UNIVERSIDADE DE CAXIAS DO SUL

ÁREA DE CONHECIMENTO DE HUMANIDADES

CURSO DE LETRAS - INGLÊS

GABRIELA BORGES DE LIMA

RELEVANCE AND MODALITY: An application of Relevance Theory on a

Modality Related Table of the Coursebook Pathways 3 Listening and Speaking

Caxias do Sul, 2017

 GABRIELA BORGES DE LIMA

RELEVANCE AND MODALITY: An application of Relevance Theory on a

Modality Related Table of the Coursebook Pathways 3 Listening and Speaking

Trabalho de Conclusão de Curso apresentado

como pré-requisito para obtenção do título de
licenciada em Letras-Inglês à Universidade de
Caxias do Sul.

Orientadora: Profa Ma. Samira Dall Agnol.

Caxias do Sul, 2017

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

After all I have faced to gladly arrive at this point of my life, I can only thank. I
can only thank God for giving me enough strength and wisdom to pursue my dreams
and believe myself when it all seemed impossible. I do not regret a single decision I
made upon His presence.
My beloved parents Ronise Ferreira and Adriano Lima, whom I am extensively
grateful to, deserve so many loving words that I am not able to express. They never
ignored the importance of education and always taught me to aim high. I sincerely
love them.
I would like to extend my sincere acknowledgments to those who were always
with me, even when their presence was not physical. They constantly resounded in
my mind telling me that I was able to do whatever I proposed myself to. Among these
angels are my dearest friend, Ana Elisa and my boyfriend Claudio Elias. She showed
me amazing perspectives to see life; he was endlessly patient and kind.
I would also like to thank my grandmother Maria Olinda, who has supported
me in so many ways and given me unconditional love. This paper is not only my
merit, it hers, too. Grandmother Rosa Lima and aunt Ivone Lima also made my
successes possible, they deserve much of my gratitude, as well.
For my advisor Samira Dall Agnol, I feel a sea of gratefulness because she
embraced my dream and together we could weave this paper. She is one of those
fantastic professors, whom every student should have the opportunity to study with.
This assignment would not have been more than a plan if she had not believed me.
To all the professors from UCS, who improved my cognitive environment, due
to Relevance principles, all along this journey, I leave my sincere acknowledgements.
My colleagues, mainly Júlia Tamagno, were great to me and are part of my
conquers.
I am glad so many important people helped me build this paper without having
to write a single line. I dedicate this paper to every person who passed through my
life and left some of their essence to provide me with the most beautiful experiences,
which did nothing but strengthen me.
DEDICATION

I dedicate this paper to my family,

friends and professors who enlightened
my path so I would never get lost.
 ABSTRACT

Since English has levels, as the one called Modality, that require more thorough
processing, it is important to question how EFL learners can manage to understand
them and still succeed in communicating effectively. Aiming at discovering more
about that and understanding educational implications, this paper proposes a
correlation between an interpersonal study (Modality) with a cognitive theory
(Relevance Theory). From this fortunate correlation, it was possible to draw an
analysis of the coursebook Pathways 3 Listening, Speaking and Critical Thinking,
which points ways to use Relevance as a useful tool for selecting and exchanging
interpersonal meanings with as less mental effort as possible. Overall, the results
achieve pointed that Relevance may be inserted on the teaching of modal and
related verbs in order to make students realize they have a powerful tool with them
all the time, and that they can rely on it to communicate better.

Key-words: Relevance Theory. Modality. Interpersonal Function. EFL teaching.

Cognitivism.
 RESUMO

Considerando que a língua Inglesa tem níveis, como por exemplo a Modalidade, que
exigem processamento mental complexo, é importante questionar como aprendizes
de inglês que são estrangeiros conseguem entende-los. Com o objetivo de descobrir
mais sobre isso e entender as implicações educacionais, este trabalho propõe uma
correlação entre um estudo interpessoal (Modalidade) com uma teoria cognitiva
(Teoria da Relevância). A partir dessa importante correlação, foi possível fazer uma
análise do material didático Pathways 3 Listening, Speaking and Critical Thinking,
dada análise aponta maneiras de usar a Relevância como uma ferramenta útil para
selecionar e trocar significados interpessoais, com o menor esforço mental possível.
Em geral, os resultados alcançados apontaram que a Relevância pode ser inserida
no ensino de verbos modais e relacionados, a fim de ajudar os alunos a perceberem
que têm uma ferramenta poderosa com eles o tempo todo, e que podem contar com
ela a fim de se comunicarem melhor.

Palavras-chave: Teoria da Relevância. Modalidade. Função Interpessoal. Ensino de

inglês como uma língua estrangeira. Cognitivismo.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 6
2 THE MULTI MEANING FEATURE MODALITY INTAKES ................................................. 9
2.1 THE IDIOSYNCRASY OF MODAL VERBS AND MODALITY .................................... 10
2.2 CHALLENGES MODALITY MAY ARISE TO EFL LEARNERS ................................... 11
3 A COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE TO UNDERSTAND MODALITY ...................................... 15
3.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF CORRELATING RELEVANCE THEORY AND MODALITY.. 15
3.2 A BREAK OF PARADIGMS ON THE WAY MODALITY IS SEEN .............................. 16
4 AN INSIGHT OF RLEVANCE THEORY PRINCIPLES ..................................................... 18
4.1 CONTEXT .................................................................................................................. 18
4.2 EFFORT AND EFFECT .............................................................................................. 20
4.3 RELEVANCE AND OSTENSION ............................................................................... 21
5 COURSEBOOK ANALYSIS ............................................................................................. 23
6 CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................. 30
7 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 32
 6

1 INTRODUCTION

Cognitive Linguistics, as proposed by Robinson and Ellis (2008) is “as an

instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information”. Not surprisingly,
we, human beings, are able to rely on powerful cognitive abilities such as the one of
searching for relevance that organizes, processes and conveys information under
some principles. Being our brains gifted with such curious ability, this paper is the
product of an interest: correlating Relevance Theory with Modality as an attempt to
explain what ideas are behind communication success when ones modalize
language. When ones modalize language, they mold it between the edges of ‘yes’
and ‘no’, thus multiplying the number of possibilities of saying and, unfortunately, the
risks of a misunderstanding as well (HALLIDAY, 2004).
Relevance Theory (from now on RT) is highly connected to the way human
beings use their minds to supply and process information and what is the cost taken
to do so. RT is a set of formal studies regarding the many variables within such a
complex topic as the cognitive relevance. Relevance is defined as “[...] a matter of
degree [...]” and “[...] as a relationship between an assumption and a context [...]”
(SPERBER; WILSON 1996, p. 123). It is an innate property of the human mind that
makes communication more practical and achievable since it would be difficult to
speak and interpret if some information did not prevail over others in importance.
Trying to exhaust all possibilities of vocabulary and assumptions would take a long
time for ones to have a meaningful exchange of information. Thus, Relevance serves
as a mechanism that diminishes effort in this sense. However, there are many factors
to be considered about it; and on the contrary to what it seems, Relevance is
considerably complex.
The lack of analyses on English as a Foreign Language (from now on EFL)
coursebook Modality tables and the lack of correlation between RT and Modality are
strong motivations for the making of this paper. It is decidedly important to correlate
these theories because it could be a gate for eventual research on how to,
cognitively, elucidate English interpersonal function to EFL students’ and to what
extent EFL teachers are prepared to do so.
Taking the interpersonal perspective into account, it is agreed that when
speakers learn to control the Mood Block (Subject and Finite) grammar, they “[...] are
 7

able to control many of the resources in English that allow speakers to finetune, in
subtle yet powerful ways, the language they use to negotiate relationships with
others” (BUTT et al, 2000, p. 104). It is extensively important to sustain that ones
cannot manage to control modal finites, with all their complexity, without the help of
cognitive skills, which are mechanisms used to organize, process and give meaning
to information.
A further idea that reinforces the relevance of correlating RT and Modality is
that there are many ’lexical’ words besides modal verbs which could be used to
express Modality and that are even more frequent (MCCARTHY, 2004, p.13). Due to
such large variety, it is necessary to make great mental effort to discover what is the
most relevant way to say as well as understand a piece of information according to
the context of situation.
Moreover, it is a great interest for this paper to have the biggest notion
possible on the benefits/importance of relating RT and Modality, and on how it might
affect learners. In order to synthesize such intention, the following question was
formulated: How can Relevance Theory be related to modality studies in order to
bring positive effects on English as a foreign language learners’ understanding on
modalization?
The main objective of this paper is, then, to correlate both studies in order to
propose a cognitive perspective to teach as well as comprehend modal verbs and
related ones. It makes itself necessary because, in many cases, they are
idiosyncratic and appear in different speech acts.
As specific objectives, through bibliographic research and a coursebook
analysis, this paper aims at correlating RT and Modality to see if there is any success
in correlating them, thus introducing a distinct perspective of presenting Modality
through the eyes of Relevance Theory. A further objective is to propose a break of
paradigm on the way Modality (not only modal verbs) is seen under the traditional
view.
Regarding the methodology of this paper, it is implied from the ideas claimed
in Gil (1987) that it is an exploratory research, because it makes the use of
theoretical references and analysis of examples, which are likely to provoke an
understanding on the topics studied.
This research is also explanatory because it identifies the factors that
contribute for something to occur (Gil, 1987). In this case, Relevance and Modality
 8

will be pointed as perspectives that explain how and why speakers choose certain
propositions to express themselves and how listeners interact with such content.
A coursebook analysis will be made by applying some principles from
Relevance Theory on a Modality table. The intention is to study some of the content
presented through the eyes of RT. The information of the table will be analysed
through such perspective in order to learn a little more about the possible correlation
between RT and Modality as well as open way for further studies associating them.
This paper is divided into five content chapters, chapter two is indispensable
because it regards the multi meaning facet Modality presents, which is essential to
approach in order to attain the results of this paper. The third chapter opens space to
the correlation between RT and Modality and its importance. Chapter four gives
insights on RT principles which will be used to accomplish the coursebook analysis
proposed on the next chapter. Chapter five, which is the analysis of Pathways 3
Listening, Speaking and Critical Thinking by Cengage, has been proposed as a way
to correlate the theme studies, introduce a distinct perspective of presenting Modality
through the eyes of Relevance Theory and propose a point of view to enlighten how
communication succeeds even when Modality occurs in conversations.
The conclusion focuses on whether the correlation was successful, and what
overall information can be drawn from the analysis and if it brings benefits to EFL
understanding of Modality.
 9

2 THE MULTI MEANING FEATURE MODALITY INTAKES

Modality is a trait of the Interpersonal Function, which is widely discussed by

Michael Halliday on his book An Introduction to Functional Grammar. As presented
by Halliday (2004), the degrees of indeterminacy between ‘yes’ and ‘no’ are several,
and not rarely speakers make use of such large range of variations. “In between the
certainties of ‘it is’ and ‘it isn’t’ lie the relative probabilities of ‘it must be’, ‘it will be’, ‘it
may be’. [...] in between the definitive ‘do!’ and ‘don’t!’ lie the discretionary options
‘you must do’, ‘you should do’, ‘you may do’’ (HALLIDAY, 2004).
Functional Grammar (from now on FG) is the field that comprises the studies
of Interpersonal function and, consequently, Modality. In accordance with Butt et al.
(2000), language has three functions, which are described along the studies of FG.
They are called Experiential, Interpersonal and Textual functions.
The Interpersonal Functions is the focus in this paper. Speakers use language
to exchange interpersonal meanings when they interact with others. For the concept
of ‘interaction’, the following idea is fundamental:

the speaker is not only doing something himself; he is also requiring

something of the listener. Typically, therefore, an ‘act’ of speaking is
something that might more appropriately be called an interact: it is an
exchange, in which giving implies receiving and demanding implies giving
(HALLIDAY, 2004, p. 107).

The interpersonal meanings “cover two main areas: one concerns the type
of interaction taking place and the kind of commodity being exchanged, and the other
concerns the way speakers take a position in their messages” (BUTT, p. 86, 2000).
As claimed by Halliday (2004), the most fundamental types of speech role are: (a)
giving and (b) demanding; and the commodities in exchange presented in his studies
are (a) goods-and-services, as well as, (b) information.
Prototypically, people supplying information do it through statements; and
when demanding goods and services, they use commands or orders to inform their
messages. However, sometimes an interpersonal meaning is likely to have the
grammatical format of other, as we can read in Butt et al (2000, p. 86) sometimes
one may seem to be demanding or requesting information, when is actually
demanding goods and services. In ‘are you cold?’ and ‘is this air conditioner
working?’, the person may be asking one to borrow a jacket or turn on the heating
system.
 10

It is important to emphasize Modality is not only a matter of speaking through

modal verbs. As exposed above, even when we adapt the format of commodity
exchange, it is a way to modalize language.
Although modal verbs are not the only ways to modalize language, they are
extensively connected to Modality and when paired with modified commodity
exchange, it gives Modality a multi meaning facet.
As accounted by Biber et al. (1999, apud TYLER, 2008, p. 465), “most
traditional accounts [...] group modals into three major functional categories: (1)
permission/possibility/ability (can, would, may, might) (2) obligation/necessity (must,
should, had better) (3) volition/prediction (will, would, shall, be going to)”.
Notwithstanding, the arrangement of modal categories is not so
straightforward, “since several modals can occur in the same speech act and each
modal can occur in more than one speech act, under the speech act presentation
their distribution and meaning appear to be largely idiosyncratic” (TYLER, 2008, p.
464). The quote above is a major representation of how complex Modality is, and that
it is granted with a multi meaning facet due to its components, in this case, the modal
verbs.
In order to reinforce such a multi meaning facet, it is important to regard some
characteristics and purposes of modal verbs. In Butt et al (2000, p. 110) modal verbs
are an expression of language we use “[...] to position ourselves (and our audience)
to show how defensible we find our propositions, to encode our ideas about
obligation and inclination, and to express our attitudes”. Not so differently from the
ideas found in Butt et al (2000), Hacquard (2009, p. 3) points that “natural language
modals seem to vary along (at least) two dimensions: ‘force’ (whether they express
possibility or necessity), and type of interpretation, or modal ‘flavor’”.

2.1 THE IDIOSYNCRASY OF MODAL VERBS AND MODALITY

The definitions of modal verbs presented on chapter two are a gate to discuss
modal verbs as idiosyncratic signs. Seeing above that the same modal is likely to be
used in more than one speech act, it is plausible saying the modal will not have the
same meaning in two different speech acts, thus having an arbitrary aspect, likely to
 11

depend on a context, on someone’s accounting of a particular situation. It is all

involved with Relevance ideals, as it will be exposed on chapter four. The following
examples illustrate such affirmation:

(a) Someone knocks at the door. Well, that must be Cynthia.

(b) You must turn right now, or you’ll get us in trouble.

In (a), modal verb ‘must’ presents an epistemic meaning defined by Hacquard

(2009, p. 3) as the “view of the available evidence”, pointing what the speaker finds
more probable to be the truth at the moment of the speech act. Whereas in (b) it
comes to an order, and not a speculation anymore.
The existence of more than one probable meaning (root or epistemic) to some
modal verbs indicates an inclination to arbitrariness. According to Ferdinand
Saussure (p. 110, 1973, apud CULLER, p.117, 2007) “[...] language changes, or
rather evolves, under the influence of all the forces which can affect sounds or
meanings”.
Contexts may lead one to choose a sign over another to communicate ideas
the best way possible, which is widely connected to the principles of efficiency and
context presented on RT. Both choice and meaning are likely to be what takes
modals to an idiosyncratic level, for they are extensively a matter of personal choice,
point of view and necessity to achieve a specific goal. Furthermore, if modal verbs
are conceivably idiosyncratic, so is Modality because it comprises the use of modals.
It must be acknowledged that not all expressions of Modality are dubious. Therefore,
Modality might be taken as idiosyncratic in some cases and not all.

2.2 CHALLENGES MODALITY MAY ARISE TO EFL LEARNERS

Along this subchapter, some possible challenges EFL students may face will
be listed and discussed. In order to accomplish this purpose as well as enlighten any
eventual doubts regarding metalanguage, some concepts will also be exposed.
It is not an easy task to master the use of Interpersonal meanings, thus being
able to represent attitudes along conversations requires intense studying due to the
fact English has a considerably large range of modalization constructs.
 12

For Functional Grammar, the interpersonal meanings are expressed through

the mood block, which according to Halliday (2004, p.111):

[...] consists of two parts: (1) the Subject, which is a nominal group, and (2)
the Finite operator, which is part of a verbal group. [...] Thus in he might, he
is Subject and might is Finite. [...] The Finite element is one of a small
number of verbal operators expressing tense (e.g. is, has) or modality (e.g.
can, must).

In the mood block, “the Subject and Finite [...] are the pivotal elements of the
clause that make all these types of interaction possible. The order of the Subject and
Finite is the grammatical sign of the type of exchange taking place” (BUTT, p. 102).
Halliday (2004, p.114,115) describes the format of exchanges more thoroughly by
pointing that statements are represented by subject followed by finite and are within a
category called indicative. The author also separates the interrogative, marked by
finite plus subject, as another category, in which there are yes/no questions for
positive or negative polarity as well as the ‘WH’ ones, marked by a ‘WH’ word
followed by finite and subject, when a content answer is expected.
Among the complications the different types of exchanges imply, are the
inversion of finite and subject in given cases, the subject not being strictly a pronoun
but a nominal group, and the fact that not always the exchanges take the same
format, as in the cases of question tags: “The duke has given your aunt a new teapot,
hasn’t he?” (HALLIDAY, 2004, p.120), it is not a prototypical question, even though,
someone is demanding information, thus a question is being made.
Beyond the types of exchange, tense as well as aspect are expressed within
the mood block; consequently, it holds major importance in interactions and its
complexity may be one of the great difficulties for EFL students to overcome. Many
EFL students, even the ones who have passed half way to fluency, are denied the
extensive capacity of Modality to adapt discourse; because they have difficulty to
master and use it, mainly when it comes to modal verbs. It happens that EFL
students deplete their restricted range of options and at times come to be imprecise
as well as unsatisfied with the speech they have produced.
For some EFL students, the lexical level of the target language, Modality
meaning for example, might seem harder to be discerned because modal verbs are
not so numerous and do not hold greater importance if we compared Portuguese to
English, for instance. According to Tyler (2008):
 13

almost all English modal verbs exhibit two meanings, one involving the
external, physical-social world of ability, obligation or permission, often
called the root meaning, and a second meaning involving speaker internal
mental reasoning and logical conclusion, called epistemic meaning.
(5) Mother said I should be home by 10:00
(6) Doorbell rings. Speaker: That should be John now

In addition to the meaning-related challenge, EFL students have another

barrier to overcome, which is the strict account on the teaching of modal verbs. It is
constantly experienced by EFL students that modal verbs fit into only one speech act
and are unlikely to be used differently. Although, numbers (5) and (6) cited above are
two relevant examples that contrary the traditional view of Modality expressions,
proving they are actually provided with more than a singular meaning and might be
used accordingly to the context and intention of the speaker, given a boundary limited
by the root or epistemic meanings a modal may have.
Unfortunately, the more inflexible manner of teaching is a potential hinderer to
students’ deeper understanding on modals usage, due to its fragmented nature. Let
us take the following as an example. It is highly probable that when one is taught the
epistemic meaning of ‘may’, it would not be much worth processing because this
epistemic meaning may not be connected to older data the student has about such
word.
As presented by Sperber and Wilson (1989, p.48), “[...] other information is not
only new but entirely unconnected with anything in the individual's representation of
the world. It can only be added to this representation as isolated bits and pieces, and
this usually means too much processing cost for too little benefit”. Thus for matters of
Relevance, the epistemic meaning would demand a great demand of effort for being
processed; given the lack of connection between the old and new understandings.
Consequently, the epistemic meaning is not relevant to some extent but it does not
mean the force emanated from the root meaning is not somehow linked to the
epistemic one. Even though, in contexts, they have different focus and that may be a
problem for students to comprehend with only one or two exposures of such content.
In order to introduce another possible difficulty, it must be acknowledged that
our cognitive environment and its constant search for relevance is one of the most
useful tools to help English language students not be frequently in doubt. For a
 14

further consideration on the previous statement, ponder the following example of

Implicature as claimed by Paul Grice (1989, p. 24):

suppose that A and B are talking about a mutual friend, C, who is now
working in a bank. A asks B how C is getting on his job, and B replies, Oh
quite well, I think; he likes his colleagues, and he hasn’t been to jail yet. At
this point, A might well inquire what B was implying [...] It might, of course,
be quite unnecessary for A to make such an inquiry of B, the answer to it
being, in the context, clear in advance. It is clear that whatever B implied,
suggested, meant in this example, is distinct from what B said, which was
simply that C had not been to prison yet.

The idea of Implicature by Paul Grice (1989) brings up another obstacle EFL
students might face, information not explicitly uttered. Thankfully, our cognition allows
us to establish a set of assumptions, which are known or factual and treated by an
individual as certain or almost certain, so that he/she measures his/her existence
from the given information. It would be equally fair to say this set of assumptions is
adopted by the individual and strongly carved into one’s cognition 1 (my translation,
RAUEN, 2008, p. 42-43). Probably, A from the example above is acquainted enough
with his/her friend C to know what B intended, when saying C had not gone to jail yet.
This example also points to another Sperber and Wilson’s argument (1996, p. 77)
that assumptions based on the acceptance of somebody's word have a strength
commensurate with one's confidence in the speaker [...], thus we can assume the
high probability of A trusting B enough to take his/her words as relevant enough to be
processed and strengthen previous inferences.
For all that has been mentioned along this topic, communication should be
acknowledged as the closest to a miracle we might get in our daily life. Accounting all
the various the possibilities of saying as well as interpreting an utterance, it is more
than fortunate that we, human beings, are able to rely on powerful cognitive abilities
such as the one of searching for relevance.

1
“Um conjunto de suposições conhecidas ou factuais é tratado pelo indivíduo como certo ou quase
certo, de maneira que ele baliza sua existência a partir dessas informações. Isso implica dizer que
esse conjunto é considerado como assegurado pelo indivíduo e fortemente enraizado em sua
cognição” (RAUEN, 2008, p. 42-43).
 15

3 A COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE TO UNDERSTAND MODALITY

Languages may be seen through the glass of a study with a cognitive basis
(such as Relevance Theory), due to the fact we reason before speaking, what means
speech formation as well as assumptions start in the mind with the assistance of
cognitive processes. Similarly, when it comes to Modality expressions, our brains
may also use cognitive processing and select among the various possibilities, the
most relevant lexeme which will lead to achieving the biggest effect possible at the
smallest processing cost in a given context (SPERBER; WILSON, 1989). For the
understanding to be achieved, relevance counts on aspects such as the Maxims of
Grice as well as the Cooperation Principle. Speakers make use of the perceptual
system, which probes the spatial-physical-social environment to infer meaning
(SPERBER; WILSON apud HORN, 2004).
It is all allied, the Maxims, the Cooperation Principle, perceptual system and
Relevance. They complement each other and interconnect in order to enable from
the most complex to daily communication.

3.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF CORRELATING RELEVANCE THEORY AND

MODALITY

The prime importance of correlating RT and Modality comes from the fact
there are many ’lexical’ words besides modal verbs which could be used to express
modalization and that are even more frequent than modals themselves (MCCARTHY,
2004, p.13). Due to such large variety, it is necessary to make great mental effort to
discover what is the most relevant way to say as well as understand a piece of
information according to the context of situation. This matter of mental effort is an
always-present issue in EFL classrooms since teachers are always trying to find
ways to help learners maximize communication and diminish effort.
Because of that, the need to study such correlation is undeniable since the
ones who propose themselves to teach a second language such as English could
use the processing resources owned by the human mind to help students interact
with challenging idiosyncratic levels of language as the one of Modality. As a result of
more thorough preparation, which means a constant and considerable extent of study
on both Modality and RT, the mentors will be able to help students analyze original
 16

interactions in order to unfold how people use interpersonal meanings in

conversations (BUTT et al, 2000, p.105).
In short, this paper may be found relevant for the educational field for it
proposes a twist on the way EFL students are presented Modality. A perspective of
teaching, which unfortunately, usually consists on showing how to interact through
questions, statements and commands that take the same format with modalizing
expressions that should have a single meaning.
Lastly, it is fundamental along this paper, to expose through theoretical
references and coursebook analysis that, as a matter of fact, modal verbs do not
always fit in strict explanations, and that EFL students as well as teachers can benefit
from the use of Relevance to maximize communication.

3.2 A BREAK OF PARADIGMS ON THE WAY MODALITY IS SEEN

When one proposes to learn and be fluent in a language, it should be

assumed a long-term process lies ahead. Due to traits present in each language,
which are unique to each system, the learner has to dive into a sea of contrasts
between L2 and mother language along with a subtle (but sometimes dramatic,
depending on the language systems involved) disengage from concepts pre-
established for the proper use of his/her native language.
If we consider Portuguese and English as the basis of a comparison, the truth
is that a partial- but necessary- dissociation between languages is not an easy task
to accomplish. Since these languages represent great amounts of meanings their
own way, the learner needs to find ways to make some sense of what is being
taught. Accordingly to what this paper wants to propose, RT may have some
explanations on how the brain interprets these peculiarities, where among them,
have the use of Modality.
Modality, represented on the Mood Block, molds one’s discourse according to
his/her degrees of responsibility or conviction towards a saying. As Modality molds
language in order to adequate speech to one’s objectives, it has major importance for
it is a meaning holder. It is highly necessary that the teachers show their learners
how to handle modal verbs in a way they are able to exchange information in an
accurate way, which means not restricting student’s apprenticeship to traditionally
 17

built explanations on how modal finites work. For instance, adding negative polarity
to a modal finite is not the only way to express speculation in order to achieve the
same result, such as in:

*Doorbell rings*: Is that John at the door?

(a) No, that can’t be John at the door. He’s at work.
(b) Oh… it must be someone else, John’s at work.

The turning point should be stop hindering students’ learning by fragmenting

knowledge, and still know how to dose the right moment for each content. Being sure
there will be a moment for every feature of the content in question; and that not a
single kind of information should simply be denied to students because it does not
seem relevant for the teacher, are also fundamental. Setting some fragmented
boundaries could help learners not to get lost. Even though, it may cause problems
on the fullest understanding of modalization (term used for propositions) usage, since
the modal system is more complex and integrated than what is usually exposed.
A pertinent view drawn by Tyler (2008, p. 464) points exactly what is expected
to bring to light along this topic:

students are given practice manipulating the forms through short dialogues
and fill-in-the-blank exercises. In subsequent lessons on different speech
acts, many of the same models appear again. A consequence of this
approach [...] is that there is no attempt to relate the various contextualized
interpretations [...] Moreover, the relationship between the root uses and the
epistemic uses is completely ignored [...] this results in a fragmented picture
of the lexical class in question.

Tyler (2008, p. 465) also points that informed teachers would be a gate for
students to reach a more integrated and solid account of the modal verbs. It is so
because more educated teachers are able to apply their extensive knowledge
regarding the modal system by using the functional approach of root and epistemic
meanings to ease the path of modal understanding.
What is being asked from foreign English teachers along this subchapter, is that
they start thinking outside the box when it comes to Modality and study it more
thoroughly. It will allow them to provide students with more authentic and varied
situations which they, as future speakers of English, may find eventually, when trying
to use Modality in a more natural or specific way.
 18

4 AN INSIGHT OF RELEVANCE THEORY PRINCIPLES

In order to strengthen the results of the coursebook analysis proposed in this

paper and as a point of correlation between RT and Modality, some of the studies on
RT done by Sperber and Wilson (1989) will be exposed on the present chapter. Such
topics have been selected because of their high importance to communicative
situations and possible influence on the ones comprised by Modality.
These principles have been selected because when allied to the use of
Modality, and for the present paper, to coursebook explanations, they can be used to
potentialize communication and be a gate to letting clear how conversations in which
Modality appear are given. Teachers can use these mental processes as guidelines
to enlighten students’ knowledge from a cognitive path, which becomes useful to
enhance communication as learners start to be more and more acquainted with the
language.

4.1 CONTEXT

Context is of great relevance for speakers who may eventually produce

inferences during communicative situations. Along the studies of Sperber and Wilson
on the book Relevance: communication and cognition (1989), context gains an
enlightening definition, which leads the readers of RT to believe it is crucial for the
producing of sense out of what is being said as well as heard.
According to the scholars mentioned above, the contextualization is given by
the joining of a group of old assumptions to new ones. Such process takes to what
they call contextual effects, which are the results from crucial interactions between
old and new information all gathered in a synthetic implication.
The concept of contextual effect interests us because “the notion of a
contextual effect is essential to a characterization of relevance. [...] having contextual
effects is a necessary condition for relevance, and that other things being equal, the
greater the contextual effects, the greater the relevance” (SPERBER; WILSON,
1989, p.119).
Then, it is not any kind of result that provokes a contextual effect. In order to
be considered one, an improvement or modification on the context is required, which
means that there is true interaction between old and new pieces of information,
 19

represented by the strengthening or abandonment of old assumptions. Since our

processing device is selective when it comes to absorbing information into the
memory, the mere adding of two similar or completely unrelated information does not
count as beneficial; leading our brain to ignore such kind of data. The procedure is to
avoid duplicate deductions (formed from information received) not to waste energy
on processes unnecessary for the improvement of a given context.
Ones may wonder, “how do we select contexts in our minds?” about that
Sperber and Wilson (1989, p.137-138) state:

we assume that a crucial step in the processing of new information, and in

particular of verbally communicated information, is to combine it with an
adequately selected set of background assumptions - which then constitutes
the context - in the memory of the deductive device. For each item of new
information, many different sets of assumptions from diverse sources (long-
term memory, short-term memory, perception) might be selected as context.
However, this is not to say that any arbitrary subset of the total set of
assumptions available to the organism might become a context. The
organisation of the individual's encyclopaedic memory, and the mental
activity in which he is engaged, limit the class of potential contexts from
which an actual context can be chosen at any given time.

As it may be implied, the same procedure is applied in the use of modal finites
signaling exchange of information. From the interaction between new information and
actual context, some things can happen:
(a) A student who had been taught both root and epistemic meanings may
understand which one fits a certain context of situation;
(b) A student who had been deprived the studying of one specific meaning
may be led to a misunderstanding by interpreting the finite with the exact opposite
meaning since they do not own both contexts in mind;
(c) Finally, it is also possible that the interpretation of the modal takes a lot of
effort to be done, thus taking the finite to be ignored, for it is a Relevance principle to
prior efficiency instead of making effort.
In consonance with Halliday (2004), the exchange of goods-and-services
usually does not offer many problems because they follow the principle of
cooperation and it means the speaker means exactly what was uttered. On the other
hand, propositions composed by modal finites are quite more challenging because
they offer a wider range of uses and significations according to the context. “[...]
modals, being context sensitive, are clearly affected by the way discourse evolves”
(HACQUARD, 2008, p.44). Then, it is fair to say context is crucial to modalization,
 20

since modal verbs and even other kinds of modality gain a certain
meaning/importance according to the context they are inserted in.

4.2 EFFORT AND EFFECT

It is difficult to conceptualize the whole system behind cognitive processes

once it would require countless studies to cope with all the complexity comprised by
human processing devices. Despite their characteristics in common, our brains work
mostly under different circumstances when it comes to information processing. Thus,
it is possible to have strong insights on how human beings apply cognitive properties,
such as the one of Relevance; but not to indicate a hundred percent accurately how it
works because as mentioned before, each device has its peculiarities and level of
uniqueness.
The allocation of resources is an example of processes human beings go
through every day. Bringing as more positive effects as possible to one’s knowledge
of the world is usually the task behind it. When people act cooperatively, they tend to
maximize Relevance to get the best result out of some information at a low cost,
which for mental matters mean “minimum effort”.
As other properties owned by peculiar mental devices, Relevance cannot be
measured strictly. Relevance given to utterer’s statements may vary according to the
context in which the hearer’s mind is inserted. Relevance might be represented “in
terms of comparative judgements [...] (e.g. 'irrelevant', 'weakly relevant', 'very
relevant'), but not in terms of fine absolute judgements, i.e. quantitative ones”
(SPERBER; WILSON, 1989, p.). It seems that quantifying Relevance is unrealistic;
and that depending on the case, some information could cause more effects in one
cognitive environment than in another one.
It has also been addressed by Sperber and Wilson (1989) that, besides their
connection to Relevance, effort and effect are closely connected to the idea of
efficiency. It happens that the much of effort and the kinds of effects provided by the
processing of information may point whether our brain was efficient in allocating
mental resources and bring improvements to one’s cognitive environment.
It is relevant to signal, “people have not only retrospective intuitions about
effects already achieved and effort already incurred, but also prospective intuitions.
 21

That is, they have intuitions about the effort some task would take and the effects it
might achieve” (SPERBER; WILSON, 1989, p.131). Such a concept is important to
be kept in mind for communicative situations; ones are naturally enabled to avoid
wasting energy with information that will be hardly processed or even ignored by the
listener. It means that, usually, one tends to be cooperative with the other for the
sake of delivering a message successfully.
“All human beings automatically aim at the most efficient information
processing possible” (SPERBER; WILSON, 1996, p.49) and use equal effort to
make themselves clear by selecting the most relevant “way to speak their mind” and
achieve the biggest effect on the listener’s cognitive environment at the smallest
processing cost. Considering it, it is plausible to say Modality is a great provider of
discussion material to RT once it holds great meaning on the Mood Block. Besides, in
accordance with Gardon (1998), RT is likely to cast some light on the origin of
English modals (in this paper, other forms of modalizing language, too) and their role
on how utterances are interpreted.
At last, it is important to emphasize that “speakers who are not aware of their
hearers' disposition in the matter risk asking them for too much effort or providing
them with too few effects” (SPERBER; WILSON, 1989, p.132). From this statement,
we can make an interesting link with EFL teaching; students, who are more
cooperative along conversations, may make it easier for them to succeed in
conveying information. Therefore, teachers could provide students with suggestions
on how to develop this kind of cooperative behaviour through classroom activities
and strategies.

4.3 RELEVANCE AND OSTENSION

It is well known that human beings are able to communicate not only by
speaking. The ostensive behaviour is a clear marker of relevance without having to
utter a single word. According to Sperber and Wilson (1989, p.50) “ostensive
behaviour provides evidence of one's thoughts. It succeeds in doing so because it
implies a guarantee of relevance. It implies such a guarantee because humans
automatically turn their attention to what seems most relevant to them”
 22

In order to act ostensively, one behaves in a way that demonstrates he/she

has relevant information to share. By interacting with the physical environment, ones
are able to use it to express their view about something non-orally, thus directing the
other person to what they find relevant inside such environment; “we will call such
behaviour - behaviour which makes manifest an intention to make something
manifest- ostensive behaviour or simply ostension [...]” (SPERBER; WILSON, 1989,
p.49).
Some principles behind ostension are to act in a way that shows something
must be acknowledged by the audience; and to believe such ostension is likely to
benefit the listener. The following is a classic example of these:

Mary and Peter are sitting on a park bench. He leans back, which alters her
view. By leaning back, he modifies her cognitive environment; he reveals to
her certain phenomena, which she may look at or not, and describe to
herself in different ways [...] She should process those assumptions that are
most relevant to her at the time (SPERBER; WILSON, 1989, p.48).

Some of the most important functions of ostensive behaviours are the

strengthening of a certain assumption and- when one is not aware of the importance
of the content implied in an ostensive action- the bringing of a certain context in the
mind of a listener. The latter would bring what both speaker and audience would
agree to be profitable in terms of effects. Conversely, as approached in the
subchapter Effort and Effect, what one finds relevant may not be ostensive enough
for another person’s cognitive environment. It may be due to speaker and audience
different mental contexts, lack of trust from the audience towards the speaker, as the
much someone trusts the information provider also affects levels of Relevance.
In matters of ostension, if one fails to understand what has been meant with
an ostensive act, it implies that no relevant processing was able to occur. Without
exhausting options, it could lead to an excluding of such act (probably due to higher
level of effort required) or even a misunderstanding (because of the difference in
contexts).
The importance of approaching ostension for this paper is that it could be
explored by teachers so they could provide their students with one more aspect of
Relevance, which can be used in their favor. By learning how to manage one more
facet of Relevance, students have an extra chance of strengthening what they mean
and leading their audience towards their intentions with less risk of misinterpretation.
 23

5 COURSEBOOK ANALYSIS

This research aspires after analyzing one table of the coursebook Pathways 3
Listening, Speaking and Critical Thinking by Cengage. This material was chosen
because it is known and appreciated by the writer of this assignment. Chase and
Lockwood (2013, p. IV) affirm that:

in Pathways Listening, Speaking and Speaking, real-content from National

Geographic publications provides a context for meaningful language
acquisition. Students learn essential, high-frequency vocabulary, review
important grammatical structures, and practice listening and speaking skills
that will allow them to succeed in both academic and social settings.

Such coursebook seems to have a different approach from many others

because it presents a more functional structure, which works on language in contexts
rather than presenting grammar topics so traditionally. The following extracts of the
teacher’s guide outlines such idea as well as resembles some topics discussed on
RT:
critical thinking skills are explicitly taught [...] One reason for that is that
critical thinking- the ability to make judgments and decisions based on
evidence and reason- is an essential skill for students in an academic
setting, where they’re expected to think critically while listening, reading,
writing and participating discussions (CHASE; LOCKWOOD, 2013, p. VI).

There is more relevant information that led to the choice of Pathways.

Provoking critical thinking is one of the proposals all along Pathways series. Critical
thinking may be considered as a representation of Relevance in our mind since it
works with contexts, which are full of assumptions about a specific subject and
brought up accordingly to its relevance in a situation. The assumptions are a marker
of what is a relevant for someone. Thus, once again, Relevance works in favor of one
by helping select information stored inside one’s mind:

[...] and critical thinking contributes to language acquisition by requiring deep

processing of the language. In order to consider an idea in relation to other
ideas and then articulate a response or an opinion about it, we must make
complex associations in the brain (CHASE; LOCKWOOD, 2013, p. VII).

The aim of the analysis is to suggest that some principles of Relevance

Theory are likely to raise a useful cognitive perspective to understand the use of
Modality. Such analysis is proposed by having students and teachers in mind.
Although, it is also an invitation to all the readers who would like to recycle ideas.
 24

First, it has been established this paper will only analyze propositions. They
are statements or questions with clearly drawn grammar, which exchange
information, not goods and services. Propositions are richer in their structure than
commands, for instance. Due to a variety of rhetorical functions, propositions might
be signaled as more complex and consequently as worth being analyzed
(HALLIDAY, 2004). One could look at the table to be analyzed and say all the
sentences are commands. Even though, in this particular case:

they are statements of obligation and inclination made by the speaker in

respect of others, for example John’s supposed to know that, Mary will help.
In this case they function as propositions, since to the person addressed
they convey information rather than goods-&-services (HALLIDAY, 2004,
148).

Supposing A said directly to B that it was a rule of the place to wear a coat
and because of that B would be required to follow such order, it would not be, then, a
matter of informing but the case of giving commands.
Henceforth, the objective is to apply on the analysis, some of the fundamental
topics of RT approached on chapter 4, which could probably ease the understanding
of modal and related verbs. The analysis will look to some components of the table
and study them through the glass of the cognitive researches made by Sperber and
Wilson on RT, as an attempt to point how it is possible to comprehend propositions
(built around Modality) to their core and towards the intention of the speakers.
It is necessary to highlight the intention is not to exhaust situations nor
possible interpretations that may occur to someone in future contexts. The objective
is exactly what has been mentioned above, to ease the understanding of modal and
related verbs. Moreover, it is important to explicit the usefulness of comprehending
how to use Relevance in one’s favor when it comes to Modality.
The selected table was taken from the book Pathways 3 Listening, Speaking
and Critical Thinking, page 8. The reason this table was elected is that its elements
were not only modal verbs but also related ones, which will serve to strengthen the
assumption RT may be applied to Modality.
One sentence of each of the four sections were selected in order not to repeat
the same modal expression twice. On the following page, an image of the table is
displayed and afterwards the propositions analyzed.
 25

PICTURE 1: Talking about rules and expectations

SOURCE: Chase e Johannsen (2012, p. 8)
 26

Female students must wear dresses.

Source: adapted from Chase e Johannsen (2012, p. 8)

The sentence above is informing a rule, which is a

costume of Bahrain’s people. An EFL listener would hardly
misunderstand it, once rules are often expressed by the usage
of must, and it is usually the first meaning of such modal verb
taught to EFL students.
The usage of must comprises two meanings: the
epistemic and root ones. In some contexts, as it occurs with
the proposition above, the meaning provided is the latter. The
root meaning of must holds on to forces emanating from
outside the speaker and that strongly impose some kind of will
or behavior, whereas the epistemic one speculates about
things one is highly sure are true.
Why is it relevant to address such proposition?
Because in the very heart of its Mood Block is the modal must,
which is relatively problematic when students get to learn its
second meaning.
It is necessary that teachers present these two
possible meanings and clarify to their students that they are
able to make listeners understand which of the meanings is in
the one in question by using Relevance in their favor. Learners
may succeed in doing it by using the principle of ostension as
well as the ideal of less effort and more effect.
Supposing that by knowing their listener is not aware of
must’s epistemic meaning; someone acts cooperatively by
strengthening what they mean with an ostensive behavior, e.g.
pointing to a watch, looking up to the sky, pointing to a door; or
even abandons the use of this modal verb, replacing it for
another word. When using the support of ostension, one is
helping his/her listeners to decrease the amount of effort to
process information, which is essential for effective
communication.
 27

Overall, in order to help students use the cognitive

principles of Relevance, teachers should put their pupils under
some situations that would make them question themselves
about best way to act in order to make intentions clear. Of
course, it is important not to exhaust students with all the
information about correct usage in a single moment.

They aren’t allowed to become soldiers.

Source: adapted from Chase e Johannsen (2012, p. 8)

The related verb be allowed to holds much of its

meaning on the polarity the finite takes. It means that when its
polarity is negative “am not, is not, are not”, there is a
prohibition being expressed (as on the sentence above).
Although, when the finite is positive, the opposite occurs and
the meaning of the related verb becomes similar to the one of
the modal can, in its positive polarity of representing a
permission.
What may be taught to EFL students with a basis on
RT is that if they know their audience is not aware of such
related verb, they can replace it by using the modal can/can’t,
which is commonly used, for example. By explaining that it is
possible to shuffle, a teacher will be teaching students how to
apply the principle of demanding less effort from the audience,
thus increasing the chance of achieving contextual effects in
someone’s mind.
Moreover, it is interesting to make suggestions to
propose that students play the role of “conscious” speakers,
which means speaking as well as listening with a relevant
mind; attentive to context and to any behavior, choice of
vocabulary, such as the suggested above, that may maximize
communication.
 28

Women are supposed to take care of the children.

Source: adapted from Chase e Johannsen (2012, p. 8)

Teachers should let implied through their explanations

that the finite of a clause is widely important because it can
modify tense or even the meaning of a message.
It is the same case with the related verb be supposed
to. Its finite to be is able to modify meaning according to the
tense marked. In the present tense, the finite and,
consequently, the unit supposed to represent an expectation
that something will happen or that another person will act
accordingly to some kind of guiding rule or strong intention. In
the past, it “represents unfulfilled expectations” (AZAR;
HAGEN, 2009), which means one is saying that what was
expected did not happen as wished.
Then, it is important that teachers suggest students to
turn their relevance to these tense differences, for one may
think to be saying something when is actually saying another,
which is likely to compromise the whole message to be
delivered. Critical thinking is important for a decisive discourse
development, as it seems to lead speakers and listeners to
analyze their own speech more precisely. Not only it grants
the access to assumptions about various subjects; the critical
thinking also enables ones to exchange meanings coherently
by promoting self-awareness on speech.
Thus, RT in the case of be supposed to, might be
applied by teachers for calling students attention to the proper
use of the finite. In some contexts, the ostension will also be
useful to strengthen an intention; if the intention is to criticize
such as in: “you were supposed to know this by now”, the
speaker could reinforce his/her disapproval with a kind of
gesture and tone of voice. Moreover, the use of ostension
could be used to make manifest any other kind of objective.
 29

Men are expected to play sports.

Source: adapted from Chase e Johannsen (2012, p. 8)

The sentence above also states that a certain kind of

behavior is awaited from someone. Even though, unlikely be
supposed to, the related expression be expected to may not
be associated with rules. It acts milder, not being linked to
actual obligations.
What could be observed about be expected to is the
role of positive and affirmative polarity on meaning. Let us look
closer to the excerpt above: if one were to modify the
statement indicating positive expectancy: “men are expected
to play sports” (CHASE; JOHANNSEN, 2012) to men aren’t
expected to play sports, the message provided would be that
men are free to choose if they want to play sports or not,
instead of it being an obligation.
Conversely, be supposed to in its negative polarity such
as in you aren’t supposed to stay here after your shift, implies
a prohibition, which is different of be expected to in its negative
form.
Eventual application of RT on the teaching of such
related verb may include closer focus to the finite, due to the
difference in meaning according to tense; a sense of
cooperation between Brazilian speakers once the lexeme
expected derives from the mother language of Portuguese,
Latin. The etymology of expected may lead to less effort on
processing the word meaning because contextual effects are
caused when older information gathers with related new one.
Although critical thinking is not literally mentioned along
RT, it also counts on Relevance and other complex cognitive
properties. Thus, it can as well provide some guidance for
learners on the processing and making of any Modality related
speech.
 30

6 CONCLUSION

This paper was an instrument for much reflection about ways the human mind
could benefit from the use of its own skills, as the one of Relevance approached on
this paper. It was possible to draw, from the research made, that cognitive properties
are arduous and unlikely to be understood a hundred percent accurately, our mind
being extensively complex as it is. Nevertheless, it was possible to reckon such
properties have some systems liable to be expressed on theory, and that they are
essential to helps us comprehend how language works within the mind.
It also emerged that mental Relevance is worthy of attention for it is a big
information selector and organizer. Thus, it should be natural to apply this ability pro-
EFL teaching. Along the analysis, it was pointed that the application of Relevance on
language teaching is undoubtedly relevant when it comes to the idiosyncratic levels
of English, as the one represented by Modality.
The analysis proposed largely supported by the theoretical reference
addressed along the paper, made possible to stablish that, indeed, there is
correlation between both RT and Modality. The suggestions presented throughout
the analysis were not meant to exhaust possibilities on the use of Relevance; they
are actually some forms of enriching the teaching of Modality. Within the time range
available, the outcomes were satisfactory, because they mean the relevance of
studying more about Cognitivism applied to Functional Grammar. The results were
achieved because not only Relevance was applicable to Modality, but also because
the latter requires thorough processing, which involves – not only, but mostly –
selection and abandonment of assumptions according to their strength as well as
virtual measuring of such strength. Not surprisingly, Relevance is responsible for all
of such processes.
Overall, there has been a chance to overlook some studies and theories along
this paper. The current bibliographical research and analysis are likely to bring great
results to teachers who intend to look at a more complex side of how language is
managed within and apply it on their teaching methods. However, there is still a lot to
process about the relation between teachers and cognitive approaches. Thus, given
the time available was relatively short, it has not been possible to address all the
possibilities on RT application, nor apply this research on a case study, which could
be more practical than a coursebook analysis.
 31

All the approach made on this paper makes it unavoidably important to

approach, on eventual papers, how appropriated teachers are of mental processes
and malleability of language. Moreover, it would be of great value if more aspects of
Relevance were to be approached in relation with Functional studies under the
intention of enriching the field of EFL teaching.
Lastly, it is important to emphasize that teachers should always try to discover
more about the complexity present in their instrument of work (the language) and
know they can rely on valuable instruments such as Relevance to help enlighten their
students on the use of Modality and even language itself.
 32

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