g ± 0.95) and WSN- dles (Fig. 1b). The springiness of ZSN were significantly higher
NaCl-8 (31.78g ± 0.47) were softest due to higher cooking yield (P < 0.05) than WSN-NaCl-8 and WSN-SS1-8. The springiness of
(Table 2). Higher levels of NaCl induced too much shielding effect and cooked of cooked WSN-NaCl-8 (0.69c ± 0.01) and WSN-SS1-8
repulsion. Hence, development of gluten structure was somewhat im- (0.72bc ± 0.02) were the lowest, whereas ZSN (0.84a ± 0.02), WSN-
paired at the microstructural level and formation of a relatively close NaCl-4 (0.83a ± 0.03), WSN-SS1-1 (0.79ab ± 0.02), WSN-SS2-1
gluten network was prevented. Salt binds with water instead of pro- (0.79ab ± 0.01), WSN-SS2-4 (0.80 ab
± 0.03), WSN-SS2-8
ab
moting protein-to-protein interaction. Rombouts et al. (2014) also re- (0.79 ± 0.03), WSN-SS3-1 (0.83a ± 0.04), WSN-SS3-4
ported that increased NaCl (0.5 up to 3% on flour weight basis) reduced (0.82a ± 0.05), WSN-SS4-1 (0.79ab ± 0.05), and WSN-SS4-4
the extent of gluten polymerisation during cooking. Decreased inter- (0.80ab ± 0.05) were the most elastic. The result suggested that levels
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H.-L. Tan et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 97 (2018) 396–403
Fig. 2. Scanning electron micrographs (A–G) of the cross-section of cooked (optimum cooking time) ZSNs, WSN-NaCl-1.0, WSN-NaCl-8.0, WSN-SS2-1.0, WSN-SS2-
8.0, WSN-SS4-1.0 and WSN-SS4-8.0.
of incorporation of salts had no significant differences (P > 0.05) in ruptured starch granules within the gluten network. Final pH of cooked
springiness of noodles. Hence, SS had little influence on springiness of noodles and structure are related to each others. Noodles which were
noodles and could substitute NaCl in WSN for springiness properties. acidic (WSN-SS2-1, WSN-SS2-8 and WSN-SS4-8) showed formation of a
dense network with numerous protein interactions and appeared to be
3.3. Microstructure less smooth as those that are less acidic (WSN-NaCl-1, WSN-NaCl-8,
WSN-SS4-1 and ZSN). Microstructure of WSN-NaCl-1, WSN-NaCl-8,
The microstructure of cooked (Fig. 2) of ZSN, WSN-NaCl-1 and WSN-SS4-1 and ZSN appeared to be less compact and swollen; this
WSN-NaCl-8, WSN-SS2-1 and WSN-SS2-8 and WSN-SS4-1 and WSN- could be due to weaknesses in protein-to-protein interactions. Another
SS4-8 were examined. For SEM test, WSN-SS2-1 and WSN-SS4-1 (higher factor affecting structure was level of addition of salts. High levels of
hardness results than ZSN and WSN-NaCl) and WSN-SS2-8 and WSN- NaCl but not SS were detrimental to structure of noodles. The porous
SS4-8 (hardness results closest to ZSN and WSN-NaCl) were chosen. structure of WSN-NaCl-8 might accelerate water penetration into the
ZSN and WSN-NaCl were used for comparison. Noodles were cooked at central core of noodles and allow heat/mass transfer to take place ef-
optimum cooking time. The concentration of 1% and 8% of salts were fectively. Hence, WSN-NaCl-8 had higher cooking yield and cooking
chosen to identify the effects of lowest and highest amount of salts on loss but lower hardness than other noodle samples (Table 2 and Fig. 1).
microstructure of noodles. Meanwhile, continuity of the gluten network of WSN-SS2 and WSN-SS4
Cooking had an impact on structure of noodles. Heat and water were somewhat resulted in the lower cooking loss (Table 2).
absorption during cooking yielded noodles with hollow structures. The
inner cross-section of cooked noodles consisted of dense areas of gluten
network and appeared to be amorphous, possibly due to swelled and
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H.-L. Tan et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 97 (2018) 396–403
Fig. 3. Ranking test of (I) Saltiness, (II) Elasticity (III) Colour (IV) Hardness of (a) WSN-NaCl-1.0 and WSN-NaCl-8.0 cooked for 5 min and 8 min (b) cooked (optimum
cooking time) 8.0% of NaCl, SS1, SS2, SS3 and SS4 noodles. Error bars indicate mean values ± standard deviations of responses of 30 panellists. Bars with different
letters denote significant difference (P < 0.05) between samples.
3.4. Ranking tests (P > 0.05) was detected among the noodles (Fig. 3a (III)), indicating
that NaCl and cooking times had little effect on noodles' colour.
There were 2 ranking tests were conducted to evaluate saltiness, Based on the result from first ranking test, WSN-NaCl-8 cooked with
elasticity, colour, and hardness of noodles; (a) WSN-NaCl-1 and WSN- 8 min had undesirable quality attributes. Hence, WSN-NaCl-8 cooked
NaCl-8 for 2 cooking times of 5 min and 8 min.; and (b) 8% of WSN- with 5 min was chosen to compare quality attributes with WSN-SS. No
NaCl, WSN-SS1, WSN-SS2, WSN-SS3 and WSN-SS4 cooked at optimum significant difference in saltiness (P > 0.05) was detected among WSN-
cooking time. These sensory characteristics were evaluated because NaCl, WSN-SS2 and WSN-SS3 (Fig. 3b (I)). The panellists were not able
taste, appearance and texture are important for noodles. Different to differentiate saltiness among these noodles. This was because SS2
cooking times of 5 min and 8 min were chosen for noodles in the first contained sea salt and SS3 contained natural flavour and these in-
ranking test was to determine effects of optimum cooking time of WSN- gredients contributed to the saltiness of the noodles. Elasticity describes
NaCl-1 and WSN-NaCl-8 on quality of noodles. Results for both ranking the way pasta breaks down on further chewing by teeth (Kill &
tests are shown in Fig. 3a (WSN-NaCl) and Fig. 3b (WSN-NaCl versus Turnbull, 2001). For sensory in elasticity, WSN-NaCl (3.53a ± 1.46)
WSN-SS). The sensory in saltiness of WSN-NaCl-8 (3.30a ± 0.60 and showed significant higher value (P < 0.05) than WSN-SS1
3.37a ± 0.89) showed significantly higher value (P < 0.05) than WSN- (2.53b ± 1.28) (Fig. 3b (II)). Panelists ranked WSN-SS1 with lowest
NaCl-1 (1.50b ± 0.63 and 1.83b ± 0.83) for both cooking times which scores (2.53b ± 1.28) for elasticity among all noodles samples. This
is 5 min and 8 min respectively (Fig. 3a (I)). Thus, the panellists were shows that high levels of SS1 gave no further improvement in the
able to differentiate higher salt noodles from those of lower salt. The elasticity of noodles. This can be associated with low quality of noodles
saltiness scores were also independent of cooking time. The elasticity because according to Hou (2001), consumers prefer noodles which are
(Fig. 3a (II)) and hardness (Fig. 3a (IV)) of WSN-NaCl-8 cooked for bright colour with firm texture. For colour, WSN-SS1 and WSN-SS2
8 min (1.77b ± 0.94 and 1.77b ± 1.38) were significantly lower differed significantly (P < 0.05) from the each other (Fig. 3b (III)).
(P < 0.05) than WSN-NaCl-1 cooked for 5 min (2.83a ± 1.12 and Panellists ranked WSN-SS2 (2.53b ± 1.25) as noodles with the lowest
3.13a ± 0.86) and 8 min (2.73a ± 1.14 and 2.77a ± 1.30) and WSN- score for colour. This could be because SS2 contained rice flour, which
NaCl-8 cooked for 5 min (2.67a ± 0.99 and 2.67a ± 0.96). The results could have decreased the lightness value. Hardness is the resistance
from ranking test were tally with results obtained from TPA (Fig. 1a and offered by cooked pasta when it is bitten by teeth (Sözer & Kaya, 2003).
b) in which WSN-NaCl-1 at optimum cooking time of 8 mins and WSN- No significant difference in hardness (P > 0.05) was detected among
NaCl-8 at optimum cooking time of 5 min had no significant difference high level (8%) of NaCl, SS1, SS2, SS3, and SS4 noodles (Fig. 3b (IV)).
(P > 0.05) in hardness and springiness of noodles. A high level of NaCl This indicates that salts had a little effect on noodles hardness from
has always been suggested to bind with water molecules instead of human perspective. These findings might conclude that replacing NaCl
promoting protein-to-protein interactions to yield softer and less elastic with SS2, SS3 and SS4 up to 8% for fresh WSN could retain sensory
noodles. However, the weakening of structure in WSN-NaCl-8 was properties of noodles, especially elasticity and colour.
evidenced only in those cooked for 8 min. At such a long heating time,
more water molecules were able to penetrate the gluten network and 4. Conclusion
caused weakening of structure. Thus, textural properties of cooked
WSN-NaCl could be retained if NaCl was added at low level or if WSN-NaCl-4 and WSN-NaCl-8 had significantly (P < 0.05) shorter
cooking was performed less than 5 min. High NaCl and long cooking optimum cooking time than ZSN. There were no significance difference
time are detrimental to texture. No significant difference in colour (P < 0.05) in cooking yield of ZSN and WSN-NaCl-1 AND WSN-NaCl-8.
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H.-L. Tan et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 97 (2018) 396–403
Fig. 3. (continued)
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measurement variables on alkaline noodle color-toward an optimized laboratory
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